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1052:
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25:
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Lingual egressive initiation is performed by reversing the sequence of a lingual ingressive: the front and back of the tongue (or lips and back of the tongue) seal off the vocal cavity, and the cheeks and middle of the tongue move inward and upward to increase oral pressure. The only attested use of
952:
Nasal clicks involve a combination of lingual and pulmonic mechanisms. The velum is lowered so as to direct pulmonic airflow through the nasal cavity during the lingual initiation. This nasal airflow may itself be egressive or ingressive, independently of the lingual initiation of the click. Nasal
735:
It is usual for implosives to be voiced. Instead of keeping the glottis tightly closed, it is tensed but left slightly open to allow a thin stream of air through. Unlike pulmonic voiced sounds, in which a stream of air passes through a usually-fixed glottis, in voiced implosives a mobile glottis
890:
stop. These holds may be voiceless, voiced, or nasalized. Then lower the body of the tongue to rarefy the air above it. The closure at the front of the tongue is opened first, as the click "release"; then the closure at the back is released for the pulmonic or glottalic click "accompaniment" or
725:
For ingressive glottalic initiation, the sequence of actions performed in glottalic pressure initiation is reversed: one raises the glottis (as if to sing a high note), closes it, and then lowers it to create suction in the upper trachea and oral cavity. Glottalic ingressives are called
482:. Implosive and implosive-like consonants occur in 13% of the world's languages. Despite the name, the airstream may not actually flow inward: While the glottis moves downward, pulmonic air passes outward through it, but the reduction in pressure makes an audible difference to the sound.
740:
that are more open than modal voice, such as breathy voice, are not conducive to glottalic sounds because in these the glottis is held relatively open, allowing air to readily flow through and preventing a significant pressure difference from building up behind the articulator.
949:. This may be because the vocal cavity behind the rearmost closure, behind which the air passing through the glottis for voicing must be contained, is so small that clicks cannot be voiced for long. Allowing the airstream to pass through the nose enables a longer production.
732:, although they may involve zero airflow rather than actual inflow. Because the air column would flow forwards over the descending glottis, it is not necessary to fully close it, and implosives may be voiced; indeed, voiceless implosives are exceedingly rare.
420:
Any of the three principal initiators − diaphragm, glottis or tongue − may act by either increasing or decreasing the pressure generating the airstream. These changes in pressure often correspond to outward and inward airflow, and are therefore termed
903:. Even when not ejective, it is not uncommon for the glottis to be closed as well, for a triply articulated consonant, and this third closure is released last to produce a glottalized click. Clicks are found in very few languages, notably the
1172:
669:). In English, an audible intake of breath, , or an indrawn consonant such as or is used in a conversation to indicate that someone is about to speak or is preparing to continue speaking. In some languages, such as
582:
or to express agreement, and in France a lingual egressive (a "spurt") is used to express dismissal. The only language where such sounds are known to be contrastive in normal vocabulary is the extinct ritual language
853:
initiation, where a sound is produced by a closure at two places of articulation, and the airstream is formed by movement of the body of the tongue. Lingual stops are more commonly known as
759:
There is no clear divide between pulmonic and glottalic sounds. Some languages may have consonants which are intermediate. For example, glottalized consonants in London
English, such as the
289:, it is one of three main components of speech production. The airstream mechanism is mandatory for most sound production and constitutes the first part of this process, which is called
1418:: Robert Eklund (2008). Pulmonic ingressive phonation: Diachronic and synchronic characteristics, distribution and function in animal and human sound production and in human speech.
436:
Of these six resulting airstream mechanisms, four are found lexically around the world, alongside the percussive sounds produced without an airstream mechanism, for a total of five:
578:, the other two mechanisms may be employed. For example, in countries as diverse as Sweden, Turkey, and Togo, a pulmonic ingressive ("gasped" or "inhaled") vowel is used for
714:. The glottis must be fully closed to form glottalic egressives, or the air column would flow backwards over it; it is therefore impossible to pronounce
261:
1038:
front-closed palatal (), but velar implosive clicks are easier to produce than modally voiced clicks. However, they are not attested in any language.
1292:
Ian
Maddieson (2008) "Presence of Uncommon Consonants". In: Martin Haspelmath & Matthew S. Dryer & David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds.)
1108:
consonants, where the sound is generated by one organ striking another. Percussive consonants are not phonemic in any known language, though the
779:
are weakly implosive. This ambiguity does not occur with the next airstream mechanism, lingual, which is clearly distinct from pulmonic sounds.
587:(also the only language outside Africa with clicks); however, Damin appears to have been intentionally designed to differ from normal speech.
