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there was intermarriage between Blacks and
Indians, the Dawes Commission enrolled people of mixed heritage as Freedmen, and indicated no blood relation to the tribe. As of 2021, the Choctaw Freedmen are still fighting for equal legal status in the tribe, as they believe they have been limited to second-class status. The Freedmen argue that the tribe has not honored the 1866 treaty. By 2021, only the Cherokee Nation had updated their constitution to accept as citizens, descendants of Freedmen, those who have ancestors registered with the
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that benefited them. African slavery among the
Choctaws was a growing and widely accepted institution but it differed from Southern slavery in that it was normally not practiced for profit. Rather, the Choctaw held slaves in order to avoid doing agricultural work themselves. In addition, the Choctaw were aware that if they manumitted (freed) their slaves, the bordering slave states of Texas and Arkansas might overrun their nation to eliminate a local safe haven for runaways.
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336:(Chickasaw)(R-OK), said that the last person in his family who met the blood quantum criterion was his great-aunt, even though his family still owned and farmed the land their ancestors had farmed and been allotted. He noted that the amended Stigler Act put the Five Tribes on the same basis as others in Oklahoma, allowing them to retain allotted lands in protected status and thus strengthen families and the tribes.
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children be placed on the Dawes Rolls as
Choctaw Indian "by blood". Their father was her former husband Oliver Stock (or Boss) McCoy, a recognized and enrolled Choctaw citizen; he was of mixed Choctaw and white ancestry, with a Choctaw mother. Their children had been recorded on the 1885 census as half-Choctaw and full citizens because of their father's status. But Brashears's appeal was rejected.
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environments. Others are reluctant to share stories of mixed ancestry, because of their complicated history. Others fear backlash from both
African American and Native American communities, who sometimes reject those of mixed race. Others don't know anything about the hidden side of mixed ancestry. These people of African ancestry lived and cultivated among Native Americans.
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citizens would receive 320 acres of land per household on average, while
Freedmen were allotted less than 40 acres per household. Susan's attempt to be recognized as a full-blooded Choctaw was turned down. In doing so the council rejected the possibility of her having Indian blood, due to her mother's classification as black, but she may have been of mixed ancestry.
260:, the United States government supported slavery among the tribes in Southeastern United States in order to have the native populations assimilate with white settlers. By adopting slavery, the tribes would no longer protect enslaved African Americans who fled as refugees from plantations. This view does not have consensus among historians.
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The
Freedmen had an ambiguous role within the Choctaw Nation. During the first decade of the twentieth century, Choctaw communal lands were allotted to households of tribal members prior to the dissolution of the Choctaw Nation government to extinguish land claims, and incorporation of the territory
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The history of the descendants of
African and American-Indian people has been complicated because individuals have had different experiences and status in the tribes. Some Afro-Indian descendants do not identify with their Native ancestry because they were reared in more exclusively African-American
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The
Choctaw Freedmen were officially adopted as full members into the Choctaw Nation in 1885. In 1983, a requirement for blood relationship was added to the Nation's constitution, excluding many Choctaw Freedmen from membership although many were of African and Choctaw/Chickasaw ancestry. Although
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According to the 1897 deal between the Dawes
Commission and the Choctaw Nation, the tribal government would allot the tribal land and divide it among its citizens. That was approximately 15,000 Choctaws, 5,000 Freedmen, and 1,500 intermarried white citizens. Both the Choctaw and intermarried white
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In the 17th century the incorporation of race-based slavery became an efficient alternative for wealthy members of the
Choctaw Nation to maintain an increasingly tenuous hold on political and cultural autonomy against Western expansion, while it allowed them to pursue economic and diplomatic goals
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Before introducing black slavery, colonists had attempted to enslave indigenous people in early 1760s. However, smallpox killed 30% of the total indigenous population - which left the slavery system ineffective. Additionally, given that the indigenous inhabitants were on their own land and knew it
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in the United States. They differed in that numerous people also had mixed Choctaw and/or European ancestry (the latter was also true of African Americans in the US). At the time of Indian Removal, the Beams family was a part of the Choctaw Nation. They were thought to have been of African descent
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was established to register Choctaw and other families of the Indian Territory so that each tribe's communal lands could be allotted among its heads of households. The final list included 18,981 citizens of the Choctaw Nation, 1,639 Mississippi Choctaw, and 5,994 former slaves (and descendants of
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native blood, the land had to be taken out of federal protection. This requirement resulted in tribal members losing land that in some cases their families had farmed or had ranches on for generations. But in 2018, both the House and Senate voted unanimously for an amendment to remove that blood
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During the following decades, the Choctaw Freedmen continued to face considerable discrimination in terms of social identity and political legislation. While by the late twentieth century, the Choctaw had considered accepting mixed-race Choctaw of partial white ancestry as Indian citizens, they
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details spanned the entire front page of the newspaper. The rules brought up the issue of identify, and affected more than land distribution. For instance, in February 1896, Susan Brashears came before the Commissioner to the Five Civilized Tribes in Muskogee, in order to request that her four
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Reports indicated that Choctaw slaveholders frequently mistreated their enslaved. Enslaved peoples, especially those who were of mixed Choctaw descent, were sometimes whipped or burned for minor offenses. Records from the period also describe instances of resistance among the enslaved; in one
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into the new state of Oklahoma. Tribal members were registered as Choctaw by blood, but most Freedmen were classified as Black if they had visibly African features. They did not share equally with By Blood Choctaws in the allotment of Choctaw lands and resources.
