1134:
809:
429:, thicken lithosphere, and produce earthquakes and volcanoes. Not all subduction zones produce orogenic belts; mountain building takes place only when the subduction produces compression in the overriding plate. Whether subduction produces compression depends on such factors as the rate of plate convergence and the degree of coupling between the two plates, while the degree of coupling may in turn rely on such factors as the angle of subduction and rate of sedimentation in the oceanic trench associated with the subduction zone. The
22:
743:
3625:
548:
318:
341:
715:
1121:
of <10 °C/km. Orogenic peridotites are present but volumetrically minor, and syn-collisional granites and migmatites are also rare or of only minor extent. Typical examples are the Alps-Himalaya orogens in the southern margin of
Eurasian continent and the Dabie-Sulu orogens in east-central China.
1111:
in 1979 in terms of the relationship to granite occurrences. Cawood et al. (2009) categorized orogenic belts into three types: accretionary, collisional, and intracratonic. Both accretionary and collisional orogens developed in converging plate margins. In contrast, Hercynotype orogens generally show
665:
takes place, which thins the crust and creates basins in which sediments accumulate. As the basins deepen, the ocean invades the rift zone, and as the continental crust rifts completely apart, shallow marine sedimentation gives way to deep marine sedimentation on the thinned marginal crust of the two
1120:
Collisional orogens, which were produced by subduction of one continental block beneath the other continental block with the absence of arc volcanism. They are typified by the occurrence of blueschist to eclogite facies metamorphic zones, indicating high-P/low-T metamorphism at low thermal gradients
837:
provides a classic example of a mountain cut in dipping-layered rocks. Millions of years ago a collision caused an orogeny, forcing horizontal layers of an ancient ocean crust to be thrust up at an angle of 50â60°. That left Rundle with one sweeping, tree-lined smooth face, and one sharp, steep face
555:
Orogens show a great range of characteristics, but they may be broadly divided into collisional orogens and noncollisional orogens (Andean-type orogens). Collisional orogens can be further divided by whether the collision is with a second continent or a continental fragment or island arc. Repeated
1551:
Anderson, J. Lawford; Bender, E. Erik; Anderson, Raymond R.; Bauer, Paul W.; Robertson, James M.; Bowring, Samuel A.; Condie, Kent C.; Denison, Rodger E.; Gilbert, M. Charles; Grambling, Jeffrey A.; Mawer, Christopher K.; Shearer, C. K.; Hinze, William J.; Karlstrom, Karl E.; Kisvarsanyi, E. B.;
1116:
Accretionary orogens, which were produced by subduction of one oceanic plate beneath one continental plate for arc volcanism. They are dominated by calc-alkaline igneous rocks and high-T/low-P metamorphic facies series at high thermal gradients of >30 °C/km. There is a general lack of
642:
first put forward a plate tectonic interpretation of orogenic cycles, now known as Wilson cycles. Wilson proposed that orogenic cycles represented the periodic opening and closing of an ocean basin, with each stage of the process leaving its characteristic record on the rocks of the orogen.
580:
by the developing mountain belt. A typical foreland basin is subdivided into a wedge-top basin above the active orogenic wedge, the foredeep immediately beyond the active front, a forebulge high of flexural origin and a back-bulge area beyond, although not all of these are present in all
1002:
posited that, as erosion was known to occur, there must be some process whereby new mountains and other land-forms were thrust up, or else there would eventually be no land; he suggested that marine fossils in mountainsides must once have been at the sea-floor. Orogeny was used by
1023:(1852) used the evocative "Jaws of a Vise" theory to explain orogeny, but was more concerned with the height rather than the implicit structures created by and contained in orogenic belts. His theory essentially held that mountains were created by the squeezing of certain rocks.
869:
volcanism results in the formation of isolated mountains and mountain chains that look as if they are not necessarily on present tectonic-plate boundaries, but they are essentially the product of plate tectonism. Likewise, uplift and erosion related to
907:
represents the final phase of the orogenic cycle. Erosion of overlying strata in orogenic belts, and isostatic adjustment to the removal of this overlying mass of rock, can bring deeply buried strata to the surface. The erosional process is called
1552:
Lidiak, Edward G.; Reed, John C.; Sims, Paul K.; Tweto, Odgen; Silver, Leon T.; Treves, Samuel B.; Williams, Michael L.; Wooden, Joseph L. (1993). Schmus, W. Randall Van; Bickford, Marion E (eds.). "Transcontinental
Proterozoic provinces".
931:
An orogen may be almost completely eroded away, and only recognizable by studying (old) rocks that bear traces of orogenesis. Orogens are usually long, thin, arcuate tracts of rock that have a pronounced linear structure resulting in
564:
arc. Orogens arising from continent-continent collisions can be divided into those involving ocean closure (Himalayan-type orogens) and those involving glancing collisions with no ocean basin closure (as is taking place today in the
556:
collisions of the later type, with no evidence of collision with a major continent or closure of an ocean basin, result in an accretionary orogen. Examples of orogens arising from collision of an island arc with a continent include
928:). Thus, the final form of the majority of old orogenic belts is a long arcuate strip of crystalline metamorphic rocks sequentially below younger sediments which are thrust atop them and which dip away from the orogenic core.
1046:
theory). The cooling Earth theory was the chief paradigm for most geologists until the 1960s. It was, in the context of orogeny, fiercely contested by proponents of vertical movements in the crust, or convection within the
634:, geologists had found evidence within many orogens of repeated cycles of deposition, deformation, crustal thickening and mountain building, and crustal thinning to form new depositional basins. These were named
1096:(1855) recognised that orogenies could be placed in time by bracketing between the youngest deformed rock and the oldest undeformed rock, a principle which is still in use today, though commonly investigated by
469:
The orogeny may culminate with continental crust from the opposite side of the subducting oceanic plate arriving at the subduction zone. This ends subduction and transforms the accretional orogen into a
924:
movements may help such unroofing by balancing out the buoyancy of the evolving orogen. Scholars debate about the extent to which erosion modifies the patterns of tectonic deformation (see
841:
Although mountain building mostly takes place in orogens, a number of secondary mechanisms are capable of producing substantial mountain ranges. Areas that are rifting apart, such as
2201:
Manley, Curtis R.; Glazner, Allen F.; Farmer, G. Lang (2000). "Timing of
Volcanism in the Sierra Nevada of California: Evidence for Pliocene Delamination of the Batholithic Root?".
