Rinderpest - Knowledge

844: 771:. It was flat, hot and dry and was considered good cattle-raising country. Water was regularly available by drilling 20-30 feet below the surface, though many farms had water only by drilling 50-100 feet down. From 1882 onwards, designated Tswana reserves were created adjoining white farms in many instances. African pastoralism was constrained by this. From 1895, increasing numbers of white settlers (now administered from the Cape) evicted the Tswana and tension between these groups was inevitable. The 1896 drought resulted in fewer watering places being available, and a greater density of usage including both groups of cattle-owners and the wild animals. By May 1896, the vast Clober farm had become a focus of infection with immediate slaughter policies in place. Three river drinking places, mainly used by the Tswana group, recorded over 12,000 head of cattle regularly each; the government was reluctant to embark on wholesale destruction. The government tried, and failed, to stop herds crossing rivers and perpetuating stock-mingling. The spread of the disease was relentless in the 784:

herd-mingling and consequent infection. The Tswana herds were quarantined together; the Boer herds were also quarantined but on their own land. The system was very unpopular. The policy was scorned and pilloried in the press: plenty of reports came out to the effect that the disease was spread by the quarantine guards and by the vets, all of whom were less than careful about disinfecting themselves. It is plausible that the major spreader of disease should be negligent government officials or contractors moving directly from areas known to be diseased to other areas in protective quarantine. In Southern Bechuanaland alone, over 400 men were hired as quarantine guards. Owners from both groups resisted the guards and the Boers vigorously resisted the killing of their cattle. It is likely both groups raised the fences, and several Boer groups deliberately spread the disease in order to claim the compensation. By 1896, it was generally recognised the government campaign had completely failed, overwhelmed by a storm of contributory causes to the spread of the disease.

621: 467:, which although varying in intensity and duration from region to region, took place in the periods of 1709–1720, 1742–1760, and 1768–1786. In the 18th century a deadly outbreak between 1769 and 1785 resulted in universal governmental action, but with somewhat divergent responses. The Dutch and the German principalities demanded quarantines and strict burial practices; England and large parts of Italy (the Papal States) saw slaughter of infected animals; in the Austrian Netherlands (Flanders) the response was inspection and precautionary slaughter coupled with compensation to the owners. There was no code of practice and no standard response. But for a hundred years thereafter in German-speaking countries there was intense focus on the problem of Rinderpest. 731:) had been interrupted by coastal rebellion: when formal German rule began and the military went inland in 1891 to pacify areas, they encountered massive cattle deaths ostensibly due to viral spread from wildlife (one assumes at waterholes). Some observers themselves described the outbreak as rinderpest, whereas argument and debate continued because of essentially lack of consistent information and detailed investigation. When the German governor requested confirmation as to a course of action, he would have been fully aware of the administrative consequences, had matters been dealt with in Germany (quarantines, slaughter policies, disinfection controls of cattle transport and control of products suspected of contact with contaminated animals). 735: 751:) that the problem must be an Africa-specific matter not the familiar rinderpest. His confusion may derive from the absence of impact of rinderpest on German wildlife. This is now explained by the fenced and manicured German agricultural landscape of the day being insufficiently "wild" and livestock normally being kept apart. By 1893, government regulatory response was as though the disease had been rinderpest in Germany (and included preventive slaughter). Cattle exports were banned in 1893 (to improve local stocks not on grounds of confining spread, as some cattle were exempt). Nevertheless importation, legal or illegal or rebranded via 901: 1056:

follow up by ensuring that samples of rinderpest viruses and vaccines be kept under safe laboratory conditions and that rigorous standards for disease surveillance and reporting be applied. "While we are celebrating one of the greatest successes for FAO and its partners, I wish to remind you that this extraordinary achievement would not have been possible without the joint efforts and strong commitments of governments, the main organizations in Africa, Asia and Europe, and without the continuous support of donors and international institutions", FAO Director-General

284: 408: 970: 812: 695:(modern Ethiopia) by the invading Italian army, which supposedly brought with them infected cattle from India. The procurement chain is not traced beyond an Egyptian businessman from Cairo, but it is possible that the British Army got their draft oxen from India. However, the documentary chain only supported limited negative conclusions. "There is therefore no evidence in contemporary accounts that the rinderpest panzootic was imported from India with infected oxen to provision the Italian landing at 55: 393:

of these clinical signs. The delayed appearance of these signs of illness account for the steady spread of the disease once a historical outbreak began: an animal infected by rinderpest undergoes an incubation period of 3–15 days. Signs of the disease only manifest at the end of that time. Cattle and wild ungulates will normally die 8–12 days after signs of the disease emerge, by which time the animals may have travelled far from the place of infection and been mixed with many other animals.

377: 572:. The detailed results of his trials were published in 1776 and reprinted in 1777. His inoculation procedure did not differ much from what had been used previously, except for the use of three separate inoculations at an early age. This produced far better results, and the publication of his work renewed interest in inoculation. For the period of 1777 to 1781, 89% of inoculated animals survived, compared to a 29% survival rate after natural infection. 645:, farmers had banded together to provide mutual assurance by creating a resource pool against the risk of rinderpest. Because the initial slaughter regime was not backed by compensation, it was the presence of a voluntary mutual assurance scheme that drove down the infection rates by guaranteeing payment for compliance with the government instruction. The Privy Council ordered a detailed investigation of the disaster, which reported in 1868. 684: 42: 525:. As in England, the disease was seen as analogous with smallpox. While these experiments were reasonably successful, they did not have a significant impact: the total number of inoculations in England appears to have been very limited, and after 1780, the English interest in inoculation disappeared almost entirely. Almost all further experimentation was done in the Netherlands, northern Germany and Denmark. 1119: 510:, a widely read journal which also supported the progress of smallpox inoculation. This letter reported that a Mr Dobsen had inoculated his cattle and had thus preserved 9 out of 10 of them, although this was retracted in the next issue, as it was apparently a Sir William St. Quintin who had done the inoculating (this was done by placing bits of material previously dipped in 483:, recommended the destruction of all infected and exposed animals. This policy was not very popular and was used only sparingly in the first part of the century. Later, it was used successfully in several countries, although it was sometimes seen as too costly or drastic, and depended on a strong central authority to be effective (which was notably lacking in the 492:

losses. Even more importantly, it perpetuated the circulation of the virus in the cattle population. The pioneers of inoculation did contribute significantly to knowledge about infectious diseases. Their experiments confirmed the concepts of those who saw infectious diseases as caused by specific agents, and were the first to recognize

368:

evolution of rinderpest. Work on preserved older samples of measles (1912 and following) have been tested in various ways to determine the likely trajectory of the measles virus' divergence from rinderpest. It is thought based on this study that the earliest date at which the divergence could have occurred is the sixth century BC.

795:

was instrumental in developing a vaccine that curbed the epizootic. The consequences for the Africans were especially severe. Though cattle numbers revived subsequently, the consequent human toll was mass starvation in the absence of herding, hunting and farming. It is estimated that the human losses

726:

The disease was locally described as "sadoka" and it also affected local wildlife. Sunseri's thesis basically explains the German government's failure to recognise the true nature of the disease as permitting ineffective policies. The local German government was short of cash, without a vet until the

881:

Rinderpest was eradicated from Japan in 1922, as recorded by the Nippon Institute for Biological Science. Distinguished Japanese scientist and Director of the Nippon Institute for Biological Science, Junji Nakamura (1903–1975), was a major researcher into rinderpest, and the contribution of his work

746:

In the event, the post-mortem was reviewed in Berlin and determined to be incomplete: a diagnosis could only be made on the ground by a vet. Funding vets was not a priority as most of the cattle by then (1892) had died. Meanwhile, a German staff doctor with an interest in animal diseases opined (two

603:

While some experimentation occurred in other countries (most extensively in Denmark), in the majority of European countries, the struggle against the disease was based on stamping it out. Sometimes, this could be done with minimal sacrifices; at other times, it required slaughter at a massive scale.