1457:
509:, where two organs are struck against each other. No standalone percussive occurs in any language, but alveolar clicks may have a sublingual
1416:
650:, have been claimed to have pulmonic ingressives, but these claims have either proven to be spurious or to be occasional phonetic detail.
911:. They are more often found in extra-linguistic contexts, such as the "tsk tsk" sound many Westerners use to express regret or pity (a
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Since the air pocket used to initiate lingual consonants is so small, it is not thought to be possible to produce lingual
1218:
Van Gilse PHG. (1948). Another Method of Speech
Without Larynx. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 36, Supplement 78, 109 – 110.
1023:, in which the airstream changes between the front (click) and rear (non-click) release. There are two attested types:
529:
as the only two airstream mechanisms produced by the three main initiators that are not found lexically in the world.
501:. Clicks are regular sounds in ordinary (i.e. lexical) words in fewer than 2% of the world's languages, all in Africa.
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clicks may be voiced, but are very commonly unvoiced and even aspirated, which is rare for purely pulmonic nasals.
657:, but not in normal words, pulmonic ingressive vowels or words occur on all continents. This is commonly done for
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where the air in the mouth is rarefied by a downward and sometimes rearward movement of the tongue. These are the
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There are also methods of making sounds that do not require the glottis. These mechanisms are collectively called
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Not only are simultaneous (rather than contour) implosive clicks possible, i.e. velar (e.g. ), uvular (), and
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of the Bantu family utilize all four, – pulmonic, click, implosive, and ejective, – as does the
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Wright, Richard, Ian
Maddieson, Peter Ladefoged, Bonny Sands (1995). "A phonetic study of Sandawe clicks",
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For egressive glottalic initiation, one lowers the glottis (as if to sing a low note), closes it as for a
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453:. All human languages employ such sounds (such as /b/), and nearly three out of four use them exclusively.
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Weinberg B, Westerhouse J. (1973). A study of pharyngeal speech. J Speech Hear Disord. 38(1):111-8.
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ejectives. Ejective allophones of voiceless stops occur in many varieties of
English at the ends of
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considers these to be among the most difficult sounds in the world. Other languages, for example in
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1427:: Robert Eklund's website devoted to ingressive speech. Maps, sound files, and spectrograms.
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It is possible to initiate airflow in the upper vocal tract by means of the vocal cords or
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where the air column is rarefied as the glottis moves downward. Such consonants are called
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where the air column is compressed as the glottis moves upward. Such consonants are called
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airstream, first close the vocal tract at two places: at the back of the tongue, as in a
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and there are three initiators used phonemically in non-disordered human oral languages:
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vowels and other sonorants use the more common pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism.
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1120:(gnashing teeth). The only percussive known to be used in nondisordered speech is a
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Diedrich WM. Youngstrom KA. (1966). Alaryngeal Speech. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas
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passes over a nearly motionless air column to cause vibration of the vocal cords.
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The only attested use of a phonemic pulmonic ingressive is a lateral fricative in
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may be used (notated {Œ} for simple esophageal speech, {Ю} for tracheo-esophageal
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consonants, where the rear release is a uvular obstruent such as or ; and
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stop, and simultaneously with the front of the tongue or the lips, as in a
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has ingression as a phonetic detail in one series of its clicks, which are
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607:. In most languages, including all the languages of Europe (excluding the
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of Kenya. Most other languages utilize at most two airstream mechanisms.
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Consonants may be pronounced without any airstream mechanism. These are
704:, and then raises it, building up pressure in the oral cavity and upper
1876:
1378:
Selected
Writings: To Commemorate the 60th Birthday of Kenneth Lee Pike
1239:
1076: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
991: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
817: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
469:. Ejective and ejective-like consonants occur in 16% of the languages.
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Munich: Max Planck
Digital Library, chapter 19. Available online at
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initiation. The vast majority of sounds used in human languages are
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1432:: Samples of ingressive pulmonic interjections from Northern Sweden
900:
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710:
677:, entire phrases may be uttered with an ingressive airstream. (See
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1031:
consonants, where the rear release is an ejective such as or .
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In some treatments, complex clicks are posited to have airstream
931:. Transcribing this also requires the use of the Extended IPA, .
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1124:(a tongue slap) that appears allophonically in the release of
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a lingual egressive is a bilabial nasal egressive click in
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Because the oral cavity is so much smaller than the lungs,
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have pulmonic, implosive, and ejective consonants, and the
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in VoQS, and notated {И} for electrolaryngeal speech). See
356:
752:
cannot be pronounced with glottalic initiation. So-called
449:
where the air is pushed out of the lungs by the ribs and
412:
consonants are produced without any airstream mechanism.