589:
of the actively uplifting rocks of the mountain range, although some sediments derive from the foreland. The fill of many such basins shows a change in time from deepwater marine (
763:
in orogens is largely a result of crustal thickening. The compressive forces produced by plate convergence result in pervasive deformation of the crust of the continental margin (
448:, and oceanic material may gradually accrete onto the continental margin. This is one of the main mechanisms by which continents have grown. An orogen built of crustal fragments (
706:
and possibly an Andean-type orogen along that continental margin. This produces deformation of the continental margins and possibly crustal thickening and mountain building.
2534:
François, Camille; Pubellier, Manuel; Robert, Christian; Bulois, Cédric; Jamaludin, Siti Nur
Fathiyah; OberhÀnsli, Roland; Faure, Michel; St-Onge, Marc R. (1 October 2021).
1112:
similar features to intracratonic, intracontinental, extensional, and ultrahot orogens, all of which developed in continental detachment systems at converged plate margins.
581:
foreland-basin systems. The basin migrates with the orogenic front and early deposited foreland basin sediments become progressively involved in folding and thrusting.
1042:
in the theories surrounding mountain-building. With hindsight, we can discount Dana's conjecture that this contraction was due to the cooling of the Earth (aka the
1107:(1967) proposed three types of orogens in relationship to tectonic setting and style: Cordillerotype, Alpinotype, and Hercynotype. His proposal was revised by
874:(large-scale vertical motions of portions of continents without much associated folding, metamorphism, or deformation) can create local topographic highs.
1104:
222:
rising in the orogen carries less dense material upwards while leaving more dense material behind, resulting in compositional differentiation of Earth's
3674:
2657:"On Some Results of the Earth's Contraction From Cooling, Including a Discussion of the Origins of Mountains, and the Nature of the Earth's Interior"
2461:
1778:
684:
commences along the axis of a new ocean basin. Deep marine sediments continue to accumulate along the thinned continental margins, which are now
738:
is repeated, with one example in the foreground (that pinches out with distance) and another to the upper right corner and top of the picture.
2962:
2118:
513:, lasting at least 600 million years. A similar sequence of orogenies has taken place on the west coast of North America, beginning in the
1475:
Yuan, S.; Pan, G.; Wang, L.; Jiang, X.; Yin, F.; Zhang, W.; Zhuo, J. (2009). "Accretionary
Orogenesis in the Active Continental Margins".
797:
root drips down into the asthenospheric mantle, decreasing the density of the lithosphere and causing buoyant uplift. An example is the
2236:
2920:
Evolution of the
Cordilleras of the Americas from a multidisciplinary perspective from a symposium held in Mendoza, Argentina (2006).
394:(the stable interiors of continents). Young orogenic belts, in which subduction is still taking place, are characterized by frequent
1710:
Garzanti, Eduardo; Doglioni, Carlo; Vezzoli, Giovanni; AndĂČ, Sergio (May 2007). "Orogenic Belts and
Orogenic Sediment Provenance".
775:
379:
to form a noncollisional orogeny) or continental collision (convergence of two or more continents to form a collisional orogeny).
505:
were peaks of orogenic activity during this time. These were part of an extended period of orogenic activity that included the
2935:
2913:
2887:
2849:
2599:
2444:
2372:
2338:
2304:
2277:
2185:
2098:
2069:
2040:
1947:
1378:
1259:
1226:
882:
Eventually, seafloor spreading in the ocean basin comes to a halt, and continued subduction begins to close the ocean basin.
347:
of two continental plates to form a collisional orogen. Typically, continental crust is subducted to lithospheric depths for
862:
274:
1335:
1117:
ophiolites, migmatites and abyssal sediments. Typical examples are all circum-Pacific orogens containing continental arcs.
3205:
2930:
474:-type collisional orogen. The collisional orogeny may produce extremely high mountains, as has been taking place in the
1423:
1318:
849:, have mountains due to thermal buoyancy related to the hot mantle underneath them; this thermal buoyancy is known as
2511:
2477:
1659:
Simandjuntak, T. O.; Barber, A. J. (1996). "Contrasting tectonic styles in the
Neogene orogenic belts of Indonesia".
1351:
1288:
454:) accreted over a long period of time, without any indication of a major continent-continent collision, is called an
2575:
702:
At some point, subduction is initiated along one or both of the continental margins of the ocean basin, producing a
2955:
2720:
3664:
2856:
provides a detailed history of a number of orogens, including the
Caledonian Orogeny, which lasted from the late
2390:"Mountain building processes at the orogenic front. A study of the unroofing in Neogene foreland sequence (37ÂșS)"
988:
29:
1103:
Based on available observations from the metamorphic differences in orogenic belts of Europe and North
America,
1569:
604:
While active orogens are found on the margins of present-day continents, older inactive orogenies, such as the
2222:
767:). This takes the form of folding of the ductile deeper crust and thrust faulting in the upper brittle crust.
3654:
1343:
865:
result in regions of localized crustal shortening and mountain building without a plate-margin-wide orogeny.
2990:
2119:"Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California"
1340:
Pangea: Paleoclimate, Tectonics, and Sedimentation During Accretion, Zenith, and Breakup of a Supercontinent
896:
The closure of the ocean basin ends with a continental collision and the associated Himalayan-type orogen.
805:
experienced renewed uplift and abundant magmatism after a delamination of the orogenic root beneath them.
3669:
3628:
2948:
2905:
Backbone of the Americas: Shallow Subduction, Plateau Uplift, and Ridge and Terrane Collision; Memoir 204
2661:
754:
257:
1043:
2894:
is one of a two-volume exposition of the geology of central Europe with a discussion of major orogens.
1809:
1512:"Paleocene-Eocene record of ophiolite obduction and initial India-Asia collision, south central Tibet"
489:
underlying the United States belongs to the Transcontinental Proterozoic Provinces, which accreted to
3290:
2388:
Sagripanti, LucĂa; Bottesi, GermĂĄn; Kietzmann, Diego; Folguera, AndrĂ©s; Ramos, VĂctor A. (May 2012).
657:
The Wilson cycle begins when previously stable continental crust comes under tension from a shift in
459:
1896:
955:) from the core of the shortening orogen out toward the margins, and are intimately associated with
481:
The processes of orogeny can take tens of millions of years and build mountains from what were once
340:
3659:
3295:
3071:
2311:
Without denudation, even relatively low uplift rates as characteristic of epeirogenetic movements (
719:
3559:
3061:
2995:
1280:
1108:
2899:
2157:
1939:
1932:
1906:. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. pp. 58â82. Special Publication 22.
2877:
790:
750:
533:. The Laramide orogeny alone lasted 40 million years, from 75 million to 35 million years ago.
