527:
40:
93:
54:
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188:
204:
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theoretical best protection would be for the occupant to slow down from the initial vehicle speed to zero speed at a constant deceleration using the entire distance between the occupant's body and the vehicle's point of impact. In the previous example of an initial speed of 50 km/h, and assuming the driver is seated 2.5 m behind the front bumper, the resulting average deceleration would be 4 G, uncomfortable but unlikely to produce even a minor injury.
3483:
595:
76:, to absorb impact in a minor collision, ideally minimizing repair costs. Stiff metal bumpers appeared on automobiles as early as 1904 that had a mainly ornamental function. Numerous developments, improvements in materials and technologies, as well as greater focus on functionality for protecting vehicle components and improving safety have changed bumpers over the years. Bumpers ideally minimize height mismatches between vehicles and
719:
3473:
665:
additional overall vehicle length, as well as new front and rear designs to incorporate the stronger energy-absorbing bumpers, adding weight to the extremities of the vehicle. Passenger cars featured gap-concealing flexible filler panels between the bumpers and the car's bodywork causing them to have a "massive, blockish look". However, other bumper designs also met the requirements. The 1973
506:, have now been adopted by most countries outside North America. These specify that a car's safety systems must still function normally after a straight-on pendulum or moving-barrier impact of 4 km/h (2.5 mph) to the front and the rear, and to the front and rear corners of 2.5 km/h (1.6 mph) at 45.5 cm (18 in) above the ground with the vehicle loaded or unloaded.
712:
2379:
542:" or "roo bars", protect vehicles in rural environments from collisions with large animals. However, studies have shown that such bars increase the threat of death and serious injury to pedestrians in urban environments, because the bull bar is rigid and transmits all force of a collision to the pedestrian, unlike a bumper, which absorbs some force and crumples. In the
109:
became heavy, elaborative, and increasingly decorative until the late 1950s when U.S. automakers began establishing new bumper trends and brand-specific designs. The 1960s saw the use of lighter chrome-plated blade-like bumpers with a painted metal valance filling the space below it. Multi-piece construction became the norm as automakers incorporated
2387:
89:
only a cosmetic function. Early car owners had the front spring hanger bolt replaced with ones long enough to attach a metal bar. G.D. Fisher patented a bumper bracket to simplify the attachment of the accessory. The first bumper designed to absorb impacts appeared in 1901. It was made of rubber, and
Frederick Simms gained a patent in 1905.
1842:
108:
Automakers added bumpers in the mid-1910s, but consisted of a strip of steel across the front and back. Often treated as an optional accessory, bumpers became more and more common in the 1920s as automobile designers made them more complex and substantial. Over the next decades, chrome-plated bumpers
554:
Off-road vehicles often utilize aftermarket off-road bumpers made of heavy gauge metal to improve clearance (height above terrain), maximize departure angles, clear larger tires, and ensure additional protection. Similar or identical to bull bars, off-road bumpers feature a rigid construction and do
449:
sets forth requirements for rear underrun protective devices (RUPDs) and their installation, among which is that trucks and trailers of various types must have such devices with height above the ground not more than 45 cm (17.7 in), 50 cm (19.7 in), or 55 cm (21.7 in).
433:
bar", or a "DOT (Department of
Transportation) bumper". These may not be more than 22 in (56 cm) from the road. The U.S. trucking industry has been slow to upgrade this safety feature, and there are no requirements to repair ICC bars damaged in service. However, in 1996 NHTSA upgraded the
1428:
The reduction in speed divided by the time over which it takes place defines deceleration. Injury-producing forces are proportional to the deceleration experienced by the occupant. Occupant protection aims at reducing these forces by spreading the occupant's changes in speed over longer times. The
883:
amended the bumper standard in May 1982, halving the front and rear crash test speeds for 1983 and newer car bumpers from 5 miles per hour (8 km/h) to 2.5 miles per hour (4 km/h), and the corner crash test speeds from 3 miles per hour (5 km/h) to 1.5 miles per hour (2 km/h). In
1688:"AgreementConcerning the Adoption of Harmonized Technical United Nations Regulations for Wheeled Vehicles, Equipment and Parts which can be Fitted and/or be Used on Wheeled Vehicles and the Conditions for Reciprocal Recognition of Approvals Granted on the Basis of these United Nations Regulations"
647:
enacted the Motor
Vehicle Information and Cost Saving Act (MVICS), which required NHTSA to issue a bumper standard that yields the "maximum feasible reduction of cost to the public and to the consumer". Factors considered included the costs and benefits of implementation, the standard's effect on
88:
Bumpers were, at first, just rigid metal bars. George Albert Lyon invented the earliest car bumper. The first bumper appeared on a vehicle in 1897, and
Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau-Fabriksgesellschaft, an Austrian carmaker, installed it. The construction of these bumpers was unreliable as they featured
2362:
But in 1974, everything changed: new
American regulations imposed new bumpers, and made it almost impossible to market a car with variable suspension height without heavy and very expensive technical modifications. Citroën had to throw in the towel in the United States after hoping in vain for a
808:
passenger cars, were called the "Phase I" standard. At the same time, a zero-damage requirement, "Phase II", was enacted for bumper systems on 1980 and newer cars. The most rigorous requirements applied to 1980 through 1982 model vehicles; 5-mile-per-hour (8 km/h) front and rear barrier and
317:
A bumper that protects vehicle components from damage at 5 miles per hour must be four times as tough as a bumper that protects at 2.5 miles per hour, with the collision energy dissipation concentrated at the extreme front and rear of the vehicle. Small increases in bumper protection can lead to
486:
for automobile bumpers have been implemented for two reasons – to allow the car to sustain a low-speed impact without damage to the vehicle's safety systems, and to protect pedestrians from injury. These requirements conflict: bumpers that withstand impact well and minimize repair costs tend to
442:
Many
European nations have also required side underride guards to mitigate lethal collisions where the car impacts the truck from the side. A variety of different types of side underride guards of this nature are in use in Japan, the US, and Canada. However, they are not required in the United
664:
The regulations specified bumper performance; they did not prescribe any particular bumper design. Nevertheless, many cars for the U.S. market were equipped with bulky, massive, protruding bumpers to comply with the 5-mile-per-hour bumper standard in effect from 1973 to 1982. This often meant
655:
The standards were further tightened for the 1974 model year passenger cars, with standardized height front and rear bumpers that could take angle impacts at 5 miles per hour (8 km/h) with no damage to the car's lights, safety equipment, and engine. There was no provision in the law for
398:
are completely ineffective if they are physically bypassed; an extreme example of this occurs when the elevated platform of a tractor-trailer completely misses the front bumper of a passenger car, and the first contact is with the glass windshield of the passenger compartment.