599:

of the late 1770s. "Insurance companies" were created which provided inoculation in special "institutes". Although these were private initiatives, they were created with full encouragement from the authorities. Though neighboring states followed this practice with interest, the practice never caught

392:

Initial symptoms include fever, loss of appetite, and nasal and eye discharges. Subsequently, irregular erosions appear in the mouth, the lining of the nose, and the genital tract. Acute diarrhea, preceded by constipation, is also a common feature. Most animals die six to twelve days after the onset

783:

Complaint by both Boer and Tswana groups was focused on the government rather than mutual hostility. Fencing, and quarantining coupled with killing of infected cattle, was a policy barely controllable in the expanses of the colony, though it had some success in England. However, fencing resulted in

714:

Sunseri concentrates on the detailed progress of the epizootic in German Tanzania, endeavouring to show that the disease was known to be present but was not officially recognised as being rinderpest. He emphasises in particular the failure by the German government to rely on or accept a post mortem

367:

evolved from the then-widespread rinderpest virus most probably between the 11th and 12th centuries. The earliest likely origin is during the seventh century; some linguistic evidence exists for this earlier origin. In 2020 research on the measles virus has suggested a modified understanding of the

1051:

In October 2010, the FAO announced it was confident the disease has been eradicated. The agency said that "s of mid 2010, FAO is confident that the rinderpest virus has been eliminated from Europe, Asia, Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, and Africa," which were the locations where the virus had been

779:

in the Transvaal was reported as choked with cattle and other animal corpses, but remained in use. During the dry season, the government made no attempt to control use of the watering holes, fearing the consequences if they did. The Boers essentially did no better, mainly because they continued to

1520:

Düx, Ariane; Lequime, Sebastian; Patrono, Livia Victoria; Vrancken, Bram; Boral, Sengül; Gogarten, Jan F.; Hilbig, Antonia; Horst, David; Merkel, Kevin; Prepoint, Baptiste; Santibanez, Sabine; Schlotterbeck, Jasmin; Suchard, Marc A.; Ulrich, Markus; Widulin, Navena; Mankertz, Annette; Leendertz,

1055:

On 28 June 2011, FAO and its members countries officially recognized global freedom from the deadly cattle virus. On this day, the FAO Conference, the highest body of the UN agency, adopted a resolution declaring the eradication of rinderpest. The resolution also called on the world community to

992:

During the 1980s, however, an outbreak of rinderpest from Sudan spread throughout Africa, killing millions of cattle, as well as wildlife. In response, the Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign was initiated in 1987, using vaccination and surveillance to combat the disease. By the 1990s, nearly all of

636:

required the slaughter of rinderpest-affected cattle. By early May 1867, the overall slaughter total was around 75,000 cattle, which at that time had a value of approximately £10 per head. Initially, £55,000 was granted (after a period of delay) to compensate farmers where they complied with the

491:

animals against the disease. These attempts met with varying success, but the procedure was not widely used and was no longer practiced at all in 19th-century Western or Central Europe. Rinderpest was an immense problem, but inoculation was not a valid solution. In many cases, it caused too many

762:

during the 1896 outbreak. Between 1896 and 1897, 95% of the cattle in South Africa were killed by the disease. The primary spreading agency seems to be the common use of waterholes by wild ungulates and herded cattle. The herded cattle were normally in transit and the long incubation period and

1066:

Stocks of the rinderpest virus are still maintained by highly specialized laboratories. In 2015, FAO launched a campaign calling for the destruction or sequestering of the remaining stocks of rinderpest virus in laboratories in 24 countries, citing risks of inadvertent or malicious release.

321:(FAO) announced that field activities in the decades-long, worldwide campaign to eradicate the disease were ending, paving the way for a formal declaration in June 2011 of the global eradication of rinderpest. This makes it only the second disease in history to be fully wiped out, following 1031:

in 2001. Since then, while no cases have been confirmed, the disease is believed to have been present in parts of Somalia past that date. The final vaccinations were administered in 2006, and the last surveillance operations took place in 2009, failing to find any evidence of the disease.

565:, who had supervised earlier trials. They tried different inoculation procedures and a variety of treatments to lighten the symptoms, all of them without significant effect. Although they were not able to perfect the inoculation procedure, they did make some useful observations. 775:. The connection between rinderpest and starvation was recognised by the British government as cause for urgent intervention by delivery of food relief. In 1896, 30,000 tons of mealies (corn) were delivered for the relief of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Meanwhile, the 262:, and high mortality. Death rates during outbreaks were usually extremely high, approaching 100% in immunologically naïve populations. Rinderpest was mainly transmitted by direct contact and by drinking contaminated water, although it could also be transmitted by air. 2565:

FAO. 2012. Lessons learned from the eradication of rinderpest for controlling other transboundary animal diseases. Proceedings of the GREP Symposium and High-Level Meeting, 12-15 October 2010, Rome, Italy. FAO Animal Production and Health Proceedings, No. 15. Rome,

824:

Japan also sustained the presence of rinderpest in the 19th century as illustrated in an anonymous print. The disease was present for centuries in China, Japan and Korea. Japanese black and Korean yellow breed cattle were known to be especially susceptible to it.

2732: 388:

Death rates during outbreaks were usually extremely high, approaching 100% in immunologically naïve populations. The disease was mainly spread by direct contact and by drinking contaminated water, although it could also be transmitted by air.

2798:

Schmitz, Oswald J.; Wilmers, Christopher C.; Leroux, Shawn J.; Doughty, Christopher E.; Atwood, Trisha B.; Galetti, Mauro; Davies, Andrew B.; Goetz, Scott J. (2018-12-07). "Animals and the zoogeochemistry of the carbon cycle".

1047:

as officially "wiped off the face of the planet". The FAO, which had been co-ordinating the global eradication program for the disease, announced in November 2009 that it expected the disease to be eradicated within 18 months.

719:. It appears that awareness of a cattle plague in general did not amount to the German government accepting that the plague was rinderpest, for which measures of a strict kind were prescribed in Germany itself. The governor, 2171:

Report on the cattle plague in Great Britain during the years 1865, 1866, and 1867 : with appendix, tables, and diagrams showing the progress of the disease / prepared by the Veterinary Department of the Privy Council

3045:

Mariner, JC; Hendrickx, S; Pfeiffer, DU; Costard, S; Knopf, L; Okuthe, S; Chibeu, D; Parmley, J; Musenero, M; Pisang, C; Zingeser, J; Jones, BA; Ali, SN; Bett, B; McLaws, M; Unger, F; Araba, A; Mehta, P; Jost, CC (2011).

3419: 652:. It was purposed to establish mechanisms for reporting outbreaks to warn neighbouring countries, and so as to establish policies for inspections, quarantines and disinfections as well as monitoring the cattle trade. 3125:

Rushton, Jonathan; Upton, M. (2006). "Investment in preventing and preparing for biological emergencies and disasters: social and economic costs of disasters versus costs of surveillance and response preparedness".

533:

Due to a very severe outbreak at the end of the 1760s, some of the best-known names in Dutch medicine became involved in the struggle against the disease. Several independent trials were begun, most notably by

874:, much of their livelihood was based on cattle husbandry, and bride-prices were paid in cattle; prices may have changed as a result of cattle depletion. Rinderpest might also have increased dependence on 2706: 285: 715:

in 1892 professionally medically conducted on an affected animal that had been duly diagnosed as having rinderpest. The diagnosis was procured at the personal behest of the governor and remitted to

1008:. This program was successful in reducing rinderpest outbreaks to few and far between by the late 1990s. The program is estimated to have saved affected farmers approximately 58 million net euros. 763:

delayed symptoms meant that spreading had taken place before illness was realised. His initial case study is Southern Bechuanaland settled as it then was by two distinct cattle-focused groups: the

946:(OIE) was formed in response to rinderpest. In 1950, the Inter-African Bureau of Epizootic Diseases was formed, with the stated goal of eliminating rinderpest from Africa. With the loss of its 882:

to the worldwide eradication of rinderpest was acknowledged by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. The FAO posthumously presented a certificate of appreciation in 2011.

843: 518:

of the animal). These letters encouraged further application of inoculation in the fight against diseases. The first inoculation against measles was made three years after their publication.

942:

Widespread eradication efforts began in the early 20th century although, until the 1950s, they mostly took place on an individual country basis, using vaccination campaigns. In 1924, the

723:, personally lost his own herd, and this may have led him to secure the post-mortem so as to challenge the official diagnostic silence. The impact on African-owned herds was drastic. 568:

Reinders resumed his experiments in 1774, concentrating on the inoculation of calves from cows that had recovered from rinderpest. He was probably the first to make practical use of

958:

to intense annual wildfires. During the 1960s, a program called JP 15 attempted to vaccinate all cattle in participating countries and, by 1979, only one of the countries involved,

550:

and Friesland obtained disastrous results. As a result, the Frisian authorities concluded in 1769 that the cause of rinderpest was God's displeasure with the sinful behavior of the

2284: 3408: 3244: 569: 3270: 854:

In India, some farmers were reported as not hostile to tigers because of the consideration that their attacks on diseased or weaker animals reduced the risk of rinderpest.

3603: 2156: 691:

Around the turn of the century, a plague struck in Southern Africa. Spinage establishes a critical commentary on the theory that in 1888, rinderpest was introduced into

3444: 699:." It may now be impossible to disentangle the probabilities of where rinderpest initially came from- invading Italians, invading Egyptians or local break-outs in 3483: 463:

Cattle plagues recurred throughout history, often accompanying wars and military campaigns. They hit Europe especially hard in the 18th century, with three long

2864:

Arneth, Almut; Olsson, Lennart; Cowie, Annette; Erb, Karl-Heinz; Hurlbert, Margot; Kurz, Werner A.; Mirzabaev, Alisher; Rounsevell, Mark D.A. (2021-10-18).