415:
250:
79:
2362:
2294:
2267:
2086:
1927:
1368:
1304:
1243:
616:, are represented by deformed and metamorphosed rocks with sedimentary basins further inland.
3572:
3376:
3265:
3135:
3115:
3015:
2985:
2328:
2057:
1212:
1139:
925:
891:
344:
312:
207:
2432:
2175:
971:
Before the development of geologic concepts during the 19th century, the presence of marine
3549:
3433:
3150:
3105:
2779:
2670:
2594:. Benchmark Papers in Geology. Vol. 62. New York: Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company.
2244:
2210:
2133:
1862:
1793:
1719:
1668:
1631:
1523:
1484:
1154:
871:
826:
802:
798:
746:
577:
445:
292:
2704:
808:
8:
3582:
3458:
3443:
3420:
3416:
3195:
3120:
3020:
3005:
1309:
1218:
662:
652:
364:
181:
2783:
2674:
2616:
2214:
2137:
1866:
1797:
1723:
1672:
1635:
1620:"Kinematic history of the Laramide orogeny in latitudes 35°-49°N, western United States"
1527:
1488:
485:. Activity along an orogenic belt can be extremely long-lived. For example, much of the
3531:
3428:
3310:
3215:
3130:
3095:
3025:
2971:
2897:
2795:
2686:
2557:
2005:
1735:
1692:
1157: â Upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting long wavelengths and little folding
980:
850:
760:
681:
675:
486:
288:
177:
52:
1982:
Faccenna, Claudio; Becker, Thorsten W.; Holt, Adam F.; Brun, Jean Pierre (June 2021).
1496:
433:
are an example of a noncollisional orogenic belt, and such belts are sometimes called
291:
used the term in 1890 to mean the process of mountain-building, as distinguished from
3567:
3501:
3453:
3448:
3328:
3318:
3260:
3035:
2909:
2883:
2845:
2799:
2716:
2690:
2595:
2561:
2552:
2535:
2507:
2473:
2440:
2368:
2334:
2300:
2273:
2181:
2149:
2094:
2065:
2036:
2009:
1943:
1850:
1805:
1696:
1684:
1565:
1419:
1374:
1347:
1314:
1284:
1255:
1222:
1184:
1178:
1035:
917:
866:
858:
846:
779:
735:
658:
572:
Orogens have a characteristic structure, though this shows considerable variation. A
510:
482:
395:
211:
25:
1874:
1739:
3649:
3371:
3366:
3300:
3275:
3270:
3245:
3185:
3145:
3000:
2787:
2678:
2547:
2411:
2401:
2218:
2141:
2028:
1995:
1870:
1801:
1727:
1676:
1639:
1598:
1557:
1531:
1492:
1336:"Pangean Orogenic and Epeirogenic Uplifts and Their Possible Climatic Significance"
1093:
1058:
1052:
1027:(1875) recognised the importance of horizontal movement of rocks. The concept of a
1020:
999:
937:
834:
783:
764:
609:
530:
502:
494:
231:
140:
88:
70:
43:
2145:
1680:
287: 'creation, origin'. Although it was used before him, the American geologist
3610:
3506:
3406:
3381:
3353:
3338:
3240:
3190:
3180:
3175:
3051:
2903:
2708:
2501:
2358:
1251:
1190:
1160:
995:
842:
631:
605:
506:
498:
493:(the ancient heart of North America) over the course of 200 million years in the
430:
426:
352:
329:
308:
227:
195:
121:
112:
103:
2032:
1193: â Geologic uplift of Earth's surface that is attributed to plate tectonics
355:
metamorphism, and then exhumed along the same subduction channel. (example: the
3511:
3488:
3473:
3343:
3323:
3235:
3160:
3155:
3110:
3076:
3066:
3010:
2813:
Cawood, PA; Kroner, A; Collins, WJ; Kusky, TM; Mooney, WD; Windley, BF (2009).
2000:
1983:
1166:
1008:
956:
952:
941:
830:
816:
727:
685:
613:
526:
522:
518:
463:
199:
3125:
3643:
3401:
2791:
2770:
Pitcher, WS (1979). "The nature, ascent and emplacement of granitic magmas".
2354:
1688:
1444:
1097:
1048:
1004:
947:. These thrust faults carry relatively thin slices of rock (which are called
566:
561:
542:
514:
411:
376:
325:
186:
94:
2882:. The Geology of Central Europe. Vol. 1. Geological Society of London.
2682:
2406:
2389:
2326:
2177:
Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains
2023:
Howell, David G. (1989). "Mountain building and the shaping of continents".
1561:
3396:
3056:
3030:
2536:"Temporal and spatial evolution of orogens: a guide for geological mapping"
2153:
1148:
1024:
976:
960:
944:
822:
812:
723:
703:
625:
21:
2439:. Petrology and Structural Geology. Vol. 9. Springer. pp. 1 ff.
2315:
20m/MA) would generate highly elevated regions in geological time periods.
742:
3577:
3463:
3438:
3391:
3386:
3361:
3250:
3170:
3140:
1536:
1511:
1030:
984:
912:. Erosion inevitably removes much of the mountains, exposing the core or
854:
794:
639:
638:, and various theories were proposed to explain them. Canadian geologist
223:
1163: â Field of study that investigates the behavior of geologic faults
782:
material) and the buoyant upward forces exerted by the dense underlying
3605:
3592:
3100:
2865:
2416:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1603:
1586:
1169: â Mountains formed by compressive crumpling of the layers of rock
1078:
697:
441:
399:
368:
348:
321:
304:
3210:
1984:"Mountain building, mantle convection, and supercontinents: revisited"
1644:
1619:
547:
3541:
3521:
3516:
3496:
3478:
3468:
3280:
3225:
3087:
2940:
2842:
Mountain Building in Scotland: Science : A Level 3 Course Series
1074:
1061:(1906) recognised different classes of orogenic belts, including the
1034:
or initial downward warping of the solid earth (Hall, 1859) prompted
490:
475:
471:
419:
372:
356:
280:
263:
215:
202:. This involves a series of geological processes collectively called
2656:
1956:
1758:
1746:
3600:
3526:
2869:
2861:
2857:
2462:"The scientific revolution and Nicholas Steno's twofold conversion"
2117:
Lee, C.-T.; Yin, Q; Rudnick, RL; Chesley, JT; Jacobsen, SB (2000).