635:
and fuel system components when the vehicle is subjected to barrier crash tests at 5 miles per hour (8 km/h) for front and 2.5 mph (4 km/h) for rear bumper systems. The requirements effectively eliminated automobile bumper designs that featured integral
776:, European and Asian automakers tended to put compliant bumpers only on cars destined for the U.S. and Canadian markets where the regulations applied. This meant their North American-spec cars tended to look different than versions of the same model sold elsewhere.
390:
deployment sensors typically do not trigger until contact with an obstruction, and it is crucial that front bumpers be the first parts of a vehicle to make contact in the event of a frontal collision, to leave sufficient time to inflate the protective cushions.
961:
were first enacted simultaneously as those in the United States. These were closely similar to the 8 km/h (5 mph) U.S. regulation, and the
Canadian requirements were not lowered to 4 km/h (2.5 mph) in 1982 as was done in the United States.
155:
Current design practice is for the bumper structure on modern automobiles to consist of a plastic cover over a reinforcement bar made of steel, aluminum, fiberglass composite, or plastic. Bumpers of most modern automobiles have been made of a combination of
799:
The requirements promulgated under MVICS were consolidated with the requirements of
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard Number 215 (FMVSS 215, "Exterior Protection of Vehicles") and promulgated in March 1976. This new bumper standard was placed in the
627:(NHTSA) issued the country's first regulation applicable to passenger car bumpers. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 215 (FMVSS 215), "Exterior Protection," took effect on 1 September 1972—when most automakers would begin producing their
2409:
473:
Beyond lethal interactions, repair costs of passenger car/SUV collisions can also be significant due to the height mismatch. This mismatch can result in vehicles being so severely damaged that they are inoperable after low-speed collisions.
490:
Although a vehicle's bumper systems are designed to absorb the energy of low-speed collisions and help protect the car's safety and other expensive nearby components, most bumpers are designed to meet only the minimum regulatory standards.
357:
struck by cars, such as through the use of bumper covers made of flexible materials. Front bumpers, especially, have been lowered and made of softer materials, such as foams and crushable plastics, to reduce the severity of impact on legs.
1703:
UN Regulation No. 58: Uniform provisions concerning the approval of Rear underrun protective devices (RUPDs) Vehicles with regard to the installation of an RUPD of an approved type
Vehicles with regard to their rear underrun protection
884:
addition, the zero-damage Phase II requirement was rolled back to the damage allowances of Phase I. At the same time, a passenger car bumper height requirement of 16 to 20 inches (41–51 cm) was established for passenger cars.
2061:
The intention of the current U.S. bumper standard is to reduce damage to the bumper system and thus provide
American consumers with a lower bumper damage replacement and repair cost, while also maintaining the integrity of the safety
651:
The 1973 model year passenger cars sold in the U.S. used a variety of designs. They ranged from non-dynamic versions with solid rubber guards, to "recoverable" designs with oil and nitrogen filled telescoping shock-absorbers.
890:
Despite these findings, consumer and insurance groups decried the weakened bumper standard. They argued that the 1982 standard increased overall consumer costs without any attendant benefits except for automakers. In 1986,
565:
Bumper regulations in the United States focus on preventing low-speed accidents from impairing safe vehicle operation, limiting damage to safety-related vehicle components, and containing the costs of repair after a crash.
1054:
555:
not absorb (by plastic deformation) any energy in a collision, which is more dangerous for pedestrians than factory plastic bumpers. The legality of the aftermarket off-road bumpers varies by jurisdiction.
374:
For passenger cars, the height and placement of bumpers are legally specified under both U.S. and EU regulations. Bumpers do not protect against moderate-speed collisions, because during emergency braking,
907:(IIHS) subjects vehicles to low-speed barrier tests (6 mph or 9.7 km/h) and publishes the results, including repair costs. Car makers that do well in these tests tend to publicize the results.
438:
went further with an even more stringent requirement for energy-absorbing rear underride guards. In July 2015, NHTSA issued a proposal to upgrade the U.S. performance requirements for underride guards.
1999:"Directive 2005/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 October 2005 relating to the use of frontal protection systems on motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/156/EEC"
312:
128:, General Motors incorporated an "Endura" body-colored plastic front bumper designed to absorb low-speed impact without permanent deformation. It was featured in a TV advertisement with
414:
often result in severe injuries or fatalities. The platform bed of a typical tractor-trailer is at the head height of seated adults in a typical passenger car and thus can cause severe
379:
changes the pitch of each vehicle, so bumpers can bypass each other when the vehicles collide. Preventing override and underride can be accomplished by extremely tall bumper surfaces.
