49:. For example, a trip planner can show that the user can get from one destination to another by using a train/bus combination. The user can then choose their preferred trip based on cost, time, and convenience. At that point, any necessary bookings (e.g. calling a taxi, reserving a seat on a long-distance train) would be performed as a unit. It is expected that this service should allow roaming, that is, the same end-user app should work in different cities, without the user needing to become familiar with a new app or to sign up to new services. Together with other emerging vehicular technologies such as automated driving, connected cars and electric vehicles, MaaS is contributing to a new type of future mobility, which is autonomous, connected, electric and shared vehicles.
316:
including populations without smartphones, those who need wheelchair-accessible vehicles, unbanked populations, low-income populations, people of color, and populations with limited
English proficiency, and inform best practices and FTA guidance for public-private partnerships and novel transit service delivery models. Although the project had to be terminated when the COVID-a9 epidemic began, the evaluation found that transit agencies improved and increase access to transit. Through significant public-private coordination, the pilot provided valuable lessons to inform how transit agencies can leverage on-demand first/last mile services to enhance mobility.
271:
electric autonomous vehicles . The notion of a digitally connected seamless multi-modal transportation network was discussed as a potential outcome of the real-time connectivity offered by the newly introduced smart phone. The idea was that this would become so ubiquitous and seamless that mobility could be "backgrounded" in the urban fabric similar to other essential utilities or services. It would come to be seen as common place as turning on the tap to get water or the light switch to get illumination; hence mobility-as-a-service.
168:, the MaaS operator can purchase bulk transit services and act as the middleman through the product, Hannovermobil. It is not necessary that the operator include all forms of transport, but just enough to be able to provide reasonable guarantees. A monthly subscription will also provide enough funding for the MaaS operator to purchase significant enough transit services that it can use market power to achieve competitive prices. In particular, a MaaS operator may improve the problems of low utilization - e.g. in
312:
company was melded with the efficiency of a fixed-route bus by grouping customers traveling in similar patterns and allowing quicker connections to the core transit system. The evaluation revealed the AMORE service worked as anticipated in the test environment, but lack of demand during implementation limited its effectiveness. Successor programs are under development.
180:
applications would operate as search engines, seeking to draw all transport service providers into a single application, enabling users to avoid having to interact with multiple gateways in an attempt to assemble the optimal trip. Many cities have cards which pay for intermodal public transport, including
133:
charges, train ticket admin fees and even the time taken to book a journey) businesses can make informed decisions about travel policy, fleet management and expense claims. Some MaaS companies suggest that in journey planning alone, it can take up to 9 steps before a simple travel arrangement is booked.
41:
providers are combined through a unified gateway, usually via an app or website, that creates and manages the trip and payments, including subscriptions, with a single account. The key concept behind MaaS is to offer travelers flexible mobility solutions based on their travel needs, thus "mobility as
132:
MaaS equally has many benefits for the business world - understanding the Total Cost of
Business Mobility could help travel decision makers in the corporate world save hundreds of thousands. By analysing data and costs attributed to "business mobility" (e.g. vehicle rental costs, fuel costs, parking
315:
The Puget Sound First/Last Mile
Partnership with Via to Transit project was designed to improve mobility by expanding access to transit by developing a partnership with a private sector mobility company, integrating the services with existing transit services, broadening access to a wider audience,
140:
MaaS also holds remarkable potential in the revolutionizing of public transport systems in developing countries. Since developing countries tend to depend heavily on informal and unstructured public transport modes, the concept of MaaS according to some researchers, could hold the key to providing
270:
In June 2012, Agrion, an energy storage company, sponsored a 1/2-day conference in San
Francisco, CA titled "E-Mobility as a Service" at which the concept of Mobility as a Service was discussed as a potential outcome of the confluence between the digital realm of smartphone technology and shared
128:
MaaS could improve ridership habits, transit network efficiency, decrease costs to the user, improve utilization of MaaS transit providers, reduce city congestion as more users adopt MaaS as a main source of transit, and reduce emissions as more users rely on public transit component, autonomous
311:
The Palo Alto, California "Adaptive
Mobility with Reliability and Efficiency" (AMORE) project tested a flexible service for commuting or first/last-mile connections to fixed-route service in relatively high-income, high-vehicle-ownership communities. The flexibility of a transit-hailing private
236:
Autonomous vehicles could allow the public to use roads in low cost-per-kilometre, self-navigating vehicles to a preferred destination at a significantly lower cost than current taxi and ridesharing prices. The vehicles could have a large impact on the quality of life in urban areas and form a
240:
Modelling scenarios were conducted on the deployment of shared autonomous vehicles on the city of Lisbon by PTV as part of the
International Transport Forum's Corporate Partnership Board. This model shows that the positive impacts on transport networks and mobility in congested places will be
179:
model operates well in environments with a high number of "one-off" riders (tourists, transit networks in areas with high car adoption, etc.). Each leg of the booked trip (each train trip, taxi trip etc.) is priced separately and is set by the transport service provider. In this model, mobile
306:
In the United States, the US Department of
Transportation began a series of demonstration projects called the "Mobility on Demand Sandbox Program" in 2016. Overseen by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), the goals of the program included improved efficiency, effectiveness, and customer
159:
model assumes that enough users consume public transit services on a monthly basis to offer bundled transit service. Users pay a monthly fee and receive bundled transit services such as unlimited travel on urban public transport in addition to a fixed number of taxi kilometers. The monthly
94:) to pay for their travel. Between the multiple modes, trips, and payments, data is gathered and used to help people's journeys become more efficient. In the government space, the same data allows for informed decision-making when considering improvements in regional transit systems.