2084:
1731:
921:
771:
582:
450:
390:, which are elongated regions of deformation bordering continental
173:
2387:
2330:
Companion Encyclopedia of Geography: The Environment and Humankind
1394:
1392:
1390:
3333:
3285:
1925:
1836:
Billions of Years in Minnesota, The Geological Story of the State
1070:
933:
904:
731:
597:
586:
1456:
317:
3200:
3165:
1432:
1387:
1066:
972:
591:
557:
407:
403:
391:
2833:
Exploring the Proterozoic Big Sky Orogeny in Southwest Montana
2200:
1897:"Flysch deposits of the foreland basin, western United States"
1776:
1342:. Geological Society of America Special Paper. Vol. 288.
1242:
Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A.; Vine, Frederick J. (2009).
789:
Portions of orogens can also experience uplift as a result of
576:
forms ahead of the orogen due mainly to loading and resulting
3220:
2817:. Geological Society. pp. 1â36. Special Publication 318.
2533:
1181: â Known mountain building events of the Earth's history
1172:
1082:
1015:
in terms of the creation of mountain elevations, as the term
948:
770:
Crustal thickening raises mountains through the principle of
466:
of southeast Australia are examples of accretionary orogens.
333:
219:
2353:
1587:"Tectonic model for the Proterozoic growth of North America"
920:
brought to the surface from a depth of several kilometres).
585:
deposited in the foreland basin are mainly derived from the
3255:
1709:
1550:
714:
164:
158:
2506:. New Brunwick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 26â27.
2296:
Sedimentary Basins: Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget
155:
152:
143:
2327:
Ian Douglas; Richard John Huggett; Mike Robinson (2002).
2223:
10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<811:TOVITS>2.0.CO;2
2093:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 170.
1175: â Isolated, flat-topped underwater volcano mountain
242:) process or event is one that occurs during an orogeny.
2812:
1981:
1418:(9th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley. p. 83.
161:
2864:, with the main collisional events occurring during
2116:
1129:
936:
or blocks of deformed rocks, separated generally by
885:
778:
upon an upthrust mountain range (composed of light,
367:
of continents. The convergence may take the form of
149:
2751:Zwart, HJ (1967). "The duality of orogenic belts".
2112:
2110:
838:where the edge of the uplifted layers are exposed.
146:
2437:Emplacement Mechanisms of Nappes and Thrust Sheets
2367:(4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 92.
2265:
1931:
1851:"The Penokean orogeny in the Lake Superior region"
1770:
1658:
1584:
1510:Ding, Lin; Kapp, Paul; Wan, Xiaoqiao (June 2005).
214:and the creation of new continental crust through
2091:Mechanics in the Earth and Environmental Sciences
1969:
1764:
1752:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1398:
1241:
194:develops as the compressed plate crumples and is
3641:
2830:
2574:
2527:
2107:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1661:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
1474:
2707:(1982). "Classical theories of orogenesis". In
2292:
1409:
1407:
1187: â Gradual movement of the planet's mantle
2085:Gerard V. Middleton; Peter R. Wilcock (1994).
1928:"Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones"
1833:
1585:Whitmeyer, Steven; Karlstrom, Karl E. (2007).
595:-style) through shallow water to continental (
2956:
2636:Hall, J (1859). "Palaeontology of New York".
2430:
1910:
877:
332:to form an accretionary orogen (example: the
2173:
1926:Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992).
1848:
1838:. Library of Congress Card Number: 77:80265.
1468:
1404:
1373:(4th ed.). Macmillan. pp. 468â69.
402:. Older orogenic belts are typically deeply
184:when plate motion compresses the margin. An
2839:
1509:
1366:
2963:
2949:
2875:
2815:Accretionary orogens through Earth history
2697:
2433:"§1.1 Nappes, overthrusts and fold-nappes"
1277:A dictionary of geology and earth sciences
1019:was still used to describe the processes.
774:. Isostacy is the balance of the downward
3675:Events in the geological history of Earth
2931:Maps of the Acadian and Taconic orogenies
2551:
2415:
2405:
1999:
1643:
1602:
1535:
966:
2272:(2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 104.
2055:
1827:
1333:
1313:. Allied Publishers. 1999. p. 972.
1151: â Study of distribution of species
807:
791:delamination of the orogenic lithosphere
741:
713:
560:and the collision of Australia with the
546:
339:
316:
20:
2769:
2320:
2299:(2nd ed.). Springer. p. 453.
2286:
2259:
2167:
2078:
1888:
1777:DeCelles P.G. & Giles K.A. (1996).
1327:
1297:
1275:Allaby, Michael (2013). "synorogenic".
1210:
793:, in which an unstable portion of cold
517:(about 380 million years ago) with the
3642:
2970:
2589:
2347:
2237:"The Formation of the Rocky Mountains"
2022:
1578:
1274:
1204:
1088:In terms of recognising orogeny as an
646:
2944:
2902:; William R. Dickinson, eds. (2009).
2750:
2711:; Aki, Keiiti; Ćengör, CelĂąl (eds.).
2614:
2499:
2424:
2364:Holmes Principles of Physical Geology
2049:
1894:
1849:Schulz, K. J.; Cannon, W. F. (2007).
1413:
979:contexts as a result of the Biblical
669:
2740:(in German). Berlin: Roth & Eck.
2735:
2654:
2635:
2580:Notice sur les SystĂšmes de Montagnes
2333:. Taylor & Francis. p. 33.
1617:
1360:
709:
34:
3206:List of tectonic plate interactions
2586:] (in French). Paris: Bertrand.
2459:
2064:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 36 ff.
1988:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1938:(2nd ed.). Macmillan. p.
1235:
13:
2824:
2058:"Isostasy in zones of convergence"
1214:Foundations of Engineering Geology
951:or thrust sheets, and differ from
680:As the two continents rift apart,
14:
3686:
2924:
2908:. Geological Society of America.
2844:. Open University Worldwide Ltd.
2772:Journal of the Geological Society
1038:(1873) to include the concept of
886:Continental collision and orogeny
619:
425:Subduction zones consume oceanic
406:to expose displaced and deformed
3624:
3623:
1806:10.1046/j.1365-2117.1996.01491.x
1310:Chambers 21st Century Dictionary
1132:
206:. These include both structural
139:
16:The formation of mountain ranges
2806:
2763:
2744:
2729:
2703:
2648:
2629:
2608:
2568:
2493:
2453:
2381:
2229:
2194:
2016:
1975:
1970:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1875:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.02.022
1842:
1765:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1753:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1703:
1652:
1611:
1544:
1503:
1463:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1451:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1439:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1399:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
478:for the last 65 million years.
1268:
975:in mountains was explained in
630:Long before the acceptance of
180:process that takes place at a
1:
2835:. 19th annual Keck symposium.
2831:Harms; Brady; Cheney (2006).