1998:
613:
cars before (left, 1971) and after (right, 1974) the U.S. 5-mph bumper standard took effect. The 1974 bumpers protrude farther from the body and the rear one no longer contains the
673:
alone to conceal the retractable shock absorbers. "Endura" bumpers, compliant with the regulations yet tightly integrated into the front bodywork, were used on models such as the
1092:
2586:
1960:
Desapriya, Ediriweera; Kerr, John M.; Hewapathirane, D. Sesath; Peiris, Dinithi; Mann, Bikaramjit; Gomes, Nayomi; Peiris, Kavindya; Scime, Giulia; Jones, Jennifer (2012).
965:
Some automakers provided stronger Canadian-specification bumpers throughout the North American market, while others chose weaker bumpers in the U.S. market. This limited
2434:
980:
groups opposed the change, while Canadian regulators maintained that the 4 km/h (2.5 mph) test speed is used worldwide and is more compatible with improved
2820:
2616:
1876:"United Nations ECE Regulation No. 42: Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Vehicles With Regard to Their Front and Rear Protective Devices (Bumpers, etc.)"
1467:
2558:
937:
Today's bumpers are designed to mitigate injuries to pedestrians and minimize weight at the ends of the vehicle, thereby increasing occupant protection from
973:
784:
499:
877:, rather than rigid construction that proved deadly to passengers because the force from impact went straight inside the vehicle and onto the passenger.
1181:
2345:
895:
petitioned NHTSA to return to the Phase II standard and disclose bumper strength information to consumers. In 1990, NHTSA rejected that petition.
873:, before 1959, people believed the stronger the structure, including the bumpers, the safer the car. A later analysis led to the understanding of
624:
426:
887:
NHTSA evaluated the results of its change in 1987, noting it resulted in lower weight and manufacturing costs, offset by higher repair costs.
2110:
2703:
2725:
1733:
1662:
2222:
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1900:
2500:
1363:
981:
761:
515:
350:
77:
1445:
2869:
2594:
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546:, the sale of rigid metal bull bars that do not comply with the relevant pedestrian-protection safety standards has been banned.
904:
804:
at 49 CFR 581, separate from the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards at 49CFR571. The new requirements, applicable to 1979-
1636:
1264:
370:
Damage from a low-speed but high-level impact; the energy-absorbing front bumper system is completely bypassed and untouched.
3507:
2166:
1930:
Anderson, Robert William Gerard; van den Berg, Andrew Leo; Ponte, Giulio; Streeter, Luke Daniel; McLean, Jack (July 2006).
2624:
1785:
3341:
648:
insurance costs and legal fees, savings in consumer time and inconvenience, as well as health and safety considerations.
1364:"Physics in the Crumple Zone Demonstrate How Less Stiff Materials, Like Plastic, Can Help Prevent Injury and Save Lives"
681:
starting in 1978, with significantly lower mass than heavy chromed-steel bumpers with separate impact energy absorbers.
262:
2747:
1763:
2266:
2205:
1852:
1274:
1240:
1064:
914:. The results illustrate the effect of the changes to the U.S. bumper regulations (repair costs are quoted in 1990
2797:
80:. Regulatory measures have been enacted to reduce vehicle repair costs and, more recently, impact on pedestrians.
2830:
2024:
Abramson, Paul; Stein, Howard; et al. (1982). "Analysis of the Effectiveness of Bumper Standard FMVSS 215".
337:. A completely rigid vehicle might have excellent bumper protection for vehicle components, but would offer poor
161:
2256:
1687:
3512:
3366:
1157:
430:
848:
were classified as multi-purpose vehicles or trucks, and thus exempt from the passenger car bumper standards.
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in even a moderate-speed collision. Around 500 people are killed this way in the United States annually.
2349:
2290:
1875:
1809:"Bumper Systems Designed for Both Pedestrian Protection and FMVSS Requirements: Part Design and Testing"
631:
1973 vehicles. The standard prohibited functional damage to specified safety-related components such as
136:
and no damage resulted. Similar elastomeric bumpers were available on the front and rear of the 1970-71
3427:
2043:
1610:
178:
17:
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1386:
972:
In early 2009, Canada's regulation shifted to harmonize with U.S. Federal standards and international
526:
1028:
1013:
861:
788:
773:
39:
1207:
946:
118:
1961:
514:
European countries have implemented regulations to address the issue of 270,000 deaths annually in
92:
53:
2118:
1844:
Advanced composite materials for automotive applications: structural integrity and crashworthiness
366:
3182:
2380:"An Evaluation of the Bumper Standard - As Modified in 1982 - NHTSA Report Number DOT HS 807 072"
2143:
2111:"An Evaluation of the Bumper Standard - As Modified in 1982 - NHTSA Report Number DOT HS 807 072"
1320:
1003:
145:
1741:
3399:
3045:
2855:
2825:'s defense of her tenure at NHTSA against government failure comments by Supreme Court Justice
2478:
2459:
644:
410:, in which a smaller vehicle such as a passenger sedan slides under a larger vehicle such as a
326:
2920:
1230:
678:
487:
injure pedestrians more, while pedestrian-friendly bumpers tend to have higher repair costs.
1716:
1526:
3346:
1908:
941:
in a serious accident. They are no longer made of steel and rubber, but of a plastic outer
915:
751:
376:
187:
2536:
2511:
702:
386:
Bumper height from the roadway surface is essential in engaging other protective systems.