3010: 2810: 1536: 3211: 1750: 3878: 511: 3847: 3448: 2769: 2649:

Plowright, W.; Ferris, R. D. (1962). "Studies with rinderpest virus in tissue culture. The use of attenuated culture virus as a vaccine for cattle".

562: 1950: 558: 3553: 832:

of the Indian Cattle Plague Commission leading to the publication of his survey in 1871. The Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory from 1893 was at

4106: 3596: 727:

late 1890s and surrounded by innumerable serious cattle diseases apart from rinderpest. The 1885 protectorate status of Tanzania (ruled by the

3361: 800:

of Tanzania. This famine caused significant depopulation in sub-Saharan Africa, allowing thornbush to colonise. This formed ideal habitat for

4065: 2280:

Parliamentary Questions and response from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Mr J Chamberlain in HC Deb 08 June 1896 vol 41 cc606-7 at

612:

There were major outbreaks of cattle plague documented from the mid-century onwards. Responses to these outbreaks differed across the world.

2058:

Sunseri, Thaddeus (2015). "The Entangled History of Sadoka (Rinderpest) and Veterinary Science in Tanzania and the Wider World, 1891–1901".

1919:

Pastoret, Paul-Pierre; Yamanouchi, Kazuya; Mueller-Doblies*, Uwe; Rweyemamu, Mark M.; Horzinek, Marian; Barrett, Thomas (17 December 2005).

4152: 3951: 3576: 2909: 1178: 546:. The results of his experiment in Friesland were encouraging, but they proved to be the exception; testing by others in the provinces of 3331: 3128: 3055: 1217: 3571: 3589: 2870: 985:, travelling westwards and promoting a mass vaccination plan, which by 1972, had eliminated rinderpest in all areas of Asia except for 2281: 2459: 1719: 575:

In the Netherlands, too, interest in rinderpest inoculation declined in the 1780s because the disease itself decreased in intensity.

3234: 2495: 3387: 1423: 1087: 354: 2630:

Boynton, W.H. (1918). "Use of organ extracts instead of virulent blood in immunization and hyperimmunization against rinderpest".

620: 3862: 3266: 2544: 1772: 922:

worked on a vaccine for the RBOK strain of the rinderpest virus for multiple years, from 1956 to 1962. Plowright was awarded the

894: 3818: 3300: 2153: 3519: 3018: 2726: 2590: 2311: 1998: 1944: 1859: 1818: 521:

From early 1755 onwards, experiments were taking place in the Netherlands, as well, results of which were also published in

3888: 3137: 3064: 2684: 2176: 943: 493: 3852: 3452: 2343: 2060: 1246: 870:

suggested rinderpest might have affected the Nuer's social organization before and during the 1930s. Since the Nuer were

561:, a farmer in the province of Groningen and a self-taught man, decided to continue the experiments. He collaborated with 504:

The first written report of rinderpest inoculation was published in a letter signed "T.S." in the November 1754 issue of

1035:

The Mariner method continued to be used in those two locations (the Horn and Pakistan) to track down possible lingering

583:

Apart from the Dutch Republic, the only other regions where inoculation was used to any significant level were northern

4043: 3612: 3475: 2483:

Animals in action; studies and stories of beasts, birds and reptiles; their habits, their homes and their peculiarities

1276: 1040: 1024: 1005: 931: 788: 554:, and proclaimed 15 November a day of fasting and prayer. Interest in inoculation declined sharply across the country. 314:

campaign that began in the mid-20th century, the last confirmed case of rinderpest was diagnosed in 2001. In 2010, the

311: 1890:"Building a Perfect Pest: Environment, People, Conflict and the Creation of a Rinderpest Epizootic in Southern Africa" 3357: 3296: 2680: 2570: 2024:"Caring for Cows in a Time of Rinderpest: Non-academic Veterinary Practitioners in the County of Flanders, 1769–1785" 1280: 1001: 927: 318: 1107:

Rinderpest was also considered as a biological weapon in a United Kingdom government programme during World War II.

3971: 1810: 4070: 3100: 2970: 3883: 3857: 2587:"Progress against rinderpest — livestock disease — threatened as a re-emergence of virus noted in Kenya, Somalia" 885:

A more recent rinderpest outbreak in Africa in 1982–1984 resulted in an estimated US$ 2 billion in stock losses.

4147: 633: 3711: 3201: 3662: 1742: 1036: 808:, and is unsuitable for livestock; "hence the European view of an empty unspoiled Africa teeming with game". 17: 3966: 4162: 780:

migrate their cattle between parcels of land rather than remaining stationery within a particular parcel.

2773: 2224: 54: 4119: 2192: 1981: 1920: 1780: 506: 448: 3716: 962:, reported cases of rinderpest. In the decades since, the wildebeest have returned to the Serengeti and 734: 3550: 2879: 836:

in India. It hosted much research work and many samples. Its founding director was British pathologist

728: 3946: 3796: 1052:

last reported. Eradication was confirmed by the World Organization for Animal Health on 25 May 2011.

776: 772: 3146: 1889: 1082:

Rinderpest was one of more than a dozen agents the United States government researched as potential

4157: 3978: 3898: 3753: 3353: 2282:

https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1896/jun/08/rinderpest-bechuanaland-protectorate

748: 675:. Prussian authorities considered military border guards to help hinder the spread of the disease. 638: 278: 3961: 3731: 3639: 2611:

Boynton, W.H. (1917). "Preliminary report on the virulence of certain body organs in riderpest".

2519:

The Nuer: A description of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of a Nilotic people

2023: 1521:

Fabian H.; Harper, Kyle; Schnalke, Thomas; Lemey, Philippe; Calvignac-Spencer, Sébastien (2020).

951: 805: 2865: 2711:

The Rinderpest Campaigns: A Virus, Its Vaccines, and Global Development in the Twentieth Century

1166: 828:

In 1868, there was a serious outbreak of rinderpest in India, which was investigated by Colonel

310:

around 600 BC, a period that coincides with the rise of large human settlements. After a global

4111: 4005: 3682: 3141: 2244:"The Italian occupation of Massawa and the supposed origin of the African rinderpest panzootic" 1601:"Origin of measles virus: divergence from rinderpest virus between the 11th and 12th centuries" 1000:

Worldwide, the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme was initiated in 1994, supported by the

480: 3323: 1207: 3047: 1851: 867: 3748: 2243: 1100:

The disease is highly communicable and spreads rapidly once introduced into nonimmune herds.

989:

and India; both countries were the site of further occurrences of the disease in the 1980s.

893:

In 1917–18, William Hutchins Boynton (1881–1959), the chief veterinary pathologist with the

3758: 2814: 2255: 2154:

https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1867/may/03/the-cattle-plague-resolution

2110:

Fisher, John R. (1998). "Cattle Plagues Past and Present: The Mystery of Mad Cow Disease".

1925:

Rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants : virus plagues of large and small ruminants

1540: 900: 849:(Illustration 1901 Animals in action, studies and stories of beasts, birds and reptiles...) 539: 49: 2888: 1715: 8: 3692: 3239: 1413: 1071: 219: 3383: 2818: 2259: 1544: 815:

Japanese 19th century print recording disposal of rinderpest infected cattle (anonymous)

3415: 3175: 3092: 2901: 2846: 2421: 2396: 2377: 2301: 2135: 2127: 2089: 1936: 1692: 1637: 1600: 1574: 1561: 1522: 1494: 1469: 1418: 1409: 1379: 1346: 1212: 1203: 708: 637:

slaughter directive but had no other source of compensation. In certain areas, such as

547: 174: 2662: 2536: 1784: 4052: 3910: 3672: 3581: 3525: 3515: 3292: 3167: 3159: 3084: 3076: 3024: 3014: 2962: 2905: 2893: 2838: 2830: 2801: 2722: 2426: 2307: 2200: 2139: 2081: 1990: 1940: 1865: 1855: 1824: 1814: 1684: 1667: 1642: 1624: 1578: 1566: 1527: 1499: 1384: 1366: 1327: 1319: 1142: 1083: 955: 897:, developed an early vaccine for rinderpest, based on treated animal organ extracts. 3179: 3096: 2850: 2093: 1696: 624:

Veterinary report on the cattle plague, 1865–1867, Great Britain (Wellcome L0002361)

4057: 3916: 3813: 3151: 3068: 2954: 2946: 2883: 2822: 2714: 2658: 2487: 2451: 2416: 2408: 2263: 2119: 2073: 2035: 1932: 1901: 1676: 1632: 1614: 1605: 1596: 1556: 1548: 1489: 1481: 1374: 1358: 1311: 1137: 923: 919: 720: 692: 429: 407: 344: 303: 1973: 1905: 1680: 1103:

Cattle herds are no longer immunized against RPV, so are susceptible to infection.