191:
Both models have similar requirements, such as trip planners to construct optimal trip chains, and technical and business relationships with transport service providers, (i.e. a taxi booking/payment API and e-ticketing, QR codes on urban buses and metros, etc.).
208:
has announced that it plans to transition its app to a fully autonomous service and aims to be cheaper than car ownership. Many automobile manufacturers and technology companies have announced plans or are rumored to develop autonomous vehicles, including
120:
during which many private cars were deregistered for the duration of the trial and utilization of existing transit services increased the efficiency of the overall network. Ultimately, a more efficient network coupled with new technology such as
172:, taxi drivers spend 75% of their working time waiting for a customer, and 50% of kilometers driven without generating revenue. A MaaS operator can solve this problem by guaranteeing a base salary to taxi drivers through existing employers.
241:
realised to their greatest extent with increases in shared minibus/bus scale public transport in addition to ride-sharing; whereas autonomous taxis with individual passengers would see a large increase in vehicle kilometres and congestion.
307:
experience of transportation services. Eleven cities received almost $ 8 million to conduct demonstration projects which were evaluated based on performance measures provided by the project partners, as well as independent evaluators.
141:
more efficient, equitable and accessible transportation services. In these contexts however, MaaS may need to be re-envisioned, and tailored to the unique challenges of the developing world, in order to create the desired impacts.
85:
This shift is further enabled by improvements in the integration of multiple modes of transport into seamless trip chains, with bookings and payments managed collectively for all legs of the trip. In London, commuters may use a
1243:
82:, which puts into question the economic benefit of owning a personal car over using on-demand car services, which are widely expected to become significantly more affordable when cars can drive autonomously.
136:
However, there are also many anticipated challenges for sustainability and governance stemming from MaaS, ranging from increased energy use, reduced health effects, and up to conflicts across organizations.
57:
Booming demand for more personalised transport services has created a market space and momentum for MaaS. The movement towards MaaS is fueled by a myriad of innovative new mobility service providers such as
523:
417:
to have 200 participants provide feedback. The app included mapping, planning, mobile ticketing, real-time arrival information, and parking options. The pilot was funded by with $ 150,000 each from the
267:
under the monthly subscription model. The service was well received; however, it was discontinued due to lack of support at the government level for third party on-selling of public transport tickets.
116:
MaaS could significantly increase the efficiency and utilization of transit providers that contribute to the overall transit network in a region. The predictions were validated by the Ubigo trial in
1864:
274:
The idea then gained widespread publicity through the efforts of Sampo
Hietanen, CEO of ITS Finland (later founder and CEO of Maas Global), and Sonja Heikkila, then a Masters student at
914:
Dzisi, Emmanuel Komla Junior; Obeng, Daniel Atuah; Ackaah, Williams; Tuffour, Yaw
Adubofour (1 January 2022). "MaaS for paratransit minibus taxis in developing countries: A review".
603:
537:
Hamid, Umar Zakir Abdul; Al-Turjman, Fadi (2021). "Introductory
Chapter: A Brief Overview of Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) Vehicles as the Future of Mobility".
303:(BVG) continued Mobility as a Service development by launching first in the world large scale and city owned project "Jelbi" together with a Lithuanian mobility startup Trafi.