8:
3439:
3333:
3308:
3288:
3240:
3008:
2798:"Regulatory Economics in the Courts: an Analysis of Judge Scalia's NHTSA Bumper Decision"
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966:
637:
614:
610:
407:
203:
114:
58:
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1412:
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1033:
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780:
743:
411:
238:
137:
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3147:
2878:
2348:[Citroën SM: "Her Majesty's" fall] (in French). Boitier Rouge. Archived from
2262:
2201:
1848:
1468:"Bumpers on 4 of 6 midsize sedans improve; none earns good rating in low-speed tests"
1335:
1270:
1236:
1153:
1060:
998:
985:
910:
In 1990, the IIHS conducted four crash tests on three different-year examples of the
832:
809:
pendulum crash tests were required, and no damage was allowed to the bumper beyond a
380:
338:
97:
734:
3411:
3394:
3187:
3152:
2962:
2952:
2915:
1973:
1816:
674:
670:
531:
463:
435:
429:
recommended requiring a rear underride guard, also known as a "Mansfield bar", an "
249:
194:
1297:
3356:
3283:
3099:
3028:
1977:
1575:
1018:
892:
446:
422:
330:
319:
434:
requirements for the rear underride prevention structure on truck trailers, and
3303:
3205:
3109:
3104:
2826:
2822:
1931:
1008:
543:
503:
253:
234:
62:
43:
754:(bottom). The U.S. bumpers are larger and protrude farther from the bodywork.
695:
466:
have allowed serious injuries at relatively low speeds. In the United States,
3501:
3466:
3255:
3220:
3215:
3167:
3139:
3114:
3040:
3023:
2972:
2935:
2925:
2907:
2678:
1339:
1321:"Review of Design & Analysis of Bumper Beam In Low Speed Frontal Crashes"
874:
857:
157:
129:
101:
73:
2198:
Cars of the Sensational '70s: A Decade of Changing Tastes and New Directions
3432:
3389:
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3162:
3157:
3124:
3018:
3013:
2994:
2979:
2967:
2957:
2942:
2898:
2435:"Reagan Order on Cost-benefit Analysis Stirs Economic and Political Debate"
2144:"An Evaluation of the Bumper Standard-As Modified in 1982 - DOT HS 807 072"
942:
938:
334:
133:
110:
72:
is a structure attached to or integrated with the front and rear ends of a
2770:"Canada Safety Council: Canada Loosens Bumper Standard To Align With U.S."
1328:
International Journal of Industrial Electronics and Electrical Engineering
1208:"Endura Front Bumper The bounce-back bumper that freed automotive styling"
779:
U.S. bumper-height requirements effectively made some models, such as the
585:
3486:
3298:
3293:
3230:
3210:
3081:
1901:"DfT Research: A Study of Accidents Involving Bull Bar Equipped Vehicles"
1820:
837:
769:
666:
601:
578:
415:
230:
210:
125:
47:
31:
30:
This article is about the structure on motor vehicles. For the ride, see
1319:
Kashinath, Kusekar Sambhaji; Balasaheb, Chunge Abhijit (February 2014).
864:
to reduce regulatory burdens on industry, which impacted this standard.
829: in (19 mm) displacement from the bumper's original position.
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3129:
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2315:
911:
805:
628:
483:
395:
354:
172:
1808:
594:
3406:
3060:
3033:
3003:
1663:"Underride guards in Japan look weaker but cover more area than here"
1578:
Reauthorization of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
1300:. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Highway Loss Data Institute
845:
765:
539:
482:
In most jurisdictions, bumpers are legally required on all vehicles.
325:
Until 1959, rigidity was seen as beneficial to occupant safety among
214:
149:
2847:
502:, devised initially as European standards under the auspices of the
3351:
3235:
3091:
3050:
632:
246:
1498:
1129:. Cycle and Automobile Trade Journal, Volume 14. 1909. p. 142
718:
3172:
3055:
2947:
1939:
Centre for Automotive Safety Research, The University of Adelaide
1929:
747:
141:
1959:
2146:. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. February 1987
958:
387:
836:
Freestanding 5-mph shock-absorbing zero-damage bumper on 1976
880:
467:
2479:"An Evaluation of the Bumper Standard - As Modified in 1982"
1592:"Failure Analysis of an ICC Underride Bar - Mobile, Alabama"
711:
3250:
2510:. Vol. 16, no. 15. 6 October 1981. Archived from
760:
The bumper regulations applied to all passenger cars, both
242:
1576:
United States Congressional Committee on Commerce (1997).
783:, ineligible for importation to the United States. Unlike
256:
of the mass and the square of the speed. In formula form:
2889:
2679:"Bumper Repair Cost – types of damage and cost estimates"
2537:"IIHS Highway Loss Reduction Status Report - 24 May 1982"
459:
2477:
La Heist, Warren G.; Ephraim, Frank G. (February 1987).
2378:
La Heist, Warren G.; Ephraim, Frank G. (February 1987).
2023:
1637:"NHTSA to Upgrade Truck Underride and Conspicuity Rules"
229:
Bumpers offer protection to other vehicle components by
2748:"Canada to harmonize bumper standard with U.S., Europe"
1470:. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. 6 August 2009
333:
point in the opposite direction, towards vehicles that
1358:
1356:
787:, U.S. regulations were written without provision for
280:
2648:"3 of 4 Small SUVs Are Rated 'Poor' for Crash Repair"
2223:"New bumpers have uniform height, take angle impacts"
265:
2726:"Motor Vehicle Safety Regulations (C.R.C., c. 1038)"
1807:
Shuler, S.; Mooijman, F.; Nanda, A. (8 March 2004).