4028: 3726: 3557: 3509: 3003: 2586: 2574: 2288: 2180: 2160: 969: 656: 349: 291: 227: 139: 127: 103: 3743: 2713:, Global and International History, Cambridge University Press, pp. 13–46, 2676: 2397:"Complete Genome Sequence of Japanese Vaccine Strain LA-AKO of Rinderpest Virus" 2173: 1070:

On 14 June 2019, the largest stock of the rinderpest virus was destroyed at the

811: 4097: 3923: 3658: 2123: 1928: 1124: 1012: 837: 792: 484: 411:

God's Punishment on the Netherlands through the Cattle Plague, 1745 by Jan Smit

315: 115: 3738: 2718: 2445: 2328: 1523:"Measles virus and rinderpest virus divergence dated to the sixth century BCE" 1485: 1250: 926:

in 1999 for developing a vaccine against a strain of rinderpest. In 1999, the

796:

were as high as one-third of the population of Ethiopia and two-thirds of the

4141: 3163: 3080: 3028: 3006: 2897: 2834: 2707:"Rinderpest and the Origins of International Cooperation for Disease Control" 2481: 2455: 2412: 2204: 1869: 1628: 1370: 1323: 1057: 1027:

to rinderpest efforts. The last confirmed case of rinderpest was reported in

797: 791:

killed an estimated 80–90% of all cattle in eastern and southern Africa. Sir

764: 704: 629: 535: 364: 335: 211: 203: 151: 91: 3529: 2826: 2491: 2368:

Brassley, Paul (2004). "Review: Cattle Plague. A History by C. A. Spinage".

1828: 1552: 1470:"The immunization of cattle against rinderpest in eighteenth-century Europe" 1299: 1284: 4124: 3409:"Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present" 3206: 3171: 3155: 3088: 3072: 2966: 2950: 2842: 2430: 2085: 2069: 1994: 1918: 1847: 1688: 1646: 1619: 1570: 1388: 1362: 1331: 1315: 1093:

Rinderpest is of concern as a biological weapon for the following reasons:

904:

Mr. G.W.F.Mahoney, Veterinary Laboratory Superintendent at Abuko, June 1959

875: 829: 759: 428:

are noted in ancient times: a cattle plague is thought to be one of the 10

2567: 2077: 1503: 4037: 3983: 3903: 2039: 1063:

The rinderpest eradication effort is estimated to have cost $ 5 billion.

982: 871: 863: 592: 488: 433: 358: 243: 2381: 376: 357:. The virus is particularly fragile and is quickly inactivated by heat, 2958: 2931: 974: 963: 947: 913: 908:

In 1959, rinderpest vaccine was prepared at government laboratories in

833: 801: 381: 2267: 2131: 1351:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

703:. Once in progress, the infection eventually spread to the shores of 683: 672: 596: 543: 479:, due to its analogous symptoms. The personal physician of the pope, 464: 425: 402: 79: 3999: 3562: 1304:

Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics)

668: 4091: 4022: 3988: 3956: 3635: 3048:"Integration of participatory approaches into surveillance systems" 2677:"EMPRES Transboundary Animal Diseases Bulletin No. 11 — Rinderpest" 2517: 1805:

Griffin DE (2007). "Measles Virus". In Knipe DM, Howley PM (eds.).

1147: 1044: 1016: 752: 632:

for three years after 1865. In August 1865 an Order of the British

551: 476: 322: 307: 259: 255: 247: 239: 231: 41: 1594: 1043:

efforts believed a good chance existed that rinderpest would join

758:

Marquardt concentrates on the detailed progress of the disease in

663:, resulting in the slaughter of animals. Impacted cities included 648:

In 1871, there was held an international Rinderpest convention in

3763: 3721: 3678: 3566: 1132: 994: 986: 700: 696: 660: 642: 588: 584: 340: 306:

viruses. The measles virus may have emerged from rinderpest as a

299: 215: 1039:

in the coming years. In 2008, scientists involved in rinderpest

600:

on outside Mecklenburg; many were still opposed to inoculation.

424:, later spreading through the transport of cattle. Other cattle 3044: 716: 664: 649: 515: 441: 207: 738:

Political map of South Africa drawn 1897, reprinted 1899 from

487:). Because of these downsides, numerous attempts were made to 475:

In the early 18th century, the disease was seen as similar to

3668: 1921:"Rinderpest — an old and worldwide story: history to c. 1902" 1345:

Roeder, Peter; Mariner, Jeffrey; Kock, Richard (2013-08-05).

1028: 959: 909: 768: 437: 295: 251: 66: 2932:"Economic impact assessment of rinderpest control in Africa" 1118: 3688: 2797: 1743:"Rinderpest, a Centuries-Old Animal Disease, Is Eradicated" 421: 266: 235: 223: 440:, and rinderpest later spread throughout the remainder of 2929: 2772:. International Atomic Energy Association. Archived from 1519: 2930:

Tambi, EN; Maina, OW; Mukhebi, AW; Randolph, TF (1999).

2306:. Internet Archive. Cape Town : Struik Publishers. 3269:(Press release). World Organisation for Animal Health. 1347:"Rinderpest: the veterinary perspective on eradication" 655:

In 1879, there was a notable cattle plague outbreak in

3611: 1097:

The disease has high rates of morbidity and mortality.

269:, and to have spread by transport of cattle. The term 3119: 3117: 3040: 3038: 2793: 2791: 2589:. United Nations. 20 November 2002. AFR/520-SAG/112. 2447:

Animal plagues; their history, nature, and prevention

1414:"Virus Deadly in Livestock Is No More, U.N. Declares" 1175:

International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)

930:

predicted that with vaccination, rinderpest would be

3414:. James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 2863: 2394: 1408: 1202: 1114: 678: 615: 528: 3011:

Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International

2811:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

1537:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

3114: 3035: 2788: 981:In 1969, an outbreak of the disease originated in 819: 557:In this climate of discouragement and scepticism, 3848:London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases 2857: 2395:Takamatsu H, Terui K, Kokuho T (September 2015). 1344: 1277:"Rinderpest — the toll and treatment of a plague" 993:Africa, with the exception of parts of Sudan and 4139: 3235:"Cattle plague: An extinction worth celebrating" 499: 353:family, it produces enveloped virions, and is a 2992: 2990: 2648: 2515: 1665:Dennis Normile (2008). "Driven to Extinction". 1297: 1019:appeared to have a continued presence. Mariner 687:Cows dead from rinderpest in South Africa, 1896 432:described in the Hebrew Bible. By around 3,000 3572:FAO Maintaining Global Freedom from Rinderpest 3259: 3202:"Scientists eradicate deadly rinderpest virus" 2021: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1664: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1208:"Rinderpest, Scourge of Cattle, Is Vanquished" 420:The disease is believed to have originated in 333:Rinderpest virus (RPV), a member of the genus 3597: 3000:The Economics of Animal Health and Production 2174:https://wellcomecollection.org/works/g8nhdby4 1974:"Cattle Plague in Eighteenth-Century England" 1912: 1590: 1588: 1198: 1196: 1077: 755:, reached the British colonies in the south. 294:word meaning "cattle plague". The rinderpest 265:Rinderpest is believed to have originated in 3473: 3354:"Maintaining global freedom from Rinderpest" 3124: 2987: 2053: 2051: 2049: 1515: 1513: 3476:"British secret biological warfare testing" 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 1876: 1798: 1716:"UN 'confident' disease has been wiped out" 1653: 1463: 1461: 1011:The end was in sight by 2000 when only the 628:A major outbreak affected the whole of the 3604: 3590: 2871:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 2320: 1835: 1740: 1585: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1193: 40: 3474:Bowcott, Owen; Evans, Rob (16 May 2010). 3321: 3145: 2887: 2420: 2046: 1887: 1636: 1618: 1560: 1510: 1493: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1378: 396: 3401: 3285: 3186: 3129:Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE 3056:Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE 2367: 1467: 968: 899: 842: 810: 733: 682: 619: 406: 375: 355:negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus 3863:Malaria Eradication Scientific Alliance 3507: 2997: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2629: 2610: 2568:https://www.fao.org/3/i3042e/i3042e.pdf 2541:Nippon Institute for Biological Science 2531: 2529: 2443: 2241: 2152:HC Deb 03 May 1867 vol 186 cc2013-8 at 2057: 1804: 1438: 371: 14: 4140: 3486:from the original on 15 September 2017 3425:from the original on September 9, 2016 3273:from the original on 24 September 2015 3214:from the original on 17 September 2013 3199: 2770:"History of battle against rinderpest" 2704: 2479: 2349:from the original on 14 September 2017 2326: 2303:The South African family encyclopaedia 2109: 1841: 1741:McNeil Jr., Donald G. (27 June 2011). 1710: 1708: 1706: 1395: 4004: 4003: 3585: 3551:The IAEA's activities with rinderpest 3501: 3364:from the original on 23 November 2016 3334:from the original on 30 November 2021 3322:McNeil Jr, Donald G. (27 June 2011). 3293:"Rinderpest eradicated, what's next?" 3232: 2889:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-054809 2299: 2105: 2103: 1971: 1965: 1271: 1269: 1267: 1247:"Exotic animal diseases — Rinderpest" 1241: 1239: 1237: 1235: 1220:from the original on 30 November 2021 578: 277: 3889:National Malaria Eradication Program 3247:from the original on 2 December 2009 3138:World Organisation for Animal Health 3065:World Organisation for Animal Health 2745: 2526: 1426:from the original on 30 October 2015 944:World Organisation for Animal Health 916:from the spleen of infected cattle. 4153:Biological anti-agriculture weapons 3853:Global Polio Eradication Initiative 2547:from the original on March 25, 2023 2061:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 1894:Journal of Southern African Studies 1753:from the original on 12 August 2018 1703: 1181:from the original on 16 August 2022 997:, was declared free of rinderpest. 444:, following European colonization. 347:viruses. Like other members of the 250:. The disease was characterized by 24: 3613:Eradication of infectious diseases 3384:"Killer virus destroyed by UK lab" 2100: 1953:from the original on 13 April 2021 1298:Tounkara, K.; Nwankpa, N. (2017). 1264: 1232: 1025:participatory disease surveillance 1006:International Atomic Energy Agency 451:described rinderpest in his book, 25: 4174: 3952:Mathematical modelling of disease 3544: 3358:Food and Agriculture Organization 3297:Food and Agriculture Organization 2681:Food and Agriculture Organization 1811:Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 1281:Food and Agriculture Organization 1249:. .dpi.qld.gov.au. Archived from 1002:Food and Agriculture Organization 679:Rinderpest in 19th-century Africa 616:Rinderpest in 19th-century Europe 529:Further trials in the Netherlands 447:In the 4th century, Roman writer 319:Food and Agriculture Organization 3819:Bovine spongiform encephalopathy 3303:from the original on 3 July 2011 3267:"No More Deaths From Rinderpest" 3233:Platt, John (30 November 2009). 2705:McVety, Amanda Kay, ed. (2018), 1937:10.1016/B978-012088385-1/50035-6 1117: 895:Philippine Bureau of Agriculture 415: 298:(RPV) is closely related to the 53: 27:Eradicated morbillivirus disease 3884:Boll Weevil Eradication Program 3858:Global Certification Commission 3467: 3437: 3390:from the original on 2020-11-09 3376: 3346: 3315: 3226: 3200:Sample, Ian (14 October 2010). 3103:from the original on 2023-09-22 2976:from the original on 2018-07-21 2923: 2912:from the original on 2023-03-30 2735:from the original on 2020-03-11 2698: 2687:from the original on 2019-02-08 2669: 2642: 2623: 2604: 2593:from the original on 2018-01-01 2579: 2559: 2516:Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940). 2509: 2498:from the original on 2023-09-22 2473: 2462:from the original on 2023-09-22 2437: 2388: 2370:The Agricultural History Review 2361: 2327:Pearce, Fred (12 August 2000). 2293: 2274: 2235: 2217: 2185: 2165: 2146: 2112:Journal of Contemporary History 2015: 2004:from the original on 2014-10-06 1765: 1734: 1722:from the original on 3 May 2019 857: 820:Rinderpest in 19th-century Asia 607: 458: 2613:Philippine Agricultural Review 1338: 1291: 1159: 1088:its biological weapons program 937: 888: 470: 436:, a cattle plague had reached 380:A cow with rinderpest in the " 13: 1: 3663:Eradication of dracunculiasis 2663:10.1016/S0034-5288(18)34916-6 2632:Philippine Journal of Science 2537:"Background — Junji Nakamura" 1906:10.1080/03057070.2017.1291162 1718:. BBC News. 14 October 2010. 1681:10.1126/science.319.5870.1606 514:into an incision made in the 500:Early English experimentation 2480:Brooks, Elbridge S. (1901). 2450:. London: Chapman and Hall. 1595:Furuse, Yuki; Akira Suzuki; 1153: 862:In his classic study of the 339:, is closely related to the 7: 3577:OIE Rinderpest disease card 1982:Agricultural History Review 1781:Institute for Animal Health 1283:(FAO). 1996. Archived from 1110: 740:impressions of South Africa 570:maternally derived immunity 494:maternally derived immunity 449:Severus Sanctus Endelechius 10: 4179: 3565:reviewed and published by 3508:Spinage, Clive A. (2003). 2998:Rushton, Jonathan (2009). 2866:"Restoring Degraded Lands" 2522:. Oxford University Press. 2248:African Journal of Ecology 2124:10.1177/002200949803300202 2028:Social History of Medicine 2022:Van Roosbroeck, F (2019). 1078:Use as a biological weapon 729:German East Africa Company 400: 4081: 4012: 3947:Globalization and disease 3939: 3871: 3840: 3831: 3806: 3797:Eradication of rinderpest 3785: 3776: 3702: 3649: 3628: 3619: 2719:10.1017/9781108381673.002 1486:10.1017/s0025727300062372 773:Bechuanaland Protectorate 591:. Experiments started in 180: 173: 166:†Rinderpest morbillivirus 48: 39: 34:†Rinderpest morbillivirus 32: 4044:Rinderpest morbillivirus 4014:Rinderpest morbillivirus 3979:Tuberculosis elimination 3899:India National PolioPlus 3511:Cattle Plague: A History 3360:(FAO). 1 November 2015. 2456:10.5962/bhl.title.138398 2444:Fleming, George (1871). 2413:10.1128/genomeA.00976-15 2231:. 1879-12-04. p. 1. 