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former slaves), most of them associated with Choctaw in the Indian/Oklahoma Territory. Following completion of the land allotments, the US proposed to end the tribal governments of the Five Civilized Tribes and to admit the two territories jointly as a state.
150:. The Confederacy had promised the Choctaw and other tribes of Indian Territory an exclusively Native American state if it won the war. Formerly enslaved peoples of the Choctaw Nation were called the Choctaw freedmen, comparable to the African-American
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and afterward. After signing the treaty for Removal, LeFlore withdrew from the Choctaw Nation to stay in Mississippi and take US and state citizenship. He owned 15,000 acres of plantation and 400 enslaved African Americans.
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quantum requirement for the Five Tribes. This change put them on the same basis as other tribal members in Oklahoma. It enables enrolled tribal members to preserve family lands under federal protection.
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142:. The emancipation and citizenship of the enslaved were requirements of the 1866 treaty that the US made with the Choctaw. The U.S. required a new treaty because the Choctaw had sided with the
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181:, the Choctaw, in line with the customs of other indigenous tribes of the American Southeast, were accustomed to taking captives in warfare. The captives would then either be
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says that such accounts highlighted the intersections of race, gender, and power relations that informed the interactions between “Black slaves and Indian masters” in
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347:. He believed that the Cherokee Nation's refusal to abide by the Treaty of 1866 was a threat to the government-to-government relationships of all Native tribes.
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or adopted by a family to replace a family member who had died. As European colonists began to settle the region in the 17th and 18th centuries, they began to
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Like other American Indian tribes, the Choctaw had customarily held Indian slaves as captives from warfare. As they adopted elements of
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account, an enslaved man named Prince was angered that his Choctaw owner, Richard Harkins, failed to allow his slaves to celebrate
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of 1947 directed that protected allotted lands of members of the Five Tribes must be owned by someone with a quantum of at least
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had expressed his concern about what he viewed as threats to sovereignty for all tribes because of the Cherokee Nation's
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are former enslaved Africans, Afro-Indigenous, and African Americans who were emancipated and granted citizenship in the
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native blood in order for it to remain under federal protections. If land was passed to a relative with less than
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culture, such as larger farms and plantations, the elite began to adapt their system to purchasing and holding
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483:"'We're Not Going Anywhere': Choctaw Freedmen Cite History, Ties To Tribal Nation In Fight For Citizenship"
672:"Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South (2013)"
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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Schreier, Jesse Turner (February 2009). "Choctaw Nation: A Story of American Indian Resurgence".
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with the specific intent of selling them to the colonists in major slave-trading centers such as
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529:"Freedmen Ask Congress To Withhold Housing Assistance Money Until Tribes Address Citizenship"
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Jeltz, Wyatt F. (1948). "The Relations of Negroes and Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians".
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continued to classify Choctaw Freedmen strictly as descendants of African Americans.
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to use as workers. Tribes in the region intensified their raids on enemy villages
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Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
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Slavery lasted in the Choctaw Nation until after their signing of the 1866
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821:"Congress votes to end blood quantum requirement, applies to five tribes"
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in 1858. Prince murdered Harkins and dumped his body in a nearby river.