1520:
1518:
1516:
2414:. Insurance Information Institute. 1980. p. 61
2258:
The Cars of American Motors: An Illustrated History
1932:
Performance of bull bars in pedestrian impact tests
1806:
1353:
1318:
470:is studying how to address this issue as of 2014.
383:is another solution to keeping the vehicle level.
307:{\displaystyle E_{\text{k}}={\tfrac {1}{2}}mv^{2}}
306:
1513:
3499:
2581:
2579:
2138:
2136:
1232:Challenger And 'Cuda: Mopar's E-Body Muscle Cars
925:1983 Horizon with Phase-I 2.5-mph bumpers: $ 918
2706:. Popular Mechanics. September 1984. p. 61
2476:
2377:
1764:"SUV fender-benders can lead to costly repairs"
1269:. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. p. 107.
922:1983 Horizon with Phase-II 5-mph bumpers: $ 287
2343:
844:All-wheel-drive "cross-over" cars such as the
688:United States (left) and rest-of-world (right)
659:
625:National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
427:National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
2863:
2576:
2133:
1152:. England: Guinness Publishing. p. 256.
851:
794:
2316:"Inside Guide: Building that Plastic Bumper"
2250:
2248:
1766:. News OK. Associated Press. 2 December 2010
1489:
1487:
1485:
1439:
1437:
764:and imported. With exceptions including the
669:coupe had free-standing bumpers with rubber
2373:
2371:
2108:
2051:, vol. 142, 22 March 2008, p. 823
656:consumers to 'opt out' of this protection.
349:Bumpers are increasingly being designed to
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2856:
2645:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
1087:
1085:
1083:
494:
2587:"Consumer Bumper Quality Disclosure Bill"
2508:IIHS Highway Loss Reduction Status Report
2493:
2432:
2254:
2245:
1840:
1786:"Incompatible Bumpers Raise Repair Costs"
1728:
1726:
1482:
1434:
1059:. Shawbury RAPRA Technology. p. 99.
802:United States Code of Federal Regulations
421:Following the June 1967 death of actress
252:. The kinetic energy is equal to 1/2 the
27:Structure at front and rear ends of a car
2529:
2368:
2195:
2167:"AMC: Hornet hatchback leads the lineup"
1446:"European safety-styled cars due in U.S"
1150:The Guinness Book of Car Facts and Feats
831:
525:
365:
91:
52:
38:
2795:
2559:"Bumpers Cave In to the Bump and Grind"
2501:"NHTSA Offers Nine Weaker Bumper Rules"
2109:La Heist, Warren G.; Ephraim, Frank G.
2082:
2067:
1262:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1080:
898:
569:
241:. This energy is a function of vehicle
14:
3500:
2556:
2460:"An Evaluation of the Bumper Standard"
2346:"Citroën SM: la chute de "Sa Majesté""
2220:
1723:
1634:
1443:
1384:
1205:
1147:
1056:Plastics in European cars, 2000 - 2008
905:Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
509:
2877:
2851:
2676:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2433:Shabekoff, Philip (7 November 1981).
1962:"Bull bars and vulnerable road users"
1410:
1228:
1179:
1141:
1052:
945:over a lightweight, impact-absorbing
3472:
2481:. NHTSA Report Number DOT HS 807 072
2344:Clément-Collin, Paul (16 May 2015).
2164:
1717:"Light trucks need bumper rules too"
1660:
1608:
1166:
425:in an auto/truck accident, the U.S.
361:
344:
3445:Vehicle identification number (VIN)
2728:. Transport Canada. 6 November 2019
2557:Jensen, Cheryl (21 November 1999).
2288:
1611:"Are Underride Guards Good Enough?"
1544:
1497:. Underride Network. Archived from
1444:Rogers, Christina (23 April 2012).
1266:Plastics in the Automotive Industry
549:
516:worldwide pedestrian/auto accidents
61:and a rubber-faced guard on a 1970
24:
2789:
2665:
1815:. Vol. 1. SAE International.
1693:. United Nations. 30 November 2017
25:
3529:
1907:. 3 December 2003. Archived from
1788:. Road and Track. 6 November 2012
1524:
1385:Raiciu, Tudor (18 October 2017).
462:bumper heights and passenger car
3481:
3471:
3462:
3461:
2888:Part of a series of articles on
1263:Maxwell, James (31 March 1994).
932:
785:international safety regulations
733:
726:
717:
710:
701:
694:
600:
593:
584:
577:
558:
500:International safety regulations
402:
202:
186:
171:
2762:
2740:
2718:
2696:
2639:
2609:
2550:
2470:
2452:
2426:
2402:
2337:
2308:
2282:
2221:Norbye, Jan P. (October 1973).
2214:
2189:
2158:
2102:
2036:
2017:
1991:
1953:
1923:
1893:
1868:
1834:
1800:
1778:
1756:
1709:
1680:
1654:
1628:
1602:
1584:
1569:
1460:
1404:
1378:
1312:
1180:Davis, Dar (21 November 2010).
957:Automobile bumper standards in
819: in (10 mm) dent and
640:components such as tail lamps.
538:Specialized bumpers, known as "
162:acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
78:protect pedestrians from injury
2289:Jim, Koscs (8 February 2018).
2200:. Publications International.
2165:Lamm, Michael (October 1972).
2026:Transportation Research Record
1635:Cullen, David (20 July 2015).
1290:
1256:
1235:. MBI Publishing. p. 58.