397:
launched a trial in 2018 that was promoted as the first MaaS app in the UK but it ultimately didn't the usage they expected but a new trial is expected to launch in 2024.
1247:
296:
The EU-funded "Mobinet" project has laid some of the groundwork for MaaS, e.g. pan-European identity management of travelers, and payments, and links to trip planners.
160:
subscription model incorporates a well-funded commercially operated "MaaS Operator" which will purchase transport services in bulk and provide guarantees to users. In
113:
Mobility as a service may cause a decline in car ownership. If average vehicle occupancy for on-road time decreases, total vehicle-kilometres-travelled will increase.
1857:
33:) is a type of service that enables users to plan, book, and pay for multiple types of mobility services through a combined platform. Transportation services from
1033:
1345:
999:
1346:"U.S. DOT Secretary Foxx Participates in White House Frontiers Conference, Announces Nearly $ 65 Million in Advanced Technology Transportation Grants | FTA"
1850:
42:
a service" also refers to the broader concept of a shift away from personally-owned modes of transportation and towards mobility provided as a service.
1327:
1269:
1641:
1450:
1715:
1423:
1123:
696:
Taiebat; Brown; Safford; Qu; Xu (2018). "A Review on Energy, Environmental, and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles".
2373:
1691:
282:
857:"Modifying the SERVPERF to assess paratransit minibus taxis trotro in Ghana and the relevance of mobility-as-a-service features to the service"
1507:
2363:
1079:
611:
237:
critical part of the future of transportation, while benefiting the traveler, the environment, and even other sectors such as healthcare.
105:
there is demand and proposals may have different characteristics like support for offline access and integration with informal transport.
149:
The concept assumes use through mobile app, although the concept can also be used for any type of payment (transit card, ticket, etc.).
256:
In 1996, the concept of an "intelligent information assistant" integrating different travel and tourism services was introduced at the
20:
1739:
1476:"Empower or Thwart? Insights from Vienna and Helsinki regarding the role of public authorities in the development of MaaS schemes"
1148:
Tschanz, Nico; Zimmermann, Hans-Dieter (1996). "The Electronic Mall Bodensee as Platform for the Development of Travel Services".
1283:
816:"Interpretative flexibility and conflicts in the emergence of Mobility as a Service: Finnish public sector actor perspectives"
1165:
554:
499:
2282:
419:
973:
579:
1969:
1055:
1451:"Mobility on Demand (MOD) Sandbox Demonstration: Puget Sound First/Last Mile Partnership with Via (Report 0183) | FTA"
1372:
78:
services as well as on-demand "pop-up" bus services. On the other hand, the trend is motivated by the anticipation of
2181:
1991:
1900:
1842:
1025:
431:
1003:
524:"Global Intelligent Transportation Systems Market to Grow at a CAGR of over 10% Through 2020 Finds TechSci Research"
1605:"Civil servant tactics for realizing transition tasks understanding the microdynamics of transformative government"
1809:
2195:
1905:
1401:
Mobility on Demand Sandbox Demonstration: Adaptive Mobility with Reliability and Efficiency (AMORE), Final Report
1940:
2302:
2026:
1103:
2218:
1959:
338:
In September 2023, Brussels launched Floya, as MaaS app to book public transport, scooters, bikes, and cars.
289:, and subsequently, the Mobility as a Service Alliance was formed. In 2017 the MaaS Alliance published its
2338:
2307:
2213:
2042:
2001:
1890:
1785:
1578:
1996:
1895:
436:
394:
1740:"Moving MaaS: Mobility as a Service in the United States and Abroad – The Eno Center for Transportation"
749:
248:, secured funding to be used over the next ten years to support the development of autonomous vehicles.
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1974:
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949:
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67:
38:
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2424:
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1217:
63:
34:
1218:"Mobility as a Service - A Proposal for Action for the Public Administration, Case Helsinki"
1925:
1920:
1533:
868:
645:
634:"Mobility as a Service (MaaS) in the Global South: research findings, gaps, and directions"
775:"Questioning mobility as a service: Unanticipated implications for society and governance"
773:
Pangbourne, Kate; Mladenović, Miloš N.; Stead, Dominic; Milakis, Dimitris (January 2020).
8:
2399:
2081:
1026:"Uber CEO explains his company's highly ambitious goal to end car ownership in the world"
122:
87:
1603:
Braams, Rik B.; Wesseling, Joeri H.; Meijer, Albert J.; Hekkert, Marko P. (2023-05-11).