2269:Fundamentals of Geomorphology
2146:10.1126/science.289.5486.1912
2025:Tectonics of Suspect Terranes
1681:10.1144/GSL.SP.1996.106.01.12
1497:10.1016/S1872-5791(08)60095-0
1344:Geological Society of America
1198:
801:in California. This range of
691:
270: 'mountain' and
2553:10.18814/epiiugs/2021/021025
1902:. In Dickinson, W.R. (ed.).
1618:Bird, Peter (October 1998).
1453:, pp. 287â288, 297â299.
1244:"Chapter 10: Orogenic belts"
298:
7:
2662:American Journal of Science
2266:Richard J. Huggett (2007).
2033:10.1007/978-94-009-0827-7_6
1904:Tectonics and Sedimentation
1279:(Fourth ed.). Oxford:
1125:
1073:geometry to the sediments;
983:. This was an extension of
755:International Space Station
414:and include vast bodies of
382:Orogeny typically produces
363:Orogeny takes place on the
10:
3691:
2879:Precambrian and Palaeozoic
2625:]. Vienna: BraumĂŒller.
2001:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.116905
1100:using radiometric dating.
987:thought, which influenced
899:
889:
878:Closure of the ocean basin
695:
673:
650:
623:
578:flexure of the lithosphere
540:
536:
302:
273:
256:
3619:
3591:
3558:
3540:
3487:
3415:
3352:
3309:
3291:Thick-skinned deformation
3085:
3044:
2978:
2715:. John Wiley & Sons.
1414:Levin, Harold L. (2010).
1338:. In Klein, G. O. (ed.).
1063:Alpine type orogenic belt
551:The Foreland Basin System
529:and culminating with the
460:North American Cordillera
440:As subduction continues,
410:. These are often highly
375:rides forcefully over an
3296:Thin-skinned deformation
3072:Stereographic projection
2876:Tom McCann, ed. (2008).
2792:10.1144/gsjgs.136.6.0627
2638:New York National Survey
2618:Die Entstehung Der Alpen
2590:Dennis, John G. (1982).
2584:Note on Mountain Systems
2293:Gerhard Einsele (2000).
2180:. MIT Press. p. 9.
1779:"Foreland basin systems"
1334:Friedman, G. M. (1994).
720:thin-skinned deformation
521:and continuing with the
3062:Orthographic projection
3045:Measurement conventions
2991:Lamé's stress ellipsoid
2683:10.2475/ajs.s3-5.30.423
2655:Dana, James D. (1873).
2500:Gohau, Gabriel (1990).
2407:10.5027/andgeoV39n2-a01
2062:Earth Surface Processes
1834:Bray, Edmund C (1977).
1562:10.1130/DNAG-GNA-C2.171
1477:Earth Science Frontiers
1281:Oxford University Press
989:early Christian writers
959:and the development of
747:Sierra Nevada Mountains
182:convergent plate margin
3665:Mountain geomorphology
2898:Suzanne Mahlburg Kay;
2623:The Origin of the Alps
2615:Suess, Eduard (1875).
2431:Olivier Merle (1998).
1712:The Journal of Geology
1416:The earth through time
1211:Waltham, Tony (2009).
1085:style fold structure.
967:History of the concept
819:
757:
739:
552:
509:and culminated in the
416:intrusive igneous rock
360:
337:
131:
80:Large igneous province
3573:Paleostress inversion
3266:Strike-slip tectonics
3136:Extensional tectonics
3116:Continental collision
2986:Deformation mechanism
2736:Buch, L. Von (1902).
2243:. n.d. Archived from
2174:John Gerrard (1990).
1140:Earth sciences portal
926:erosion and tectonics
892:Continental collision
857:orogens, such as the
811:
803:fault-block mountains
745:
717:
550:
446:continental fragments
345:Continental collision
343:
320:
313:Continental collision
24:
3655:Geological processes
3151:Fold and thrust belt
2840:Kevin Jones (2003).
2738:Gesammelte Schriften
2588:English synopsis in
2576:Ălie de Beaumont, JB
2503:A history of geology
2027:. pp. 157â199.
1895:Poole, F.G. (1974).
1855:Precambrian Research
1537:10.1029/2004TC001729
1367:Frank Press (2003).
1219:Taylor & Francis
1155:Epeirogenic movement
827:Trans-Canada Highway
456:accretionary orogen.
198:to form one or more
3583:Section restoration
3459:Rock microstructure
3121:Convergent boundary
3021:Strain partitioning
3006:Overburden pressure
2996:MohrâCoulomb theory
2784:1979JGSoc.136..627P
2675:1873AmJS....5..423D
2241:Mountains in Nature
2215:2000Geo....28..811M
2138:2000Sci...289.1912L
1972:, pp. 208â209.
1867:2007PreR..157....4S
1798:1996BasR....8..105D
1767:, pp. 302â303.
1755:, pp. 330â332.
1724:2007JG....115..315G
1673:1996GSLSP.106..185S
1636:1998Tecto..17..780B
1528:2005Tecto..24.3001D
1489:2009ESF....16...31Y
1370:Understanding Earth
776:gravitational force
753:) as seen from the
663:Continental rifting
653:Continental rifting
647:Continental rifting
601:-style) sediments.
435:Andean-type orogens
3670:Effects of gravity
3560:Kinematic analysis
3216:Mountain formation
3131:Divergent boundary
3096:Accretionary wedge
2972:Structural geology
2460:Vai, G.B. (2009).
1934:Structural Geology
1604:10.1130/GES00055.1
851:dynamic topography
820:
761:Mountain formation
758:
740:
682:seafloor spreading
676:Seafloor spreading
670:Seafloor spreading
553:
503:Mazatzal orogenies
483:sedimentary basins
365:convergent margins
361:
338:
132:
26:Geologic provinces
3637:
3636:
3568:3D fold evolution
3454:Pressure solution
3449:Oblique foliation
3329:Exfoliation joint
3319:Columnar jointing
2979:Underlying theory
2936:Antarctic Geology
2915:978-0-8137-1204-8
2889:978-1-86239-245-8
2851:978-0-7492-5847-4
2601:978-0-87933-394-2
2446:978-0-7923-4879-5
2374:978-0-7487-4381-0
2340:978-0-415-27750-1
2306:978-3-540-66193-1
2279:978-0-415-39084-2
2187:978-0-262-07128-4
2132:(5486): 1912â16.
2100:978-0-521-44669-3
2071:978-0-632-03507-6
2056:PA Allen (1997).