1222:
1199:
1115:
1046:
453:
13:
1:
3279:Approach and departure angles
2802:Law and Contemporary Problems
2677:Rizqi, Hafizh (27 May 2021).
2646:O'dell, John (10 July 2010).
1661:Berg, Tom (20 January 2012).
1609:Berg, Tom (17 January 2012).
1040:
969:between the U.S. and Canada.
867:As discussed in detail under
477:
329:. Modern theories of vehicle
144:introduced a plastic bumper (
2750:. Autos Canada. 2 April 2008
2291:"Pontiac's Grand experiment"
2083:Solomon, Jack (March 1978).
1978:10.1080/15389588.2011.624143
1206:Strohl, Daniel (July 2006).
869:
521:
57:Rear bumper with integrated
7:
3508:Vehicle safety technologies
3342:Automotive light bulb types
2617:"Bumper evaluation program"
2196:Flammang, James M. (2000).
991:
660:Regulatory effect on design
10:
3534:
2261:. McFarland. p. 209.
2185:– via Google Bookes.
1813:SAE Technical Paper Series
1182:"The evolution of bumpers"
903:In the United States, the
852:Stringency reduced in 1982
795:Zero-damage standards 1976
609:Front and rear bumpers on
224:
132:hitting the bumper with a
83:
29:
3457:
3420:
3382:
3332:
3321:
3271:
3198:
3138:
3090:
3069:
2906:
2897:
2885:
2704:"Cars you can't buy here"
2278:– via Google Books.
2241:– via Google Books.
1966:Traffic Injury Prevention
1841:Elmarakbi, Ahmed (2014).
1527:"Truck Underride Hazards"
1417:scienceservingsociety.com
1103:(6): 301. 1 December 1924
952:
789:hydropneumatic suspension
774:Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow
741:
686:
677:starting in 1973 and the
608:
197:with large chromed bumper
3362:high-intensity discharge
2255:Cranswick, Marc (2011).
2085:"Billion Dollar Bumpers"
1413:"11 Occupant protection"
1387:"How Crumple Zones Work"
1097:Automobile Trade Journal
318:weight gain and loss of
1411:Evans, Leonard (2004).
1004:Buffer (rail transport)
495:International standards
146:sheet moulding compound
46:front bumper on a 1958
3046:Stressed member engine
1847:. Wiley. p. 130.
1734:"NHTSA bumper Q&A"
1229:Genat, Robert (2005).
1148:Hodges, David (1994).
1053:Helps, Ian G. (2001).
984:in vehicle-pedestrian
841:
535:
534:Utility with "roo bar"
371:
308:
179:Ford Model A (1927–31)
105:
100:with heavily chromed "
65:
50:
3513:Automotive body parts
3178:Windshield/windscreen
2796:Viscusi, Kip (1988).
2045:Canada Gazette Part I
1366:. Automotive Plastics
1210:. Hemmings Motor News
1014:Cost–benefit analysis
982:pedestrian protection
939:progressive crumpling
928:1990 Horizon: $ 1,476
916:United States dollars
862:cost–benefit analysis
858:Reagan administration
856:The recently elected
835:
679:Chevrolet Monte Carlo
643:In October 1972, the
529:
369:
335:crumple progressively
309:
164:(ABS) called PC/ABS.
95:
56:
42:
3347:Daytime running lamp
2831:"Criticism Run Amok"
1821:10.4271/2004-01-1610
1531:autosafetyexpert.com
1186:The Herald Palladium
1093:"Bumper Development"
967:grey import vehicles
899:Consumer information
752:Lamborghini Countach
570:First standards 1971
408:Underride collisions
327:automotive engineers
263:
104:" or "bullet" bumper
3309:Weight distribution
3241:Omniview technology
1941:(Report). Australia
978:consumer protection
860:had pledged to use
750:5 Series (middle),
638:automotive lighting
611:Chrysler A platform
458:Mismatches between
3518:English inventions
3428:Registration plate
2773:Safety-council.org
2563:The New York Times
2439:The New York Times
1034:List of auto parts
1024:Government failure
976:. As in the U.S.,
842:
744:Mercedes-Benz W116
623:In 1971, the U.S.
536:
372:
304:
289:
181:with metal bumpers
138:Plymouth Barracuda
121:into the bumpers.