2225:"CURRENT FOREIGN TOPICS" 2193:"CURRENT FOREIGN TOPICS" 1169:Rinderpest morbillivirus 1167:"ICTV Taxonomy history: 966:has returned with them. 847:A tiger seizes its prey 523:The Gentleman's Magazine 507:The Gentleman's Magazine 328: 3640:Eradication of smallpox 3123:Cited as Mariner 2001: 2996:Cited as Mariner 2001: 2827:10.1126/science.aar3213 2492:10.5962/bhl.title.60236 1553:10.1126/science.aba9411 1300:"Rinderpest experience" 749:German Colonial Service 453:On the Deaths of Cattle 3683:Eradication of malaria 3514:. New York: Springer. 3156:10.20506/rst.25.1.1671 3073:10.20506/rst.30.3.2065 2951:10.20506/rst.18.2.1164 2242:Spinage, C.A. (2017). 1888:Marquardt, G. (2017). 1620:10.1186/1743-422X-7-52 1363:10.1098/rstb.2012.0139 1316:10.20506/rst.36.2.2675 978: 905: 851: 816: 743: 688: 625: 481:Giovanni Maria Lancisi 412: 397:History and epizootics 385: 4148:Animal viral diseases 3779:agricultural diseases 3299:(FAO). 28 June 2011. 3013:). pp. xix+364. 2300:Joyce, Peter (1989). 2078:10.1353/bhm.2015.0005 1468:Huygelen, C. (1997). 972: 903: 868:E. E. Evans-Pritchard 846: 814: 789:outbreak in the 1890s 747:long Reports for the 737: 686: 623: 410: 379: 279:[ˈʁɪndɐˌpɛst] 3717:Lymphatic filariasis 1842:McNeil, W. (1998) . 1410:Donald G. McNeil Jr. 1204:Donald G. McNeil Jr. 973:Rinderpest memorial 954:experienced radical 372:Disease and symptoms 202:) was an infectious 50:Virus classification 4163:Eradicated diseases 3693:Eradication of yaws 3240:Scientific American 2819:2018Sci...362R3213S 2776:on 23 November 2017 2683:(FAO). 1923-07-20. 2486:. Boston: Lothrop. 2260:2017AfJEc..55..705S 1931:. pp. 86–104. 1844:Plagues and Peoples 1545:2020Sci...368.1367D 1412:(15 October 2010). 1086:before terminating 1072:Pirbright Institute 1004:, the OIE, and the 866:of southern Sudan, 220:even-toed ungulates 3556:2011-10-15 at the 3502:General references 3416:Middlebury College 2573:2023-05-30 at the 2329:"Inventing Africa" 2287:2023-03-24 at the 2229:The New York Times 2197:The New York Times 2179:2023-07-20 at the 2159:2023-03-24 at the 2040:10.1093/shm/hkx097 1972:Broad, J. (1983). 1747:The New York Times 1419:The New York Times 1357:(1623): 20120139. 1213:The New York Times 1084:biological weapons 1023:, 2000 introduced 979: 906: 852: 817: 744: 689: 626: 579:In other countries 413: 386: 4135: 4134: 4006:Taxon identifiers 3997: 3996: 3935: 3934: 3911:Polio in Pakistan 3827: 3826: 3772: 3771: 3673:Polio eradication 3521:978-0-306-47789-8 3418:. April 9, 2002. 3356:(Press release). 3295:(Press release). 3020:978-1-84593-194-0 2728:978-1-108-42274-1 2313:978-0-86977-887-6 2268:10.1111/aje.12403 1946:978-0-12-088385-1 1861:978-0-385-12122-4 1820:978-0-7817-6060-7 1539:(AAAS): 1367–70. 1253:on March 30, 2010 1143:Rift Valley fever 977:(2019) by Shyamal 956:fire regime shift 806:sleeping sickness 254:, oral erosions, 214:, and many other 189: 188: 16:(Redirected from 4170: 4128: 4127: 4115: 4114: 4102: 4101: 4100: 4083:Rinderpest virus 4074: 4073: 4061: 4060: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4033: 4032: 4031: 4001: 4000: 3917:Every Last Child 3838: 3837: 3814:Ovine rinderpest 3783: 3782: 3626: 3625: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3583: 3582: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3496: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3451:. Archived from 3441: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3424: 3413: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3396: 3395: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3197: 3184: 3183: 3149: 3121: 3112: 3111: 3109: 3108: 3052: 3042: 3033: 3032: 2994: 2985: 2984: 2982: 2981: 2975: 2936: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2917: 2891: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2795: 2786: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2766: 2743: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2693: 2692: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2646: 2640: 2639: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2598: 2583: 2577: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2533: 2524: 2523: 2513: 2507: 2506: 2504: 2503: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2468: 2467: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2424: 2407:(5): e00976-15. 2392: 2386: 2385: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2348: 2333: 2324: 2318: 2317: 2297: 2291: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2212: 2211: 2189: 2183: 2169: 2163: 2150: 2144: 2143: 2107: 2098: 2097: 2055: 2044: 2043: 2019: 2013: 2012: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1978: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1916: 1910: 1909: 1885: 1874: 1873: 1839: 1833: 1832: 1809:(5th ed.). 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1792: 1787:on June 26, 2009 1783:. Archived from 1769: 1763: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1712: 1701: 1700: 1675:(5870): 1606–9. 1662: 1651: 1650: 1640: 1622: 1606:Virology Journal 1597:Hitoshi Oshitani 1592: 1583: 1582: 1564: 1517: 1508: 1507: 1497: 1465: 1436: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1406: 1393: 1392: 1382: 1342: 1336: 1335: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1273: 1262: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1243: 1230: 1229: 1227: 1225: 1206:(27 June 2011). 1200: 1191: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1163: 1138:Ovine rinderpest 1127: 1122: 1121: 950:population, the 924:World Food Prize 920:Walter Plowright 878:among the Nuer. 804:, which carries 721:Julius von Soden 512:morbid discharge 430:plagues of Egypt 384:" position, 1982 361:, and sunlight. 345:canine distemper 308:zoonotic disease 304:canine distemper 289: 288: 287: 281: 276: 183:Rinderpest virus 58: 57: 44: 30: 29: 21: 4178: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4168: 4167: 4158:Bovine diseases 4138: 4137: 4136: 4131: 4123: 4118: 4110: 4105: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4077: 4069: 4064: 4056: 4051: 4042: 4041: 4036: 4027: 4026: 4021: 4008: 3998: 3993: 3931: 3867: 3833: 3823: 3802: 3778: 3768: 3704: 3698: 3651: 3645: 3621: 3615: 3610: 3558:Wayback Machine 3547: 3534: 3532: 3522: 3504: 3499: 3489: 3487: 3472: 3468: 3458: 3456: 3455:on 24 June 2013 3443: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3422: 3411: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3393: 3391: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3365: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3337: 3335: 3320: 3316: 3306: 3304: 3291: 3290: 3286: 3276: 3274: 3265: 3264: 3260: 3250: 3248: 3231: 3227: 3217: 3215: 3198: 3187: 3147:10.1.1.114.6236 3122: 3115: 3106: 3104: 3050: 3043: 3036: 3021: 3004:Wallingford, UK 2995: 2988: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2934: 2928: 2924: 2915: 2913: 2862: 2858: 2796: 2789: 2779: 2777: 2768: 2767: 2746: 2738: 2736: 2729: 2703: 2699: 2690: 2688: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2647: 2643: 2628: 2624: 2609: 2605: 2596: 2594: 2585: 2584: 2580: 2575:Wayback Machine 2564: 2560: 2550: 2548: 2535: 2534: 2527: 2514: 2510: 2501: 2499: 2478: 2474: 2465: 2463: 2442: 2438: 2393: 2389: 2366: 2362: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2331: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2298: 2294: 2289:Wayback Machine 2279: 2275: 2240: 2236: 2223: 2222: 2218: 2209: 2207: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2181:Wayback Machine 2170: 2166: 2161:Wayback Machine 2151: 2147: 2108: 2101: 2056: 2047: 2020: 2016: 2007: 2005: 2001: 1976: 1970: 1966: 1956: 1954: 1947: 1917: 1913: 1886: 1877: 1862: 1840: 1836: 1821: 1807:Fields Virology 1803: 1799: 1790: 1788: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1756: 1754: 1739: 1735: 1725: 1723: 1714: 1713: 1704: 1663: 1654: 1593: 1586: 1518: 1511: 1474:Medical History 1466: 1439: 1429: 1427: 1407: 1396: 1343: 1339: 1296: 1292: 1275: 1274: 1265: 1256: 1254: 1245: 1244: 1233: 1223: 1221: 1201: 1194: 1184: 1182: 1165: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1123: 1116: 1113: 1080: 940: 891: 860: 822: 777:Crocodile River 709:German Tanzania 681: 657:Congress Poland 618: 610: 581: 563:Wijnold Munniks 531: 502: 473: 461: 418: 405: 399: 374: 350:Paramyxoviridae 331: 283: 282: 274: 169: 141:Paramyxoviridae 129:Mononegavirales 105:Negarnaviricota 52: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4176: 4166: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4129: 4116: 4103: 4087: 4085: 4079: 4078: 4076: 4075: 4062: 4049: 4034: 4018: 4016: 4010: 4009: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3975: 3974: 3969: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3943: 3941: 3940:Related topics 3937: 3936: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3927: 3924:The Final Inch 3920: 3908: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3893: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3844: 3842: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3825: 3824: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3800: 3789: 3787: 3780: 3777:Eradication of 3774: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3749:Onchocerciasis 3746: 3741: 3736: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3719: 3714: 3708: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3696: 3686: 3676: 3666: 3659:Dracunculiasis 3655: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3632: 3630: 3623: 3622:human diseases 3620:Eradication of 3617: 3616: 3609: 3608: 3601: 3594: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3560: 3546: 3545:External links 3543: 3542: 3541: 3520: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3497: 3466: 3436: 3400: 3386:. 