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Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
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506:"Q&A: Choctaw Nation Chief Gary Batton On Freedmen Citizenship"
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National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
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Slaves and slaveholders in the Choctaw Nation : 1830--1866
459:"1885 Choctaw & Chickasaw Freedmen Admitted To Citizenship"
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The direct "articles of the allotment" rules were published in
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888:(U.S. Supreme Court case over post-emancipation compensation)
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better than the colonists, escape was far easier for them.
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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847:"Opinion: "UKB Chief: Cherokee Nation can't break treaty""
701:"Slaves of the tribe: The hidden history of the Freedmen"
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workers of African-American and Afro-Indigenous descent.
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held slaves, as did many of the European men, generally
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122:, who married into the Choctaw nation. The Folsom and
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United States v. Choctaw Nation, 193 U.S. 115 (1904)
205:, an issue which contributed to the eruption of the
81:Henry Crittenden, who was born into slavery in the
757:Cohen-Solal, Henri (2007). "Le jeune reçu-cité".
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2239:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
1072:Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield
592:Troubled journey: Choctaws, slaves, and freedmen
2284:Black players in professional American football
2234:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
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1997:Historically black colleges and universities
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339:In 2007 Principal Chief George Wickliffe of
239:Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma § Government
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871:Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma (official site)
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2214:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
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435:General Stand Watie's Confederate Indians
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65:Learn how and when to remove this message
16:Native American tribal membership dispute
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332:) (R-OK) who co-sponsored the bill with
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130:who held the most slaves at the time of
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3164:African-American history of Mississippi
698:
589:
526:
504:Herrera, Allison (September 21, 2021).
503:
481:Herrera, Allison (September 22, 2021).
480:
324:In a 2018 interview, US Representative
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3113:Topics related to the African diaspora
2219:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
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357:African Americans with native heritage
3093:Landmark African-American legislation
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1045:Mississippi Choctaw Indian Federation
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3169:African-American history of Oklahoma
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3174:Multiracial affairs in the Americas
2578:African-American Vernacular English
940:Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians
796:"Susan Brashears, Choctaw by Blood"
232:
13:
2496:U.S. cities with large populations
2199:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
689:
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527:Hererra, Allison (July 30, 2021).
414:"The Choctaw Freedmen of Oklahoma"
14:
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1369:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
1365:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
1172:African American founding fathers
864:
578:
341:United Keetoowah Band Of Cherokee
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2249:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
1394:Nadir of American race relations
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845:Wickliffe, George (2007-06-20).
724:Fortney, Jeffrey L. Jr. (2012).
699:Johnson, Earchiel (2017-11-29).
590:Douzart, Ambronita Rose (2013).
437:. University of Oklahoma Press.
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1255:Civil rights movement 1954–1968
1245:Civil rights movement 1865–1896
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2244:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
1250:Civil right movement 1896–1954
1020:Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
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173:Slavery § Chattel slavery
126:families were wealthy Choctaw
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2424:Cherokee freedmen controversy
1400:The Negro Motorist Green Book
144:Confederate States of America
984:Choctaw Tribal School System
949:Mount Tabor Indian Community
945:MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians
936:Jena Band of Choctaw Indians
881:Choctaw Freedmen of Oklahoma
615:The Journal of Negro History
552:Western Historical Quarterly
382:
191:in order to acquire captives
7:
2294:Black players in ice hockey
2229:National Urban League (NUL)
2055:American Society of Muslims
1293:Selma to Montgomery marches
1213:Brown v. Board of Education
921:
395:Robert Elliott Flickinger,
377:Oak Hill Industrial Academy
350:
10:
3190:
2451:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
2209:Nashville Student Movement
1220:Children of the plantation
1015:Chickasaw Campaign of 1736
932:Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
433:Cunningham, Frank (1998).
236:
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85:but was later emancipated.
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3088:Index of related articles
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2089:Doctrine of Father Divine
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1473:Women's suffrage movement
1426:Reconstruction Amendments
1233:Voting Rights Act of 1965
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1098:
1081:
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1002:
956:
929:
531:. NPR. Public Radio Tulsa
3138:United States portal
2573:African-American English
2002:Inventors and scientists
1694:George Washington Carver
1298:Chicago Freedom Movement
1066:List of Choctaw treaties
1035:Choctaw Capitol Building
3061:African-American firsts
2110:Back-to-Africa movement
2079:Black Hebrew Israelites
1859:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
1407:Partus sequitur ventrem
3029:Spingarn Medal winners
2518:States and territories
2289:Black NFL quarterbacks
1789:Martin Luther King Jr.