2042:978-94-010-6858-1
1949:978-0-7167-2252-6
1645:10.1029/98TC02698
1380:978-0-7167-9617-6
1261:978-1-4051-0777-8
1228:978-0-415-46959-3
1185:Mantle convection
1179:List of orogenies
1036:James Dwight Dana
1017:mountain building
994:The 13th-century
918:metamorphic rocks
863:restraining bends
859:San Andreas Fault
847:East African Rift
780:continental crust
736:Madison Limestone
710:Mountain building
659:mantle convection
569:of New Zealand).
511:Grenville orogeny
396:volcanic activity
330:continental plate
212:continental crust
129:
128:
3682:
3627:
3626:
3372:Detachment fault
3367:Cataclastic rock
3301:Thrust tectonics
3271:Structural basin
3246:Pull-apart basin
3186:Horst and graben
2965:
2958:
2951:
2942:
2941:
2919:
2893:
2855:
2836:
2819:
2818:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2709:Miyashiro, Akiho
2701:
2695:
2694:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2587:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2555:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2409:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2163:on 15 June 2011.
2162:
2156:. Archived from
2123:
2114:
2105:
2104:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2020:
2014:
2013:
2003:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1954:
1953:
1937:
1923:
1908:
1907:
1901:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1814:
1808:. Archived from
1783:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1411:
1402:
1396:
1385:
1384:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1250:(3rd ed.).
1248:Global Tectonics
1239:
1233:
1232:
1217:(3rd ed.).
1208:
1142:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1094:Leopold von Buch
1065:, typified by a
1059:Gustav Steinmann
1021:Elie de Beaumont
1000:Albert the Great
843:mid-ocean ridges
765:thrust tectonics
531:Laramide orogeny
495:Paleoproterozoic
284:
277:
267:
260:
171:
170:
167:
166:
163:
160:
157:
154:
151:
148:
145:
119:
110:
101:
86:
77:
68:
59:
50:
41:
35:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3660:Plate tectonics
3640:
3639:
3638:
3633:
3615:
3587:
3554:
3536:
3507:Detachment fold
3483:
3411:
3407:Transform fault
3382:Fault mechanics
3348:
3305:
3241:Plate tectonics
3191:Intra-arc basin
3081:
3052:Brunton compass
3040:
2974:
2969:
2927:
2916:
2900:VĂctor A. Ramos
2890:
2852:
2827:
2825:Further reading
2822:
2811:
2807:
2768:
2764:
2749:
2745:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2702:
2698:
2653:
2649:
2634:
2630:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2573:
2569:
2532:
2528:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2466:Geol Soc Am Mem
2458:
2454:
2447:
2429:
2425:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2359:Doris L. Holmes
2352:
2348:
2341:
2325:
2321:
2307:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2264:
2260:
2250:
2248:
2247:on 23 July 2014
2235:
2234:
2230:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2121:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2087:"§5.5 Isostasy"
2083:
2079:
2072:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2021:
2017:
1980:
1976:
1968:
1957:
1950:
1924:
1911:
1899:
1893:
1889:
1879:
1877:
1847:
1843:
1832:
1828:
1818:
1816:
1815:on 2 April 2015
1812:
1781:
1775:
1771:
1763:
1759:
1751:
1747:
1708:
1704:
1657:
1653:
1616:
1612:
1583:
1579:
1572:
1549:
1545:
1508:
1504:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1412:
1405:
1397:
1388:
1381:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1346:. p. 160.
1332:
1328:
1321:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1291:
1273:
1269:
1262:
1254:. p. 287.
1252:Wiley-Blackwell
1240:
1236:
1229:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1191:Tectonic uplift
1161:Fault mechanics
1138:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1081:basalts, and a
969:
953:tectonic plates
902:
894:
888:
880:
724:thrust faulting
712:
700:
694:
686:passive margins
678:
672:
655:
649:
636:orogenic cycles
632:plate tectonics
628:
622:
545:
539:
507:Picuris orogeny
431:Andes Mountains
353:eclogite facies
315:
309:Plate tectonics
301:
249:comes from
200:mountain ranges
142:
138:
130:
124:
117:
115:
108:
106:
99:
91:
87: Extended
84:
82:
75:
73:
66:
64:
57:
55:
48:
46:
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3688:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3631:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3597:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3564:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3546:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3474:Tectonic phase
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3358:
3356:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3315:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3236:Passive margin
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3161:Foreland basin
3158:
3156:Fold mountains
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3111:Back-arc basin
3108:
3103:
3098:
3092:
3090:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3077:Strike and dip
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3011:Rock mechanics
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2968:
2967:
2960:
2953:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2926:
2925:External links
2923:
2922:
2921:
2914:
2895:
2888:
2873:
2850:
2837:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2805:
2762:
2753:Geol. Mijnbouw
2743:
2728:
2721:
2696:
2669:(30): 423â43.
2647:
2628:
2607:
2600:
2567:
2546:(3): 265â283.
2526:
2512:
2492:
2478:
2452:
2445:
2423:
2400:(2): 201â219.
2394:Andean Geology
2380:
2373:
2346:
2339:
2319:
2305:
2285:
2278:
2258:
2228:
2193:
2186:
2166:
2106:
2099:
2077:
2070:
2048:
2041:
2015:
1974:
1955:
1948:
1909:
1887:
1841:
1826:
1786:Basin Research
1769:
1757:
1745:
1732:10.1086/512755
1718:(3): 315â334.
1702:
1667:(1): 185â201.
1651:
1630:(5): 780â801.
1610:
1577:
1570:
1543:
1502:
1467:
1465:, p. 288.
1455:
1443:
1441:, p. 289.
1431:
1425:978-0470387740
1424:
1403:
1401:, p. 287.
1386:
1379:
1359:
1352:
1326:
1320:978-0550106254
1319:
1296:
1289:
1267:
1260:
1234:
1227:
1221:. p. 20.
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1167:Fold mountains
1164:
1158:
1152:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1009:Jules Thurmann
968:
965:
914:mountain roots
901:
898:
890:Main article:
887:
884:
879:
876:
817:Banff, Alberta
728:Sevier Orogeny
718:An example of
711:
708:
696:Main article:
693:
690:
674:Main article:
671:
668:
651:Main article:
648:
645:
621:
620:Orogenic cycle
618:
574:foreland basin
541:Main article:
538:
535:
527:Sevier orogeny
523:Sonoma orogeny
519:Antler orogeny
464:Lachlan Orogen
384:orogenic belts
300:
297:
230:and uppermost
193:
189:
127:
126:
116:
107:
98:
92:
83:
74:
65:
56:
47:
38:
33:
28:of the world (
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3687:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3630:
3622:
3621:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3402:Transfer zone
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
3001:Mohr's circle
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2966:
2961:
2959:
2954:
2952:
2947:
2946:
2943:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2917:
2911:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2828:
2816:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2778:(6): 627â62.