2019-06-14. 3375: 3345: 3328:New York Times 3314: 3284: 3258: 3225: 3185: 3113: 3034: 3019: 2986: 2922: 2880:Annual Reviews 2856: 2813:(AAAS): 1127. 2787: 2744: 2727: 2697: 2668: 2641: 2622: 2603: 2578: 2558: 2525: 2508: 2472: 2436: 2401:Genome Announc 2387: 2360: 2319: 2312: 2292: 2273: 2234: 2216: 2184: 2164: 2145: 2118:(2): 215–228. 2099: 2045: 2034:(3): 502–522. 2014: 1989:(2): 104–115. 1964: 1945: 1929:Academic Press 1911: 1900:(2): 349–363. 1875: 1860: 1834: 1819: 1797: 1764: 1733: 1702: 1652: 1599:(2010-03-04). 1584: 1509: 1480:(2): 182–196. 1437: 1394: 1337: 1310:(2): 569–578. 1290: 1287:on 1997-06-09. 1263: 1231: 1192: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1125:Viruses portal 1112: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1079: 1076: 1013:Horn of Africa 939: 936: 890: 887: 859: 856: 838:Alfred Lingard 821: 818: 793:Arnold Theiler 742:by James Bryce 680: 677: 617: 614: 609: 606: 580: 577: 559:Geert Reinders 552:Frisian people 530: 527: 501: 498: 485:Dutch Republic 472: 469: 460: 457: 417: 414: 398: 395: 373: 370: 330: 327: 316:United Nations 200:steppe murrain 187: 186: 178: 177: 171: 170: 163: 161: 157: 156: 149: 145: 144: 137: 133: 132: 125: 121: 120: 117:Monjiviricetes 113: 109: 108: 101: 97: 96: 89: 85: 84: 77: 70: 69: 64: 60: 59: 46: 45: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4175: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4143: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4024: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4002: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3964: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3926: 3925: 3921: 3919: 3918: 3914: 3913: 3912: 3909: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3881: 3880: 3879:United States 3877: 3876: 3874: 3870: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3839: 3836: 3830: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3794: 3791: 3790: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3775: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3724: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3701: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3677: 3674: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3660: 3657: 3656: 3654: 3648: 3641: 3637: 3634: 3633: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3618: 3614: 3607: 3602: 3600: 3595: 3593: 3588: 3587: 3584: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3548: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3470: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3440: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3404: 3389: 3385: 3379: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3349: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3288: 3272: 3268: 3262: 3246: 3242: 3241: 3236: 3229: 3213: 3209: 3208: 3203: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3130: 3120: 3118: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3057: 3049: 3041: 3039: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3007:Cambridge, MA 3005: 3001: 2993: 2991: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2945:(2): 458–77. 2944: 2940: 2933: 2926: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2872: 2867: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2803: 2794: 2792: 2775: 2771: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2734: 2730: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2701: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2672: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2645: 2637: 2633: 2626: 2619:(4): 410–433. 2618: 2614: 2607: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2562: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2532: 2530: 2521: 2520: 2512: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2476: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2448: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2336:New Scientist 2330: 2323: 2315: 2309: 2305: 2304: 2296: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2277: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2178: 2175: 2168: 2162: 2158: 2155: 2149: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2106: 2104: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2062: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2018: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1983: 1975: 1968: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1915: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1838: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1801: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1777:Disease Facts 1774: 1768: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1669: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1591: 1589: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1516: 1514: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1341: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1294: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1252: 1248: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1209: 1205: 1199: 1197: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1170: 1162: 1158: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1120: 1115: 1108: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1058:Jacques Diouf 1053: 1049: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1007: 1003: 998: 996: 990: 988: 984: 976: 971: 967: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 935: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 915: 911: 902: 898: 896: 886: 883: 879: 877: 873: 869: 865: 855: 850: 845: 841: 839: 835: 831: 826: 813: 809: 807: 803: 799: 798:Maasai people 794: 790: 785: 781: 778: 774: 770: 766: 765:Tswana people 761: 756: 754: 750: 741: 736: 732: 730: 724: 722: 718: 712: 710: 706: 705:Lake Victoria 702: 698: 694: 685: 676: 674: 670: 666: 662: 659:and parts of 658: 653: 651: 646: 644: 640: 639:Aberdeenshire 635: 634:Privy Council 631: 630:British Isles 622: 613: 605: 601: 598: 594: 590: 586: 576: 573: 571: 566: 564: 560: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 536:Pieter Camper 526: 524: 519: 517: 513: 509: 508: 497: 495: 490: 486: 482: 478: 468: 466: 456: 454: 450: 445: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 416:Early history 409: 404: 394: 390: 383: 378: 369: 366: 365:Measles virus 362: 360: 356: 352: 351: 346: 342: 338: 337: 336:Morbillivirus 326: 324: 320: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 286: 280: 272: 268: 263: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 204:viral disease 201: 197: 196:cattle plague 193: 185: 184: 179: 176: 172: 168: 167: 162: 159: 158: 155: 154: 153:Morbillivirus 150: 147: 146: 143: 142: 138: 135: 134: 131: 130: 126: 123: 122: 119: 118: 114: 111: 110: 107: 106: 102: 99: 98: 95: 94: 93:Orthornavirae 90: 87: 86: 83: 82: 78: 75: 72: 71: 68: 65: 62: 61: 56: 51: 47: 43: 38: 35: 31: 19: 18:Cattle plague 4082: 4013: 3962:Transmission 3922: 3915: 3792: 3732:epidemiology 3535:February 25, 3533:. Retrieved 3510: 3488:. Retrieved 3480:The Guardian 3479: 3469: 3457:. Retrieved 3453:the original 3445:"Rinderpest" 3439: 3429:November 14, 3427:. Retrieved 3403: 3392:. Retrieved 3378: 3366:. Retrieved 3348: 3336:. Retrieved 3327: 3324:"Rinderpest" 3317: 3305:. Retrieved 3287: 3275:. Retrieved 3261: 3249:. Retrieved 3238: 3228: 3216:. Retrieved 3207:The Guardian 3205: 3136:(1). O.I.E ( 3133: 3127: 3105:. Retrieved 3063:(3). O.I.E ( 3060: 3054: 2999: 2978:. Retrieved 2942: 2939:Rev Sci Tech 2938: 2925: 2914:. Retrieved 2875: 2869: 2859: 2806: 2800: 2778:. Retrieved 2774:the original 2737:, retrieved 2710: 2700: 2689:. Retrieved 2671: 2654: 2650: 2644: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2595:. Retrieved 2581: 2561: 2549:. Retrieved 2540: 2518: 2511: 2500:. Retrieved 2482: 2475: 2464:. Retrieved 2446: 2439: 2404: 2400: 2390: 2376:(2): 227–8. 