630:. This can be written with the extended version of the
1393:, No. 91: Fieldwork Studies in Targeted Languages III.
16:
Method by which airflow is created in the vocal tract
248:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
907:of southern Africa and some nearby tongues such as
640:
ingressive voiceless nasals with delayed aspiration
543:have pulmonic, ejective, and click consonants; the
1342:
859:, and are almost universally ingressive. The word
845:The third form of initiation in human language is
1420:Journal of the International Phonetic Association
622:, a ritual language formerly used by speakers of
296:The organ generating the airstream is called the
277:is the method by which airflow is created in the
2106:
532:These mechanisms may be combined into airstream
262:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
782:
551:, and scattered Nilo-Saharan languages such as
536:, such as clicks which release into ejectives.
415:
1294:The World Atlas of Language Structures Online.
1451:
1409:: a satirical, but illustrative example of
1112:for disordered speech provide symbols for a
599:(actually the diaphragm and ribs) is called
92:introducing citations to additional sources
1575:
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1458:
1444:
1244:
1092:Learn how and when to remove this message
1007:Learn how and when to remove this message
833:Learn how and when to remove this message
223:Learn how and when to remove this message
205:Learn how and when to remove this message
1041:
168:This article includes a list of general
82:Relevant discussion may be found on the
684:
2107:
1413:and iconicity of airstream mechanisms.
915:), or the clucking noise used by many
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389:, and replacing the glottis using the
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1376:Kenneth Pike, ed. Ruth Brend (1972)
1322:An Introduction to English Phonetics
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1265:
1263:
1074:adding citations to reliable sources
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989:adding citations to reliable sources
960:
815:adding citations to reliable sources
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252:. For the distinction between ,
154:
59:
18:
1422:, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 235–324.
1353:The Sounds of the World's Languages
13:
708:. Glottalic egressives are called
539:In normal vocabulary, the various
174:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2126:
1400:
1356:. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 78.
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308:together with the ribs and lungs
34:This article has multiple issues.
1465:
1391:UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics
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965:
791:
159:
75:relies largely or entirely on a
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23:
1482:International Phonetic Alphabet
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1370:
1061:needs additional citations for
976:needs additional citations for
802:needs additional citations for
632:International Phonetic Alphabet
244:International Phonetic Alphabet
42:or discuss these issues on the
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1327:
1314:
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665:) or affirmation (as with in
401:, or the pharyngeal wall. See
1:
1300:. Accessed on 18 January 2011
1205:
1156:
1139:
783:Lingual (velaric) initiation
416:Types of airstream mechanism
342:alaryngeal speech mechanisms
7:
1298:http://wals.info/feature/19
1195:Index of phonetics articles
1188:
945:, but they are more easily
919:to urge on their horses (a
595:Initiation by means of the
527:lingual (velaric) egressive
355:mechanisms, notated {ↀ} in
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615:are pulmonic egressives.
240:phonetic transcriptions
189:more precise citations.
1474:Articulatory phonetics
1270:Pike, Kenneth (1943).
1200:Manner of articulation
1136:Percussive consonants
1116:(smacking lips) and a
891:"efflux". This may be
867:, which means tongue.
863:is derived from Latin
237:This article contains
1648:Pharyngeal/epiglottal
1278:. Michigan. pp.
1122:sublingual percussive
1110:extensions to the IPA
1042:Percussive consonants
103:"Airstream mechanism"
1973:Labio-palatalization
1070:improve this article
985:improve this article
811:improve this article
685:Glottalic initiation
474:glottalic ingressive
88:improve this article
1663:Double articulation
1137:
1118:bidental percussive
1114:bilabial percussive
693:. This is known as
605:pulmonic egressives
591:Pulmonic initiation
523:pulmonic ingressive
495:velaric ingressive,
275:airstream mechanism
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957:Airstream contours
872:lingual ingressive
511:percussive release
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99:Find sources:
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77:single source
73:This article
71:
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62:
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56:
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47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2008:Tongue shape
1998:Nasalization
1978:Velarization
1948:articulation
1890:
1718:Pathological
1693:Labial–velar
1576:Active place
1555:Postalveolar
1530:Linguolabial
1466:Articulation
1419:
1390:
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1338:
1333:Ogden p. 164
1329:
1324:, p. 9, 164.
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1068:Please help
1063:verification
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983:Please help
978:verification
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913:dental click
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809:Please help
804:verification
801:
764:
760:
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750:approximants
743:
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709:
702:glottal stop
699:
697:initiation.