2777:
2773:
2766:
2758:
2754:
2747:
2739:
2732:
2724:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2705:Ćengör, CelĂąl
2700:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2651:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2611:
2603:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2571:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2515:
2513:9780813516660
2509:
2505:
2504:
2496:
2481:
2479:9780813712031
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2456:
2448:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2384:
2376:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2355:Arthur Holmes
2350:
2342:
2336:
2332:
2331:
2323:
2316:
2314:
2308:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2289:
2281:
2275:
2271:
2270:
2262:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2189:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2170:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2120:
2113:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1935:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1905:
1898:
1891:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1837:
1830:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1792:(2): 105â23.
1791:
1787:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1754:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1646:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1464:
1459:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1427:
1421:
1417:
1410:
1408:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1382:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1363:
1355:
1353:9780813722887
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1322:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1300:
1292:
1290:9780199653065
1286:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1263:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1130:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1109:W. S. Pitcher
1106:
1101:
1099:
1098:geochronology
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1049:asthenosphere
1045:
1044:cooling Earth
1041:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1005:Amanz Gressly
1001:
997:
992:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
964:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
945:thrust faults
943:
939:
935:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
906:
897:
893:
883:
875:
873:
872:epeirogenesis
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
839:
836:
832:
828:
824:
818:
814:
810:
806:
804:
800:
799:Sierra Nevada
796:
792:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
756:
752:
749:(a result of
748:
744:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
716:
707:
705:
699:
689:
687:
683:
677:
667:
664:
660:
654:
644:
641:
637:
633:
627:
617:
615:
611:
607:
602:
600:
599:
594:
593:
588:
584:
579:
575:
570:
568:
567:Southern Alps
563:
559:
549:
544:
543:Orogenic belt
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
515:late Devonian
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
479:
477:
473:
467:
465:
461:
457:
453:
452:
447:
443:
438:
436:
432:
428:
423:
421:
417:
413:
412:metamorphosed
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
380:
378:
377:oceanic plate
374:
370:
366:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
335:
331:
327:
326:oceanic plate
323:
319:
314:
310:
306:
296:
294:
290:
289:G. K. Gilbert
286:
283:
276:
272:
269:
266:
259:
255:
252:
251:Ancient Greek
248:
243:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
191:
188:
187:orogenic belt
185:
183:
179:
175:
169:
136:
123:
120: >65
114:
105:
96:
95:Oceanic crust
93:
90:
81:
72:
63:
54:
45:
37:
36:
31:
27:
23:
19:
3397:Thrust fault
3230:
3086:Large-scale
3057:Inclinometer
3031:Stress field
2904:
2878:
2841:
2832:
2814:
2808:
2775:
2771:
2765:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2737:
2731:
2722:0-471-103764
2712:
2699:
2666:
2660:
2650:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2622:
2617:
2610:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2570:
2543:
2539:
2529:
2517:. Retrieved
2502:
2495:
2483:. Retrieved
2469:
2465:
2455:
2436:
2426:
2397:
2393:
2383:
2363:
2349:
2329:
2322:
2312:
2310:
2295:
2288:
2268:
2261:
2249:. Retrieved
2245:the original
2240:
2231:
2206:
2202:
2196:
2176:
2169:
2158:the original
2129:
2125:
2090:
2080:
2061:
2051:
2024:
2018:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1933:
1903:
1890:
1878:. Retrieved
1858:
1854:
1844:
1835:
1829:
1817:. Retrieved
1810:the original
1789:
1785:
1772:
1760:
1748:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1627:
1623:
1613:
1594:
1590:
1580:
1553:
1546:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1483:(3): 31â48.
1480:
1476:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1415:
1369:
1362:
1339:
1329:
1308:
1299:
1276:
1270:
1247:
1237:
1213:
1206:
1149:Biogeography
1102:
1089:
1087:
1062:
1057:
1039:
1028:
1025:Eduard Suess
1016:
1012:
993:
970:
961:metamorphism
938:suture zones
930:
913:
909:
903:
895:
881:
840:
823:Mount Rundle
821:
813:Mount Rundle
795:lithospheric
788:
769:
759:
751:delamination
734:. The white
704:volcanic arc
701:
679:
666:continents.
656:
635:
629:
626:Wilson Cycle
603:
596:
590:
573:
571:
554:
480:
468:
455:
449:
439:
434:
424:
387:
383:
381:
362:
281:
278:
271:
264:
261:
254:
246:
244:
240:synkinematic
239:
235:
210:of existing
203:
134:
133:
111: 20â65
61:
18:
3578:Paleostress
3464:Slickenside
3439:Crenulation
3392:Fault trace
3387:Fault scarp
3377:Disturbance
3362:Cataclasite
3251:Rift valley
3171:Half-graben
3141:Fault block
3126:DĂ©collement
2472:: 187â208.
2417:11336/68522
1861:(1): 4â25.
1556:: 171â334.
1554:Precambrian
1105:H. J. Zwart
1077:sequences,
1040:compression
1031:geosyncline
1007:(1840) and
985:Neoplatonic
855:strike-slip
640:Tuzo Wilson
442:island arcs
400:earthquakes
236:synorogenic
224:lithosphere
208:deformation
102: 0â20
3644:Categories
3606:Pure shear
3593:Shear zone
3550:Competence
3434:Compaction
3311:Fracturing
3106:Autochthon
3101:Allochthon
2866:Ordovician
2759:: 283â309.
2251:29 January
2209:(9): 811.
1994:: 116905.
1597:(4): 220.
1571:0813752183
1522:(3): n/a.
1199:References
1079:tholeiitic
1029:precursor
1011:(1854) as
698:Subduction
692:Subduction
624:See also:
420:batholiths
369:subduction
349:blueschist
328:beneath a
322:Subduction
305:Subduction
303:See also:
293:epeirogeny
204:orogenesis
3542:Boudinage
3522:Monocline
3517:Homocline
3497:Anticline
3479:Tectonite
3469:Stylolite
3444:Fissility
3421:lineation
3417:Foliation
3281:Syneclise
3226:Obduction
3196:Inversion
3088:tectonics
2800:128935736
2691:131423196
2562:244188689
2010:234818905
1697:140546624
1689:0305-8719
1624:Tectonics
1591:Geosphere
1516:Tectonics
1305:"orogeny"
1075:ophiolite
996:Dominican
977:Christian
922:Isostatic
910:unroofing
726:) of the
583:Sediments
491:Laurentia
476:Himalayas
472:Himalayan
373:continent
371:(where a
357:Himalayas
299:Tectonics
245:The word
216:volcanism
3629:Category
3601:Mylonite
3532:Vergence
3527:Syncline
3429:Cleavage
3354:Faulting
2870:Silurian
2862:Devonian
2858:Cambrian
2578:(1852).