106:
66:
51:
3495:
3494:
3453:
3452:
3317:
3316:
3148:Glass run channel
3082:Trunk/boot/dickie
2879:Automotive design
2652:Los Angeles Times
2597:on 7 January 2014
2591:SmartMotorist.com
2352:on 19 August 2015
2171:Popular Mechanics
2005:. 26 October 2005
2003:eur-lex.europa.eu
1744:on 3 October 2011
1552:"Underride Guard"
1501:on 6 January 2014
1495:"Getting Started"
1448:. Automotive News
1391:autoevolution.com
999:Automobile safety
758:
757:
742:Front bumpers on
621:
620:
510:Pedestrian safety
464:side impact beams
394:Energy-absorbing
381:Active suspension
362:Height mismatches
345:Pedestrian safety
288:
273:
98:Cadillac Eldorado
16:(Redirected from
3525:
3485:
3475:
3474:
3465:
3464:
3412:Window deflector
3395:Side-view mirror
3330:
3329:
2953:Continental tire
2916:Backbone chassis
2904:
2903:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2835:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2674:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2623:. Archived from
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2593:. Archived from
2583:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2541:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2516:
2505:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2419:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2390:on 13 April 2009
2386:. Archived from
2375:
2366:
2365:
2359:
2357:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2320:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2252:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2140:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2117:. Archived from
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2080:
2065:
2064:
2058:
2056:
2050:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2010:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1936:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1880:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1740:. Archived from
1730:
1721:
1720:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1700:
1698:
1692:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1667:truckinginfo.com
1658:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1641:truckinginfo.com
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1615:truckinginfo.com
1606:
1600:
1599:
1596:metalconsult.com
1588:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1522:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1441:
1432:
1431:
1425:
1423:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1360:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1325:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1177:
1164:
1163:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1089:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1050:
947:polystyrene foam
912:Plymouth Horizon
828:
827:
823:
818:
817:
813:
737:
730:
721:
714:
705:
698:
684:
683:
675:Pontiac Grand Am
604:
597:
588:
581:
574:
573:
550:Off-road bumpers
532:Holden Kingswood
447:UN Regulation 58
436:Transport Canada
313:
311:
310:
305:
303:
302:
290:
281:
275:
274:
271:
237:generated by an
206:
195:Mercury Monterey
190:
175:
117:, and even rear
21:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3523:
3522:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3491:
3449:
3416:
3378:
3326:
3324:
3313:
3284:Breakover angle
3267:
3194:
3134:
3086:
3065:
2893:
2881:
2876:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2811:
2809:
2792:
2790:Further reading
2787:
2777:
2775:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2753:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2731:
2729:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2709:
2707:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2687:
2685:
2675:
2666:
2656:
2654:
2644:
2640:
2630:
2628:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2585:
2584:
2577:
2567:
2565:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2539:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2518:
2517:on 3 March 2016
2514:
2503:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2482:
2475:
2471:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2441:
2431:
2427:
2417:
2415:
2411:Insurance Facts
2408:
2407:
2403:
2393:
2391:
2376:
2369:
2355:
2353:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2325:. February 1979
2318:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2297:
2287:
2283:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2253:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2227:Popular Science
2219:
2215:
2208:
2194:
2190:
2180:
2178:
2163:
2159:
2149:
2147:
2142:
2141:
2134:
2124:
2122:
2121:on 4 March 2009
2115:webcitation.org
2107:
2103:
2093:
2091:
2081:
2068:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2022:
2018:
2008:
2006:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1980:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1942:
1934:
1928:
1924:
1914:
1912:
1911:on 12 June 2007
1899:
1898:
1894:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1839:
1835:
1825:
1823:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1789:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1745:
1732:
1731:
1724:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1671:
1669:
1659:
1655:
1645:
1643:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1607:
1603:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1558:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1533:
1523:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1493:
1492:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1451:
1449:
1442:
1435:
1421:
1419:
1409:
1405:
1395:
1393:
1383:
1379:
1369:
1367:
1362:
1361:
1354:
1344:
1342:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1303:
1301:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1261:
1257:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1227:
1223:
1213:
1211:
1204:
1200:
1190:
1188:
1178:
1167:
1160:
1146:
1142:
1132:
1130:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1106:
1104:
1091:
1090:
1081:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1019:Crashworthiness
994:
955:
935:
901:
893:Consumers Union
854:
825:
821:
820:
815:
811:
810:
797:
662:
572:
561:
552:
524:
512:
497:
480:
456:
423:Jayne Mansfield
412:tractor-trailer
405:
364:
351:mitigate injury
347:
339:occupant safety
331:crashworthiness
320:fuel efficiency
298:
294:
279:
270:
266:
264:
261:
260:
227:
222:
221:
220:
219:
218:
207:
199:
198:
191:
183:
182:
176:
86:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3531:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3479:
3469:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3392:
3386:
3384:
3383:Other elements
3380:
3379:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3349:
3344:
3338:
3336:
3327:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3304:Turning radius
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3206:Bumper sticker
3202:
3200:
3199:Other elements
3196:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3185:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3144:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3096:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2982:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2875:
2874:
2867:
2860:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2827:Stephen Breyer
2823:Joan Claybrook
2818:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2761:
2739:
2717:
2695:
2664:
2638:
2627:on 2 July 2015
2608:
2575:
2549:
2528:
2492:
2469:
2451:
2425:
2401:
2367:
2336:
2323:Plastics World
2307:
2281:
2267:
2244:
2213:
2206:
2188:
2157:
2132:
2101:
2066:
2035:
2016:
1990:
1952:
1922:
1905:Rmd.dft.gov.uk
1892:
1867:
1853:
1833:
1799:
1777:
1755:
1722:
1708:
1679:
1653:
1627:
1601:
1583:
1568:
1543:
1525:Bloch, Byron.
1512:
1481:
1459:
1433:
1403:
1377:
1352:
1311:
1289:
1275:
1255:
1241:
1221:
1198:
1165:
1158:
1140:
1114:
1079:
1065:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1009:Bumper sticker
1006:
1001:
995:
993:
990:
974:UN Regulations
954:
951:
934:
931:
930:
929:
926:
923:
900:
897:
853:
850:
796:
793:
756:
755:
739:
738:
731:
723:
722:
715:
707:
706:
699:
691:
690:
661:
658:
619:
618:
606:
605:
598:
590:
589:
582:
571:
568:
560:
557:
551:
548:
544:European Union
523:
520:
511:
508:
504:United Nations
496:
493:
479:
476:
455:
452:
404:
401:
363:
360:
346:
343:
315:
314:
301:
297:
293:
287:
284:
278:
269:
235:kinetic energy
226:
223:
208:
201:
200:
192:
185:
184:
177:
170:
169:
168:
167:
166:
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3372:trafficators
3183:washer fluid
3163:Power window
3158:Opera window
3070:Compartments
2958:Crumple zone
2943:Cabrio coach
2930:
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2177:(4): 118–202
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2009:20 September
2007:. Retrieved
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1972:(1): 86–92.