1321:Dred Scott v. Sandford
1260:Montgomery bus boycott
1061:List of Choctaw chiefs
252:Government involvement
187:purchase Indian slaves
86:
45:by rewriting it in an
2339:Athletic associations
2274:Negro league baseball
2045:African-American Jews
1764:Ketanji Brown Jackson
1729:Henry Highland Garnet
1588:Negro National Anthem
1338:George Floyd protests
1303:Post–civil rights era
272:Post-Dawes Commission
179:European colonization
140:Reconstruction Treaty
80:
2546:Afro-Seminole Creole
2072:Azusa Street Revival
1944:Booker T. Washington
1468:Underground Railroad
1333:Free people of color
1187:Atlantic slave trade
771:10.3917/ado.059.0111
397:The Choctaw Freedmen
345:freedmen controversy
286:The Daily Ardmorite;
2941:Trinidad and Tobago
2556:Black American Sign
2383:By African descent
2377:Ethnic subdivisions
2364:Southwestern (SWAC)
2279:Baseball color line
2194:Black Panther Party
2098:Political movements
2015:in computer science
1674:Carol Moseley Braun
1463:Tulsa race massacre
1456:Treatment of slaves
1288:March on Washington
1283:Birmingham movement
668:Krauthamer, Barbara
564:10.1093/whq/40.1.78
3039:US representatives
3034:US cabinet members
2926:Dominican Republic
2513:Metropolitan areas
2354:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
2179:Civic and economic
2157:Self-determination
1978:Education, science
1899:Fred Shuttlesworth
1879:A. Philip Randolph
1784:Coretta Scott King
1709:Frederick Douglass
1536:Harlem Renaissance
1441:Separate but equal
1431:Reconstruction era
1419:Plessy v. Ferguson
1310:Cornerstone Speech
1224:Civil Rights Acts
1207:Black Lives Matter
1182:American Civil War
1030:American Civil War
223:Barbara Krauthamer
148:American Civil War
87:
47:encyclopedic style
34:is written like a
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2974:African Americans
2846:Dallas–Fort Worth
2441:Black Southerners
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1824:Thurgood Marshall
1794:Bernard Lafayette
1389:Million Man March
1146:African Americans
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1111:
444:978-0-8061-3035-4
362:Cherokee freedmen
124:Greenwood LeFlore
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3159:Choctaw freedmen
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3098:Lynching victims
2597:Louisiana Creole
2568:American English
2456:Louisiana Creole
2429:Choctaw freedmen
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1804:Huddie Ledbetter
1744:Fannie Lou Hamer
1714:W. E. B. Du Bois
1704:Claudette Colvin
1699:Shirley Chisholm
1516:Family structure
1384:Military history
1266:Browder v. Gayle
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3083:Historic places
3076:US state firsts
2962:
2877:
2601:
2534:
2506:2010 majorities
2501:2000 majorities
2472:
2419:Black Seminoles
2368:
2359:Southern (SIAC)
2342:
2341:and conferences
2340:
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2329:Serena Williams
2324:Jackie Robinson
2258:
2182:
2180:
2173:
2093:
2060:Nation of Islam
2031:
1979:
1973:
1914:Sojourner Truth
1904:Clarence Thomas
1869:Gabriel Prosser
1769:Michael Jackson
1644:Crispus Attucks
1634:Ralph Abernathy
1622:
1578:Musical theater
1477:
1343:Great Migration
1315:COVID-19 impact
1273:Sit-in movement
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678:. Not Even Past
676:notevenpast.org
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274:
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169:
155:and also free.
71:
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43:help improve it
40:
28:
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17:
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11:
5:
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2826:South Carolina
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2796:North Carolina
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2781:
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2434:Creek Freedmen
2431:
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2421:
2411:
2409:Alabama Creole
2406:
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2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2380:
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2349:Central (CIAA)
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2142:Pan-Africanism
2139:
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2129:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2112:
2107:
2101:
2099:
2095:
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2084:Black theology
2081:
2076:
2075:
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2062:
2057:
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2033:
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2029:
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2025:in STEM fields
2022:
2017:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1980:and technology
1975:
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1972:
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1936:
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1919:Harriet Tubman
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1627:Notable people
1624:
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1202:Black genocide
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865:External links
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735:978-1248987926
734:
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705:People's World
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670:(2014-03-26).