872:
649:
330:
The SMILE (Simply MobILE) project started in 2012 and the trial began in November 2014.
2176:
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2006:
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1964:
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1105:
Urban Mobility System Upgrade: How shared self-driving cars could change city traffic
935:
896:
841:
800:
723:
673:
564:
550:
509:
495:
346:
Whim started in Helsinki in 2016 and provided 1.8 Million trips a year after launch.
735:
405:
Go Denver was launched in February 2016, and it had over 7,000 users by June 2017.
293:
on Mobility as a Service, and how to create foundation for thriving MaaS ecosystem.
2075:
1910:
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923:
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876:
827:
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715:
663:
653:
542:
487:
275:
257:
79:
1716:"Go Denver opens up a world of seamless mobility and better data-driven decisions"
881:
462:
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46:
1492:
1475:
546:
2394:
2389:
1979:
832:
815:
658:
633:
410:
409:
ran the "Move PGH" two year pilot program from July 2021 to July 2023. In 2022
359:
218:
201:
1692:"Go Denver App: Will It Help Find Better, Cheaper, Faster Ways to Get Around?"
977:
927:
791:
774:
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1626:
677:
355:
719:
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2121:
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1400:
900:
727:
441:
263:
The concept first arose in Sweden. A well-executed trial was conducted in
245:
230:
210:
102:
98:
1424:"Palo Alto prepares to enter 'microtransit' arena with on-demand shuttles"
463:"Making Mobility-as-a-Service: Towards Governance Principles and Pathways"
278:, and the support of the Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communication.
2150:
1810:"City of Tampa Launches Mobility as a Service (MaaS) App | City of Tampa"
855:
Dzisi, Emmanuel; Obeng, Daniel Atuah; Tuffour, Yaw Adubofour (May 2021).
541:. EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing. pp. 3–8.
290:
91:
1558:"Moving MaaS 3: Helsinki Happenings – The Eno Center for Transportation"
1124:"Obama Administration Unveils $ 4B Plan to Jump-Start Self-Driving Cars"
1080:"Driving Forward - What's Beyond Self-Driving Cars? | TechWeekEurope UK"
668:
1617:
1604:
406:
379:
264:
226:
117:
75:
1408:
383:
370:
In 2019 seven MaaS projects were being organized around the country.
185:
1111:. International Transport Forum's Corporate Partnership Board. 2015.
2160:
2145:
710:
286:
214:
169:
165:
161:
59:
772:
580:"Feasibility Study for Mobility as a Service Concept for London"
2353:
414:
181:
152:
The concept is then broken down further into 2 payment models:
2292:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2093:
222:
1602:
2343:
2069:
1837:
1328:"From U-Bahn to e-scooters: Berlin mobility app has it all"
604:"NextCity: Cubic's Vision for the Future of Urban Mobility"
205:
188:
but none yet include taxis/on-demand buses in the service.
320:
125:
could significantly reduce the cost of public transit.
1181:
913:
299:
In September 2019, Berlin's public transport authority
482:
Mladenović, Miloš N. (2021). "Mobility as a Service".
1579:"Bahn verkauft Qixxit an Lastminute » MOViNC.de"
1312:
1150:
Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism
695:
244:
In January 2016, the President of the United States,
1244:"Mobility as a Service – the new transport paradigm"
1399:McGinnis, James; McLaughlin, Preston (2022-01-01).
814:Mladenović, Miloš N.; Haavisto, Noora (June 2021).
779:
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
632:Hasselwander, Marc; Bigotte, Joao F. (2023-09-05).
631:
526:(Press release). TechSci Research. 18 January 2016.
1398:
1221:
813:
1876:, self-driving vehicles and enabling technologies
1147:
854:
539:Towards Connected and Autonomous Vehicle Highways
413:launched a six-month pilot in collaboration with
2416:
1373:"Mobility on Demand (MOD) Sandbox Program | FTA"
195:
90:bank card (or a dedicated travel card called an
2374:IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society
1786:"Florida city trials mobility-as-a-service app"
1642:"New MaaS travel service launches in Stockholm"
1196:"E-Mobility as a Service (Half Day Conference)"
536:
283:World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems
1858:
1473:
2364:VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous Challenge
484:International Encyclopedia of Transportation
1284:"White Paper: Mobility as a Service (MaaS)"
1865:
1851:
1474:Audouin, Maxime; Finger, Matthias (2019).