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521:That leaves
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368:laryngectomy
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336:mechanisms).
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312:mechanisms),
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287:articulation
274:
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256:and ⟨
238:
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195:January 2010
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144:January 2010
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37:
36:Please help
33:
1818:Approximant
1535:Interdental
1512:Labiodental
917:equestrians
754:glottalized
279:vocal tract
187:introducing
1946:Secondary
1936:Percussive
1904:Ingressive
1877:Continuant
1206:References
1152:Sublingual
1106:percussive
936:fricatives
899:, or even
897:affricated
738:Phonations
729:implosives
506:percussive
480:implosives
430:ingressive
410:Percussive
320:(glottalic
291:initiation
170:references
114:newspapers
39:improve it
2115:Phonetics
2066:Phonation
2044:Aspirated
2039:Voiceless
1914:Implosive
1899:Egressive
1891:Airstream
1872:Occlusive
1823:Semivowel
1783:Fricative
1778:Affricate
1765:Obstruent
1640:Laryngeal
1593:Subapical
1565:Retroflex
1274:Phonetics
1082:July 2020
997:July 2020
947:nasalized
893:aspirated
823:July 2020
711:ejectives
695:glottalic
628:Australia
467:ejectives
461:egressive
458:glottalic
451:diaphragm
445:egressive
424:egressive
372:esophagus
334:"velaric"
310:(pulmonic
306:diaphragm
298:initiator
283:phonation
271:phonetics
84:talk page
45:talk page
2109:Category
1961:Rounding
1929:Ejective
1924:Pulmonic
1909:Ejective
1835:Tap/flap
1800:Sonorant
1788:Sibilant
1742:Bidental
1550:Alveolar
1507:Bilabial
1380:. p. 226
1350:(1996).
1189:See also
1147:Bidental
1142:Bilabial
1036:de facto
1021:contours
901:ejective
888:bilabial
613:phonemes
609:Caucasus
601:pulmonic
534:contours
442:pulmonic
395:alveolus
366:after a
330:(lingual
254:/ /
250:Help:IPA
2079:Breathy
1865:Lateral
1830:Vibrant
1773:Plosive
1653:Glottal
1620:Palatal
1588:Laminal
1522:Coronal
1256:4698378
1128:in the
884:coronal
861:lingual
851:velaric
847:lingual
706:trachea
691:glottis
675:Amharic
671:Finnish
667:Swedish
611:), all
547:, some
515:Sandawe
387:pharynx
359:). See
353:(buccal
317:glottis
242:in the
183:improve
128:scholar
2089:Creaky
2049:Tenuis
2016:Sulcal
1860:Rhotic
1855:Liquid
1756:Manner
1630:Uvular
1607:Dorsal
1583:Apical
1540:Dental
1499:Labial
1360:
1254:
1240:347249
1238:
943:voiced
880:uvular
865:lingua
856:clicks
775:, and
746:vowels
716:voiced
648:Taiwan
624:Lardil
399:palate
397:, the
391:tongue
376:speech
370:, the
350:cheeks
327:tongue
273:, the
258:
172:, but
130:
123:
116:
109:
101:
2094:Stiff
2084:Slack
2074:Modal
2031:Voice
2021:Domed
1919:Click
1840:Trill
1813:Vowel
1808:Nasal
1735:Other
1625:Velar
1490:Place
929:Damin
876:velar
777:Maidu
634:as .
620:Damin
597:lungs
585:Damin
561:Meʼen
553:Gumuz
246:(IPA)
135:JSTOR
121:books
1358:ISBN
1252:PMID
1236:OCLC
909:Zulu
773:Zulu
769:Thai
748:and
673:and
642:, .
636:!Xóõ
559:and
557:Uduk
525:and
427:and
385:the
357:VoQS
348:the
325:the
315:the
304:the
285:and
107:news
1282:–5.
1280:103
1220:doi
1072:by
987:by
923:).
886:or
878:or
849:or
813:by
765:rat
763:in
681:.)
663:Ewe
653:In
626:in
574:In
513:in
492:AKA
332:or
269:In
90:by
2111::
1480:–
1476:–
1346:;
1262:^
895:,
771:,
722:.
555:,
293:.
48:.
1459:e
1452:t
1445:v
1366:.
1222::
1175:¡
1164:ʭ
1159:ʬ
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1089:(
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1080:(
1066:.
1010:)
1004:(
999:)
995:(
981:.
836:)
830:(
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821:(
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761:t
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220:(
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202:(
197:)
193:(
179:.
146:)
142:(
132:·
125:·
118:·
111:·
94:.
80:.
55:)
51:(
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