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258:People's World
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203:South Carolina
168:
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132:Indian Removal
95:Choctaw Nation
83:Choctaw Nation
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31:
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3108:Neighborhoods
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3071:Sports firsts
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2873:West Virginia
2871:
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2810:Pennsylvania
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2789:New York City
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2633:San Francisco
2631:
2629:
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2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2606:By state/city
2604:
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2590:
2584:
2581:
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2575:
2574:
2571:
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2551:American Sign
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2541:
2537:
2529:
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2484:Neighborhoods
2482:
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2414:Black Indians
2412:
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2018:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1992:Black schools
1990:
1988:
1987:Black studies
1985:
1984:
1982:
1976:
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1969:Whitney Young
1967:
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1960:
1959:Oprah Winfrey
1957:
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1929:Denmark Vesey
1927:
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1900:
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1874:Joseph Rainey
1872:
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1814:Joseph Lowery
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1759:Jesse Jackson
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1749:Kamala Harris
1747:
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1684:Blanche Bruce
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1679:Edward Brooke
1677:
1675:
1672:
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1669:James Bradley
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1649:James Baldwin
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1374:Jim Crow laws
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1198:
1197:Black cowboys
1195:
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1089:Jones Academy
1087:
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2911:Sierra Leone
2814:Philadelphia
2650:Jacksonville
2477:Demographics
2428:
2309:Jack Johnson
2299:Muhammad Ali
2132:Conservatism
2067:Black church
1964:Andrew Young
1949:Ida B. Wells
1939:David Walker
1934:C. T. Vivian
1889:Paul Robeson
1884:Hiram Revels
1864:Colin Powell
1844:Barack Obama
1799:James Lawson
1754:Jimi Hendrix
1724:James Farmer
1719:Medgar Evers
1689:Ralph Bunche
1639:Maya Angelou
1613:Middle class
1491:Afrofuturism
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1167:Abolitionism
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2762:Mississippi
2655:Tallahassee
2628:Los Angeles
2319:Jesse Owens
2304:Arthur Ashe
2162:Nationalism
2152:Raised fist
2115:Black power
2020:in medicine
1954:Roy Wilkins
1909:Emmett Till
1894:Al Sharpton
1659:Julian Bond
1654:James Bevel
1618:Upper class
1608:Stereotypes
1501:Black mecca
1413:Plantations
1192:Black Codes
1010:Nanih Waiya
994:Stomp dance
759:Adolescence
508:. NPR. KOSU
485:. NPR. KOSU
298:Stigler Act
207:Yamasee War
195:New Orleans
146:during the
120:fur traders
3153:Categories
2989:Astronauts
2779:New Jersey
2623:California
2127:Capitalism
1924:Nat Turner
1854:Rosa Parks
1839:Diane Nash
1809:John Lewis
1598:Newspapers
1568:Literature
1553:Juneteenth
1506:Businesses
1360:Exodusters
1328:Free Negro
1091:(Oklahoma)
853:2012-12-19
831:2019-04-24
806:2019-04-24
765:(1): 111.
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682:2019-05-06
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594:(Thesis).
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419:2008-02-14
237:See also:
171:See also:
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3103:Monuments
2979:Activists
2831:Tennessee
2751:Michigan
2735:Baltimore
2725:Louisiana
2718:Lexington
2701:Davenport
2640:Cleveland
2539:Languages
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2446:Blaxicans
2314:Joe Louis
2169:Socialism
2105:Anarchism
1834:Bob Moses
1819:Malcolm X
1739:Fred Gray
1603:Soul food
1541:New Negro
1526:Folktales
1436:Redlining
1082:Education
779:0751-7696
744:935536650
651:149472463
635:0022-2992
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558:(1): 78.
383:Citations
219:Christmas
177:Prior to
99:Civil War
55:June 2020
3126:Category
2917:America
2883:Diaspora
2868:Virginia
2801:Oklahoma
2784:New York
2767:Nebraska
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2523:Illinois
2461:of color
2147:Populism
2120:Movement
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1379:Lynching
1162:Timeline
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974:Religion
969:Language
825:KFOR.com
596:ProQuest
351:See also
334:Tom Cole
330:Cherokee
183:enslaved
152:freedmen
128:planters
106:European
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3019:Singers
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2952:Europe
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2007:Museums
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1451:Slavery
1154:History
1003:History
989:Pashofa
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957:Culture
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315:⁄
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167:Slavery
41:Please
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639:JSTOR
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1521:Film
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