2540:Episodes
2519:17 April
2485:17 April
2361:(2004).
2154:10988067
1819:30 March
1740:67843559
1126:See also
1013:orogenic
998:scholar
934:terranes
845:and the
829:between
772:isostasy
610:Penokean
487:basement
462:and the
451:terranes
196:uplifted
178:building
174:mountain
53:Platform
3650:Orogeny
3502:Chevron
3489:Folding
3334:Fissure
3286:Terrane
3231:Orogeny
3211:MĂ©lange
3146:Fenster
3036:Tension
2860:to the
2780:Bibcode
2713:Orogeny
2671:Bibcode
2592:Orogeny
2211:Bibcode
2203:Geology
2134:Bibcode
2126:Science
1880:6 March
1863:Bibcode
1794:Bibcode
1720:Bibcode
1669:Bibcode
1632:Bibcode
1524:Bibcode
1485:Bibcode
1071:molasse
973:fossils
942:dipping
905:Erosion
900:Erosion
867:Hotspot
835:Canmore
825:on the
732:Montana
606:Algoman
598:molasse
587:erosion
537:Orogens
499:Yavapai
418:called
392:cratons
388:orogens
282:génesis
275:ÎłÎΜΔÏÎčÏ
247:orogeny
172:) is a
135:Orogeny
3276:Suture
3261:Saddle
3201:Klippe
3166:Graben
3026:Stress
3016:Strain
2912:
2886:
2872:times.
2848:
2798:
2719:
2689:
2598:
2560:
2510:
2476:
2443:
2371:
2337:
2303:
2276:
2184:
2152:
2097:
2068:
2039:
2008:
1946:
1738:
1695:
1687:
1568:
1422:
1377:
1350:
1317:
1287:
1258:
1225:
1067:flysch
1053:mantle
981:Deluge
949:nappes
784:mantle
614:Antler
592:flysch
558:Taiwan
497:. The
408:strata
404:eroded
324:of an
311:, and
232:mantle
192:orogen
125:
118:
109:
100:
85:
78:
76:
69:
67:
62:Orogen
60:
58:
51:
49:
44:Shield
42:
40:
3611:Shear
3339:Joint
3221:Nappe
3181:Horst
3176:Horse
2796:S2CID
2687:S2CID
2621:[
2582:[
2558:S2CID
2161:(PDF)
2122:(PDF)
2006:S2CID
1900:(PDF)
1813:(PDF)
1782:(PDF)
1736:S2CID
1693:S2CID
1173:Guyot
1090:event
1083:nappe
957:folds
853:. In
831:Banff
562:Banda
427:crust
334:Andes
253:
234:). A
228:crust
220:Magma
89:crust
71:Basin
3512:Dome
3419:and
3344:Vein
3324:Dike
3256:Rift
3067:Rake
2910:ISBN
2884:ISBN
2868:and
2846:ISBN
2717:ISBN
2644:(1).
2596:ISBN
2521:2022
2508:ISBN
2487:2022
2474:ISBN
2441:ISBN
2369:ISBN
2335:ISBN
2313:e.g.
2301:ISBN
2274:ISBN
2253:2014
2182:ISBN
2150:PMID
2095:ISBN
2066:ISBN
2037:ISBN
1944:ISBN
1882:2016
1821:2015
1685:ISSN
1566:ISBN
1420:ISBN
1375:ISBN
1348:ISBN
1315:ISBN
1285:ISBN
1256:ISBN
1223:ISBN
1069:and
833:and
612:and
525:and
501:and
458:The
398:and
265:Ăłros
258:áœÏÎżÏ
238:(or
30:USGS
2788:doi
2776:136
2679:doi
2548:doi
2470:203
2412:hdl
2402:doi
2219:doi
2142:doi
2130:289
2029:doi
1996:doi
1992:564
1940:493
1871:doi
1859:157
1802:doi
1728:doi
1716:115
1677:doi
1665:106
1640:doi
1599:doi
1558:doi
1532:doi
1493:doi
1051:or
940:or
730:in
386:or
351:to
190:or
3646::
2794:.
2786:.
2774:.
2757:46
2755:.
2685:.
2677:.
2665:.
2659:.
2640:.
2556:.
2544:45
2542:.
2538:.
2468:.
2464:.
2435:.
2410:.
2398:39
2396:.
2392:.
2357:;
2309:.
2239:.
2217:.
2207:28
2205:.
2148:.
2140:.
2128:.
2124:.
2109:^
2089:.
2060:.
2035:.
2004:.
1990:.
1986:.
1958:^
1942:.
1930:.
1912:^
1869:.
1857:.
1853:.
1800:.
1788:.
1784:.
1734:.
1726:.
1714:.
1691:.
1683:.
1675:.
1663:.
1638:.
1628:17
1626:.
1622:.
1593:.
1589:.
1564:.
1530:.
1520:24
1518:.
1514:.
1491:.
1481:16
1479:.
1406:^
1389:^
1307:.
1283:.
1246:.
1092:,
1055:.
991:.
963:.
861:,
815:,
786:.
688:.
661:.
608:,
444:,
437:.
422:.
359:)
336:)
307:,
295:.
218:.
156:dÊ
122:Ma
113:Ma
104:Ma
2964:e
2957:t
2950:v
2918:.
2892:.
2854:.
2802:.
2790::
2782::
2725:.
2693:.
2681::
2673::
2667:5
2642:3
2604:.
2564:.
2550::
2523:.
2489:.
2449:.
2420:.
2414::
2404::
2377:.
2343:.
2282:.
2255:.
2225:.
2221::
2213::
2190:.
2144::
2136::
2103:.
2074:.
2045:.
2031::
2012:.
1998::
1952:.
1884:.
1873::
1865::
1823:.
1804::
1796::
1790:8
1742:.
1730::
1722::
1699:.
1679::
1671::
1648:.
1642::
1634::
1607:.
1601::
1595:3
1574:.
1560::
1540:.
1534::
1526::
1499:.
1495::
1487::
1428:.
1383:.
1356:.
1323:.
1293:.
1264:.
1231:.
916:(
722:(
285:)
279:(
268:)
262:(
226:(
176:-
168:/
165:i
162:n
159:É
153:É
150:r
147:Ë
144:É
141:/
137:(
97::
32:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