2373: 2369: 2363: 2353:14 September 2351:. Retrieved 2342:(2251): 30. 2339: 2335: 2322: 2302: 2295: 2276: 2254:(4): 705–9. 2251: 2247: 2237: 2228: 2219: 2208:. Retrieved 2196: 2187: 2167: 2148: 2115: 2111: 2070:Project MUSE 2065: 2059: 2031: 2027: 2017: 2006:. Retrieved 1986: 1980: 1967: 1955:. Retrieved 1924: 1914: 1897: 1893: 1848:Anchor Press 1843: 1837: 1806: 1800: 1789:. Retrieved 1785:the original 1776: 1773:"Rinderpest" 1767: 1755:. Retrieved 1746: 1736: 1724:. Retrieved 1672: 1666: 1610: 1604: 1532: 1526: 1477: 1473: 1428:. Retrieved 1417: 1354: 1350: 1340: 1307: 1303: 1293: 1285:the original 1255:. Retrieved 1251:the original 1222:. Retrieved 1211: 1183:. Retrieved 1174: 1168: 1161: 1106: 1092: 1081: 1069: 1065: 1062: 1054: 1050: 1034: 1020: 1010: 999: 991: 980: 941: 918: 907: 892: 884: 880: 876:horticulture 872:pastoralists 861: 858:20th century 853: 848: 830:James Hallen 827: 823: 786: 782: 760:South Africa 757: 745: 739: 725: 713: 690: 654: 647: 627: 611: 608:19th century 602: 582: 574: 567: 556: 532: 522: 520: 505: 503: 474: 462: 459:18th century 452: 446: 419: 391: 387: 363: 348: 334: 332: 270: 264: 222:, including 199: 195: 191: 190: 182: 181: 165: 164: 152: 140: 128: 116: 104: 92: 80: 73: 63:(unranked): 33: 4038:Wikispecies 3984:Vaccination 3904:Pulse Polio 3832:Eradication 3490:16 December 3368:23 November 3338:25 February 3251:30 November 3140:): 375–88. 2959:10568/35032 2882:: 569–599. 2657:: 172–182. 2651:Res Vet Sci 2638:(3): 151–8. 1757:25 February 1060:commented. 1041:eradication 983:Afghanistan 938:Eradication 889:Vaccination 595:during the 593:Mecklenburg 471:Inoculation 359:desiccation 312:eradication 258:, lymphoid 244:wildebeests 210:, domestic 4142:Categories 3967:horizontal 3793:Rinderpest 3786:Successful 3705:(regional) 3629:Successful 3563:Rinderpest 3482:. London. 3394:2019-06-14 3218:15 October 3210:. London. 3107:2023-01-03 3067:): 653–9. 2980:2019-09-25 2916:2023-01-03 2780:15 October 2739:2021-12-22 2691:2010-10-15 2597:2018-01-10 2502:2023-07-20 2466:2023-07-20 2210:2024-09-13 2072:: 92–121. 2008:2013-09-17 1957:7 February 1791:2010-10-15 1726:14 October 1430:15 October 1257:2010-10-15 1185:15 January 975:Mukteshwar 964:tree cover 948:wildebeest 932:eradicated 914:The Gambia 834:Mukteshwar 802:tsetse fly 465:panzootics 426:epizootics 401:See also: 382:milk fever 271:Rinderpest 192:Rinderpest 4029:Q29004635 3164:0253-1933 3142:CiteSeerX 3081:0253-1933 3029:567922053 2906:238723827 2898:1543-5938 2835:0036-8075 2205:0362-4331 2140:161148001 1870:795122277 1852:Doubleday 1629:1743-422X 1579:219843735 1371:0962-8436 1324:0253-1933 1154:Footnotes 952:Serengeti 934:by 2010. 707:and into 693:Abyssinia 673:Sochaczew 597:epizootic 544:Friesland 540:Groningen 489:inoculate 403:Epizootic 228:buffaloes 160:Species: 88:Kingdom: 81:Riboviria 4112:11460688 4098:Q2153407 4092:Wikidata 4023:Wikidata 3989:Zoonosis 3972:vertical 3957:Pandemic 3872:Regional 3834:programs 3807:Underway 3754:Syphilis 3744:Trachoma 3712:Hookworm 3703:Underway 3652:(global) 3650:Underway 3636:Smallpox 3554:Archived 3530:52178719 3484:Archived 3459:15 April 3420:Archived 3388:Archived 3362:Archived 3332:Archived 3301:Archived 3271:Archived 3245:Archived 3212:Archived 3180:19032402 3172:16796062 3101:Archived 3097:39164283 3089:22435179 3009:: CABI ( 2971:Archived 2967:10472679 2910:Archived 2851:54457089 2843:30523083 2809:(6419). 2733:archived 2685:Archived 2591:Archived 2571:Archived 2551:July 20, 2545:Archived 2496:Archived 2460:Archived 2431:26337882 2382:40275953 2344:Archived 2285:Archived 2177:Archived 2157:Archived 2094:41707544 2086:25913464 1999:Archived 1995:11620313 1951:Archived 1829:71812790 1751:Archived 1720:Archived 1697:46157093 1689:18356500 1647:20202190 1571:32554594 1535:(6497). 1424:Archived 1389:23798687 1332:30152462 1218:Archived 1179:Archived 1148:Smallpox 1111:See also 1045:smallpox 1017:Pakistan 767:and the 753:Zanzibar 477:smallpox 323:smallpox 260:necrosis 256:diarrhea 248:warthogs 240:giraffes 232:antelope 230:, large 175:Synonyms 136:Family: 100:Phylum: 3764:Leprosy 3739:Rubella 3727:vaccine 3722:Measles 3679:Malaria 3567:WikiVet 3307:30 June 2815:Bibcode 2802:Science 2422:4559731 2256:Bibcode 2172:Office. 1668:Science 1638:2838858 1562:7713999 1541:Bibcode 1528:Science 1504:9156464 1495:1043905 1380:3720037 1224:28 June 1133:Murrain 1037:refugia 995:Somalia 987:Lebanon 701:Eritrea 697:Massawa 661:Prussia 643:Norfolk 589:Denmark 585:Germany 548:Utrecht 341:measles 300:measles 290:) is a 275:German: 216:species 212:buffalo 148:Genus: 124:Order: 112:Class: 3895:India 3841:Global 3759:Rabies 3528: 3518: 3449:CIDRAP 3277:25 May 3178: 3170: 3162: 3144: 3095: 3087: 3079: 3027: 3017: 2965: 2904: 2896: 2849: 2841: 2833: 2725: 2566:Italy. 2429: 2419: 2380: 2310: 2203: 2138: 2132:260973 2130: 2092: 2084: 1993: 1943: 1868: 1858: 1827: 1817: 1695: 1687: 1645: 1635: 1627: 1613:: 52. 1577: 1569: 1559: 1502: 1492: 1387: 1377: 1369: 1330: 1322: 1021:et al. 717:Berlin 671:, and 665:Warsaw 650:Vienna 516:dewlap 442:Africa 292:German 246:, and 208:cattle 194:(also 4125:74027 4107:IRMNG 4071:11241 4058:4T3QC 3669:Polio 3423:(PDF) 3412:(PDF) 3176:S2CID 3093:S2CID 3051:(PDF) 2974:(PDF) 2935:(PDF) 2902:S2CID 2878:(1). 2847:S2CID 2378:JSTOR 2347:(PDF) 2332:(PDF) 2136:S2CID 2128:JSTOR 2090:S2CID 2068:(1). 2002:(PDF) 1977:(PDF) 1693:S2CID 1575:S2CID 1029:Kenya 960:Sudan 910:Abuko 769:Boers 669:Posen 438:Egypt 329:Virus 296:virus 252:fever 224:gaurs 74:Realm 67:Virus 4066:NCBI 3689:Yaws 3537:2017 3526:OCLC 3516:ISBN 3492:2016 3461:2018 3431:2008 3370:2016 3340:2017 3309:2011 3279:2011 3253:2009 3220:2010 3168:PMID 3160:ISSN 3085:PMID 3077:ISSN 3025:OCLC 3015:ISBN 2963:PMID 2894:ISSN 2839:PMID 2831:ISSN 2782:2010 2723:ISBN 2553:2023 2427:PMID 2355:2017 2308:ISBN 2201:ISSN 2082:PMID 1991:PMID 1959:2020 1941:ISBN 1866:OCLC 1856:ISBN 1825:OCLC 1815:ISBN 1759:2017 1728:2010 1685:PMID 1643:PMID 1625:ISSN 1567:PMID 1500:PMID 1432:2010 1385:PMID 1367:ISSN 1328:PMID 1320:ISSN 1226:2011 1187:2019 1015:and 864:Nuer 787:The 641:and 587:and 542:and 422:Asia 343:and 302:and 267:Asia 236:deer 4120:ISC 4053:CoL 3152:doi 3069:doi 2955:hdl 2947:doi 2884:doi 2823:doi 2807:362 2715:doi 2659:doi 2488:doi 2452:doi 2417:PMC 2409:doi 2340:167 2264:doi 2120:doi 2074:doi 2036:doi 1933:doi 1902:doi 1677:doi 1673:319 1633:PMC 1615:doi 1557:PMC 1549:doi 1533:368 1490:PMC 1482:doi 1375:PMC 1359:doi 1355:368 1312:doi 928:FAO 912:in 538:in 218:of 206:of 198:or 4144:: 4122:: 4109:: 4094:: 4068:: 4055:: 4040:: 4025:: 3524:. 3478:. 3447:. 3330:. 3326:. 3243:. 3237:. 3204:. 3188:^ 3174:. 3166:. 3158:. 3150:. 3134:25 3132:. 3116:^ 3099:. 3091:. 3083:. 3075:. 3061:30 3059:. 3053:. 3037:^ 3023:. 3002:. 2989:^ 2969:. 2961:. 2953:. 2943:18 2941:. 2937:. 2908:. 2900:. 2892:. 2876:46 2874:. 2868:. 2845:. 2837:. 2829:. 2821:. 2805:. 2790:^ 2747:^ 2731:, 2721:, 2709:, 2679:. 2653:. 2636:13 2634:. 2617:10 2615:. 2543:. 2539:. 2528:^ 2494:. 2458:. 2425:. 2415:. 2403:. 2399:. 2374:52 2372:. 2338:. 2334:. 2262:. 2252:55 2250:. 2246:. 2227:. 2199:. 2195:. 2134:. 2126:. 2116:33 2114:. 2102:^ 2088:. 2080:. 2066:89 2064:. 2048:^ 2032:32 2030:. 2026:. 1997:. 1987:31 1985:. 1979:. 1949:. 1939:. 1927:. 1923:. 1898:43 1896:. 1892:. 1878:^ 1864:. 1854:. 1846:. 1823:. 1813:. 1779:. 1775:. 1749:. 1745:. 1705:^ 1691:. 1683:. 1671:. 1655:^ 1641:. 1631:. 1623:. 1609:. 1603:. 1587:^ 1573:. 1565:. 1555:. 1547:. 1531:. 1525:. 1512:^ 1498:. 1488:. 1478:41 1476:. 1472:. 1440:^ 1422:. 1416:. 1397:^ 1383:. 1373:. 1365:. 1353:. 1349:. 1326:. 1318:. 1308:36 1306:. 1302:. 1279:. 1266:^ 1234:^ 1216:. 1210:. 1195:^ 1177:. 1173:. 1090:. 1074:. 840:. 711:. 667:, 496:. 455:. 434:BC 325:. 242:, 238:, 234:, 226:, 76:: 3799:) 3795:( 3695:) 3691:( 3685:) 3681:( 3675:) 3671:( 3665:) 3661:( 3642:) 3638:( 3605:e 3598:t 3591:v 3539:. 3494:. 3463:. 3433:. 3397:. 3372:. 3342:. 3311:. 3281:. 3255:. 3222:. 3182:. 3154:: 3110:. 3071:: 3031:. 2983:. 2957:: 2949:: 2919:. 2886:: 2853:. 2825:: 2817:: 2784:. 2717:: 2694:. 2665:. 2661:: 2655:3 2600:. 2555:. 2505:. 2490:: 2469:. 2454:: 2433:. 2411:: 2405:3 2384:. 2357:. 2316:. 2270:. 2266:: 2258:: 2213:. 2142:. 2122:: 2096:. 2076:: 2042:. 2038:: 2011:. 1961:. 1935:: 1908:. 1904:: 1872:. 1850:/ 1831:. 1794:. 1761:. 1730:. 1699:. 1679:: 1649:. 1617:: 1611:7 1581:. 1551:: 1543:: 1506:. 1484:: 1434:. 1391:. 1361:: 1334:. 1314:: 1260:. 1228:. 1189:. 1171:" 273:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index