481:
21:mobility as a service (phones and tablets)
1689:
1616:
1491:
1053:
890:
880:
831:
790:
709:
667:
657:
1121:
691:
689:
687:
354:Qixxit was a nationwide planning app by
97:Most MaaS studies have been done in the
1325:
1056:"A Roadmap for a World Without Drivers"
577:
321:List of current MaaS systems by country
2417:
698:Environmental Science & Technology
251:
45:Travel planning typically begins in a
1846:
1783:
1667:"West Midlands gives MaaS another go"
1664:
1639:
1531:
1508:"SMILE Project in Vienna | TRANSFORM"
1445:
1443:
1394:
1392:
1367:
1365:
684:
52:
2283:Dedicated short-range communications
420:Florida Department of Transportation
108:
1421:
1122:Wagstaff, Keith (14 January 2016).
281:MaaS became a popular topic at the
13:
1970:Automated emergency braking system
1753:
1440:
1389:
1362:
750:"Car Emissions and Global Warming"
638:European Transport Research Review
492:10.1016/B978-0-08-102671-7.10607-4
365:
144:
14:
2441:
1992:Advanced driver-assistance system
1901:Intelligent transportation system
1831:
1784:Carey, Christopher (2022-12-12).
1665:Carey, Christopher (2023-07-07).
1532:Carey, Christopher (2023-09-11).
1326:Busvine, Douglas (Sep 24, 2019).
460:
432:Intelligent transportation system
389:
19:For managing mobile devices, see
16:Internet assisted travel planning
2214:Safe speed automotive common law
1534:"Brussels launches new MaaS app"
1480:Transportation Research Procedia
820:Case Studies on Transport Policy
400:
1906:Context-aware pervasive systems
1802:
1777:
1732:
1708:
1683:
1658:
1633:
1596:
1571:
1550:
1525:
1500:
1467:
1415:
1338:
1319:
1305:
1276:
1262:
1236:
1210:
1188:
1174:
1141:
1115:
1096:
1072:
1047:
1036:from the original on 2015-11-01
1018:
992:
966:
950:"Bicycle, Car & CarSharing"
942:
907:
848:
807:
766:
2303:Radio-frequency identification
2027:Automated Lane Keeping Systems
1246:. Oct 10, 2015. Archived from
1220:. Oct 10, 2015. Archived from
1054:Rubalcava, Alex (2015-08-26).
1002:. Oct 10, 2015. Archived from
976:. Oct 10, 2015. Archived from
742:
625:
596:
571:
530:
516:
475:
454:
1:
2219:Automated lane keeping system
1960:Lane departure warning system
1293:. Brussels. September 4, 2019
882:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07071
754:Union of Concerned Scientists
447:
196:Impact of autonomous vehicles
2339:American Center for Mobility
2308:Automotive navigation system
2096:, formerly Google Car (2012)
2043:Automotive navigation system
2002:Intelligent speed adaptation
1891:History of self-driving cars
1510:. 2018-09-14. Archived from
1158:10.1007/978-3-7091-7598-9_23
916:Travel Behaviour and Society
610:. 2014-10-21. Archived from
378:UbiGo started as a pilot in
129:vehicles in a MaaS network.
7:
1997:Driver drowsiness detection
1896:Impact of self-driving cars
1493:10.1016/j.trpro.2019.09.003
1182:"Ubigo home page (Swedish)"
547:10.1007/978-3-030-66042-0_1
437:Demand-responsive transport
425:
395:Transport for West Midlands
10:
2446:
2237:Self-driving car liability
2141:Automated guideway transit
1975:Collision avoidance system
1640:Frost, Adam (2019-05-07).
1030:Business Insider Australia
833:10.1016/j.cstp.2021.04.005
659:10.1186/s12544-023-00604-2
349:
341:
333:
325:
200:As the development of the
18:
2382:
2369:Eureka Prometheus Project
2349:European Land-Robot Trial
2327:
2316:
2268:Artificial neural network
2243:
2231:
2224:Regulation (EU) 2019/2144
2194:
2131:
2062:
2055:
2015:
1948:
1939:
1916:Smart, connected products
1881:
1270:"Launch of MaaS Alliance"
928:10.1016/j.tbs.2021.09.001
792:10.1016/j.tra.2019.09.033
373:
301:Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe
204:accelerates, the company
2288:Real-time Control System
2167:Freightliner Inspiration
2032:Vehicular ad hoc network
1646:Traffic Technology Today
2116:Yandex self-driving car
2018:the driving environment
1985:Adaptive cruise control
1951:the driving environment
1585:(in German). 2019-07-03
720:10.1021/acs.est.8b00127
72:scooter-sharing systems
68:bicycle-sharing systems
2273:Computer stereo vision
2221:(unece regulation 157)
1949:Human driver monitors
1690:Badzmierowski, Brian.