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1334:(2): 27–34.
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217:front bumper
154:
134:sledgehammer
124:On the 1968
123:
107:
87:
69:
67:
36:
3367:sealed beam
3299:Roll center
3294:Ride height
3231:Japan black
3226:Instruments
3211:Curb feeler
3077:Hood/bonnet
2683:Motor Verso
1561:29 November
1556:Everything2
838:AMC Matador
770:Porsche 911
667:AMC Matador
484:Regulations
454:SUV vs. car
416:head trauma
396:crush zones
355:pedestrians
231:dissipating
215:elastomeric
211:Pontiac GTO
140:. In 1971,
126:Pontiac GTO
48:Ford Taunus
32:Bumper cars
3502:Categories
3153:Greenhouse
2821:Claybrook
2233:(4): 90–91
1159:0851127681
1123:"The 1910
1041:References
806:model year
781:Citroën SM
629:model year
478:Regulation
377:suspension
59:tail lamps
18:Car bumper
3407:Tow hitch
3325:equipment
3251:Tire/tyre
3110:Gull-wing
3100:Butterfly
3061:Trunk lid
3004:Monocoque
2908:Framework
2778:6 January
2754:6 January
2688:23 August
2601:6 January
2568:6 January
2464:nhtsa.gov
2418:6 January
2125:6 January
1885:6 January
1748:6 January
1738:nhtsa.gov
1340:2347-6982
1298:"Bumpers"
1029:Headstock
846:AMC Eagle
766:Volvo 240
633:headlamps
615:taillamps
540:bull bars
522:Bull bars
160:(PC) and
150:Renault 5
148:) on the
3467:Category
3352:Headlamp
3334:Lighting
3323:Exterior
3289:Overhang
3272:Geometry
3256:run-flat
3236:Nerf bar
3051:Subframe
3019:Platform
3009:Overhang
2921:Beltline
2829:, Joan.
2710:12 April
2621:iihs.org
2062:systems.
1860:15 March
1474:12 April
1304:15 March
1072:15 March
992:See also
443:States.
247:velocity
213:with an
115:lighting
3477:Commons
3173:Sunroof
3125:Suicide
3120:Sliding
3115:Scissor
3056:Tonneau
3041:Spoiler
2948:Chassis
2521:12 June
2485:21 June
2444:21 June
2363:waiver.
2356:12 June
2329:12 June
2300:12 June
2295:Hagerty
2274:12 June
2237:12 June
2181:12 June
2150:12 June
2094:12 June
2055:12 July
1983:5 April
1945:5 April
1915:12 June
1536:20 July
1505:12 June
1422:20 July
1396:20 July
1370:21 June
1345:20 July
1282:21 June
1248:20 July
1214:20 July
1191:20 July
1133:21 June
1127:Bumper"
1125:Harroun
1107:20 July
986:crashes
870:Physics
824:⁄
814:⁄
748:BMW E28
746:(top),
671:gaiters
254:product
250:squared
225:Physics
142:Renault
119:exhaust
111:grilles
84:History
3487:Portal
3357:hidden
3105:Canopy
3014:Pillar
2995:shaker
2980:Grille
2973:skirts
2968:ponton
2963:Fender
2936:Dagmar
2931:Bumper
2839:7 July
2812:2 July
2657:2 July
2631:2 July
2544:
2394:2 July
2265:
2204:
2089:Reason
1851:
1826:2 July
1792:2 July
1770:2 July
1704:(RUP)]
1452:2 July
1338:
1273:
1239:
1156:
1063:
959:Canada
953:Canada
949:core.
943:fascia
772:, and
388:Airbag
239:impact
102:Dagmar
70:bumper
3440:Theft
3421:Legal
3400:power
3261:spare
3246:Parts
3188:wiper
3140:Glass
3092:Doors
2990:scoop
2834:(PDF)
2540:(PDF)
2515:(PDF)
2504:(PDF)
2319:(PDF)
2049:(PDF)
2032:: 12.
1935:(PDF)
1879:(PDF)
1691:(PDF)
1324:(PDF)
881:NHTSA
840:coupe
530:1978
468:NHTSA
209:1968
193:1953
96:1955
3390:Horn
3130:Swan
3034:rack
3029:Roof
2985:Hood
2899:Body
2890:cars
2841:2015
2814:2015
2780:2014
2756:2014
2734:2020
2712:2017
2690:2021
2659:2015
2633:2015
2603:2014
2570:2014
2523:2022
2487:2016
2446:2016
2420:2014
2396:2015
2358:2022
2331:2022
2302:2022
2276:2022
2263:ISBN
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2183:2022
2152:2022
2127:2014
2096:2022
2057:2020
2011:2020
1985:2024
1947:2024
1917:2022
1887:2014
1862:2014
1849:ISBN
1828:2015
1794:2015
1772:2015
1750:2014
1699:2020
1674:2020
1648:2020
1622:2020
1563:2007
1538:2018
1507:2022
1476:2017
1454:2015
1424:2018
1398:2018
1372:2016
1347:2018
1336:ISSN
1306:2014
1284:2016
1271:ISBN
1250:2018
1237:ISBN
1216:2018
1193:2018
1154:ISBN
1135:2016
1109:2018
1074:2014
1061:ISBN
245:and
243:mass
233:the
2808:(4)
2231:203
2175:138
2030:844
1974:doi
1817:doi
918:):
460:SUV
431:ICC
353:to
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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