39:private transportation
2359:DARPA Grand Challenge
2182:Mobility as a service
2132:Buses and commercial
1609:Public Administration
382:and then launched in
64:ridesharing companies
27:Mobility as a service
1926:Ambient intelligence
1921:Ubiquitous computing
1152:. pp. 200–210.
578:Kamargianni, Maria.
157:Monthly subscription
2400:Anthony Levandowski
2082:General Motors EN-V
1455:www.transit.dot.gov
1377:www.transit.dot.gov
1350:www.transit.dot.gov
1313:"Mobinet home page"
1272:. October 10, 2015.
1032:. 8 February 2015.
980:on October 23, 2018
873:2021Heliy...707071D
704:(20): 11449–11465.
650:2023ETRR...15...27H
252:Historical timeline
123:autonomous vehicles
88:contactless payment
2177:Self-driving truck
2172:Driverless tractor
2007:Blind spot monitor
1931:Internet of things
1618:10.1111/padm.12933
1428:paloaltoonline.com
1422:Sheyner, Gennady.
1000:"Company web page"
486:. pp. 12–18.
53:Trend towards MaaS
2430:Transport culture
2412:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2278:Image recognition
2190:
2189:
2051:
2050:
1965:Automatic parking
1874:Self-driving cars
1765:Engage Pittsburgh
1720:ITS International
1250:on August 5, 2017
1167:978-3-211-82798-7
1084:TechWeekEurope UK
556:978-3-030-66041-3
501:978-0-08-102672-4
358:. It was sold to
109:Potential impacts
80:self-driving cars
2437:
2325:
2324:
2076:Spirit of Berlin
2060:
2059:
2016:System monitors
1946:
1945:
1911:Mobile computing
1867:
1860:
1853:
1844:
1843:
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1806:
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1702:
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1006:on March 5, 2016
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276:Aalto University
258:ENTER conference
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2110:LUTZ Pathfinder
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1315:. Oct 10, 2015.
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1227:
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1224:on May 24, 2016
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1198:. June 26, 2012
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1184:. Oct 10, 2015.
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2020:(Levels 3,4,5)
2013:
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1980:Cruise control
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1953:(Levels 0,1,2)
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826:(2): 851–859.
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422:and the city.
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202:autonomous car
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1880:
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1838:MaaS Alliance
1836:
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1815:
1814:www.tampa.gov
1811:
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1514:on 2018-09-14
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1291:MaaS Alliance
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867:(5): e07071.
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628:
614:on 2017-08-03
613:
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608:www.cubic.com
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401:United States
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40:
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28:
22:
2425:As a service
2298:Eye tracking
2246:technologies
2209:IEEE 802.11p
2122:Honda Legend
2101:
1818:. Retrieved
1816:. 2022-12-12
1813:
1804:
1793:. Retrieved
1790:Cities Today
1789:
1779:
1768:. Retrieved
1764:
1755:
1744:. Retrieved
1742:. 2023-12-07
1734:
1723:. Retrieved
1719:
1710:
1699:. Retrieved
1695:
1685:
1674:. Retrieved
1671:Cities Today
1670:
1660:
1649:. Retrieved
1645:
1635:
1608:
1598:
1587:. Retrieved
1582:
1573:
1562:. Retrieved
1560:. 2023-12-07
1552:
1541:. Retrieved
1538:Cities Today
1537:
1527:
1516:. Retrieved
1512:the original
1502:
1483:
1479:
1469:
1458:. Retrieved
1454:
1431:. Retrieved
1427:
1417:
1380:. Retrieved
1376:
1353:. Retrieved
1349:
1340:
1331:
1321:
1307:
1297:December 14,
1295:. Retrieved
1290:
1278:
1264:
1252:. Retrieved
1248:the original
1238:
1226:. Retrieved
1222:the original
1212:
1202:December 14,
1200:. Retrieved
1190:
1176:
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1143:
1131:. Retrieved
1127:
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1087:. Retrieved
1083:
1074:
1063:. Retrieved
1059:
1049:
1038:. Retrieved
1029:
1020:
1008:. Retrieved
1004:the original
994:
982:. Retrieved
978:the original
968:
957:. Retrieved
953:
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915:
909:
864:
860:
850:
823:
819:
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782:
778:
768:
757:. Retrieved
753:
744:
701:
697:
669:10316/111615
641:
637:
627:
616:. Retrieved
612:the original
607:
598:
586:. Retrieved
573:
538:
532:
518:
483:
477:
466:. Retrieved
456:
442:as a service
404:
393:
377:
369:
353:
345:
337:
329:
305:
298:
295:
280:
273:
269:
262:
255:
246:Barack Obama
243:
239:
235:
231:Local Motors
199:
190:
176:
174:
156:
154:
151:
148:
139:
135:
131:
127:
115:
112:
103:Global South
99:Global North
96:
84:
56:
44:
30:
26:
25:
2204:Legislation
2151:ParkShuttle
974:"Home page"
291:white paper
101:but in the
92:Oyster card
2419:Categories
2332:and events
2196:Regulation
1941:SAE Levels
1820:2023-12-14
1795:2023-12-14
1770:2023-12-11
1761:"Move PGH"
1746:2023-12-11
1725:2023-12-12
1701:2023-12-12
1676:2023-12-11
1651:2023-12-12
1589:2023-12-11
1564:2023-12-12
1543:2023-12-11
1518:2023-12-12
1460:2022-10-20
1433:2022-10-20
1403:(Report).
1382:2022-10-20
1355:2022-10-20
1254:August 16,
1228:August 16,
1089:2016-02-29
1065:2017-12-11
1040:2015-11-02
1010:August 16,
984:August 16,
959:2016-02-29
954:www.gvh.de
759:2016-02-29
711:1901.10581
618:2016-02-29
468:2020-09-25
448:References
407:Pittsburgh
380:Gothenburg
265:Gothenburg
118:Gothenburg
76:carsharing
70:programs,
2330:projects
2244:Enabling
2232:Liability
2104:Autopilot
1627:0033-3298
936:239334558
922:: 18–27.
842:234851464
801:181893706
785:: 35–49.
678:1866-8887
644:(1): 27.
565:238013009
510:242133419
384:Stockholm
362:in 2019.
186:Stuttgart
2161:NuTonomy
2146:CAVForth
2134:vehicles
2056:Vehicles
1696:Westword
1486:: 6–16.
1128:NBC News
1034:Archived
901:34136679
736:52174043
728:30192527
426:See also
287:Bordeaux
285:2015 in
215:Mobileye
170:Helsinki
1884:context
1332:Reuters
1133:21 July
892:8176316
869:Bibcode
861:Heliyon
646:Bibcode
350:Germany
342:Finland
334:Belgium
326:Austria
166:Germany
162:Hanover
60:carpool
2383:People
2354:Navlab
2321:People
2124:(2021)
2118:(2017)
2112:(2015)
2106:(2015)
2090:(2011)
2084:(2010)
2078:(2007)
2072:(1994)
1625:
1583:MOViNC
1164:
934:
899:
889:
840:
799:
734:
726:
676:
588:Jun 1,
563:
553:
508:
498:
415:Moovit
374:Sweden
229:, and
182:Vienna
35:public
2293:rFpro
2263:LIDAR
2258:Laser
2253:Radar
2094:Waymo
2034:(V2V)
1287:(PDF)
1109:(PDF)
932:S2CID
838:S2CID
797:S2CID
732:S2CID
706:arXiv
583:(PDF)
561:S2CID
506:S2CID
411:Tampa
227:Apple
223:Waymo
211:Tesla
2344:DAVI
2163:taxi
2102:with
2070:VaMP
2063:Cars
1623:ISSN
1299:2021
1256:2018
1230:2018
1204:2021
1162:ISBN
1135:2016
1012:2018
986:2018
897:PMID
724:PMID
674:ISSN
590:2015
551:ISBN
496:ISBN
206:Uber
184:and
175:The
155:The
74:and
62:and
37:and
31:MaaS
1613:doi
1488:doi
1405:doi
1154:doi
924:doi
887:PMC
877:doi
828:doi
787:doi
783:131
716:doi
664:hdl
654:doi
543:doi
488:doi
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