1227:
concentrations of carbon, which is a good conductor, result in lower resistances. Carbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not popular for general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress. Carbon composition resistors change value when stressed with over-voltages. Moreover, if internal moisture content, such as from exposure for some length of time to a humid environment, is significant, soldering heat creates a non-reversible change in resistance value. Carbon composition resistors have poor stability with time and were consequently factory sorted to, at best, only 5% tolerance. These resistors are non-inductive, which provides benefits when used in voltage pulse reduction and surge protection applications. Carbon composition resistors have higher capability to withstand overload relative to the component's size.
193:
2264:
in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm in IEC60063 ranges appropriate for their tolerance. Manufacturers may sort resistors into tolerance-classes based on measurement. Accordingly, a selection of 100 ohms resistors with a tolerance of ±10%, might not lie just around 100 ohm (but no more than 10% off) as one would expect (a bell-curve), but rather be in two groups – either between 5 and 10% too high or 5 to 10% too low (but not closer to 100 ohm than that) because any resistors the factory had measured as being less than 5% off would have been marked and sold as resistors with only ±5% tolerance or better. When designing a circuit, this may become a consideration. This process of sorting parts based on post-production measurement is known as "binning", and can be applied to other components than resistors (such as speed grades for CPUs).
5720:. Thick-film and carbon composition resistors generate more excess noise than other types at low frequencies. Wire-wound and thin-film resistors are often used for their better noise characteristics. Carbon composition resistors can exhibit a noise index of 0 dB while bulk metal foil resistors may have a noise index of −40 dB, usually making the excess noise of metal foil resistors insignificant. Thin film surface mount resistors typically have lower noise and better thermal stability than thick film surface mount resistors. Excess noise is also size-dependent: in general, excess noise is reduced as the physical size of a resistor is increased (or multiple resistors are used in parallel), as the independently fluctuating resistances of smaller components tend to average out.
1965:, is inversely proportional to the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very non-linear, calibrated from infinity to 0 ohms. A digital multimeter, using active electronics, may instead pass a specified current through the test resistance. The voltage generated across the test resistance in that case is linearly proportional to its resistance, which is measured and displayed. In either case the low-resistance ranges of the meter pass much more current through the test leads than do high-resistance ranges. This allows for the voltages present to be at reasonable levels (generally below 10 volts) but still measurable.
89:
1878:
1318:
1852:
606:
5682:
or a transistor is not active). A pull-up resistor connects the circuit to a high positive voltage (if the circuit requires a high positive default voltage) and a pull-down resistor connects the circuit to a low voltage or ground (if the circuit requires a low default voltage). The resistor value must be high enough so that, when the circuit is active, the voltage source it is attached to does not over influence the function of the circuit, but low enough so that it "pulls" quickly enough when the circuit is deactivated, and does not significantly alter the voltage from the source value.
29:
1199:
483:
1886:
laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 parts per million, to field grade at 1%. Inexpensive boxes with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer a convenient way of selecting and quickly changing a resistance in laboratory, experimental and development work without needing to attach resistors one by one, or even stock each value. The range of resistance provided, the maximum resolution, and the accuracy characterize the box. For example, one box offers resistances from 0 to 100 megohms, maximum resolution 0.1 ohm, accuracy 0.1%.
78:
73:
1005:
273:
1290:
1061:
1536:
208:
1257:
2133:
1757:
1840:
1608:
1207:
2273:
5797:
1506:
resistance value is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching, similar to the way carbon resistors are made. The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient that is generally between 50 and 100 ppm/K. Metal film resistors possess good noise characteristics and low non-linearity due to a low voltage coefficient. They are also beneficial due to long-term stability.
1833:
resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten turns of their shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a simple turns counter and a graduated dial, and can typically achieve three-digit resolution. Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting coefficients and delayed-sweep oscilloscopes of recent decades included one on their panels.
5749:). This may be due to a fault external to the circuit but is frequently caused by the failure of another component (such as a transistor that shorts out) in the circuit connected to the resistor. Operating a resistor too close to its power rating can limit the resistor's lifespan or cause a significant change in its resistance. A safe design generally uses overrated resistors in power applications to avoid this danger.
1524:
862:
1149:
1631:
the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/°C, tolerance ±0.005%, long-term stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 years) 50 ppm (further improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 μV/°C, noise −42 dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 μH, capacitance 0.5 pF.
1576:. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor overheats at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.
1972:. One pair of terminals applies a known, calibrated current to the resistor, while the other pair senses the voltage drop across the resistor. Some laboratory quality ohmmeters, milliohmmeters, and even some of the better digital multimeters sense using four input terminals for this purpose, which may be used with special test leads called
1627:
1420 °C. When iron is added, the chromium nickel alloy becomes more ductile. The
Nichrome and Chromel C are examples of an alloy containing iron. The composition typical of Nichrome is 60 Ni, 12 Cr, 26 Fe, 2 Mn and Chromel C, 64 Ni, 11 Cr, Fe 25. The melting temperature of these alloys are 1350 °C and 1390 °C, respectively.
2153:, and the fourth the tolerance (which if absent, denotes ±20%). For five- and six- striped resistors the third band is the third digit, the fourth is the multiplier and the fifth is the tolerance; a sixth stripe represents the temperature coefficient. The power rating of the resistor is usually not marked and is deduced from its size.
2224:, giving values of 1.47, 2.15, 3.16, 4.64, 6.81, 10 for the 1–10-decade (a decade is a range increasing by a factor of 10; 0.1–1 and 10–100 are other examples); these are rounded in practice to 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8, 10; followed by 15, 22, 33, ... and preceded by ... 0.47, 0.68, 1. This scheme has been adopted as the
805:
2189:, so that each value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multiplier or percentage, chosen to match the tolerance of the range. For example, for a tolerance of ±20% it makes sense to have each resistor about 1.5 times its predecessor, covering a decade in 6 values. More precisely, the factor used is 1.4678 ≈
5772:
resistance. The voltage dropped across large value resistors can be exceeded before the power dissipation reaches its limiting value. Since the maximum voltage specified for commonly encountered resistors is a few hundred volts, this is a problem only in applications where these voltages are encountered.
5785:(also known as "tuner cleaner") spray. The crackling noise associated with turning the shaft of a dirty potentiometer in an audio circuit (such as the volume control) is greatly accentuated when an undesired DC voltage is present, often indicating the failure of a DC blocking capacitor in the circuit.
2182:, and it makes sense to manufacture values that correlate with the tolerance, so that the actual value of a resistor overlaps slightly with its neighbors. Wider spacing leaves gaps; narrower spacing increases manufacturing and inventory costs to provide resistors that are more or less interchangeable.
5744:
The failure rate of resistors in a properly designed circuit is low compared to other electronic components such as semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. Damage to resistors most often occurs due to overheating when the average power delivered to it greatly exceeds its ability to dissipate heat
5711:
The thermal noise of a practical resistor may also be larger than the theoretical prediction and that increase is typically frequency-dependent. Excess noise of a practical resistor is observed only when current flows through it. This is specified in unit of μV/V/decade – μV of noise per volt applied
5681:
When a circuit is not connected to power, the voltage of that circuit is not zero but undefined (it can be influenced by previous voltages or the environment). A pull-up or pull-down resistor provides a voltage for a circuit when it is otherwise disconnected (such as when a button is not pushed down
2263:
A resistor of 100 ohms ±20% would be expected to have a value between 80 and 120 ohms; its E6 neighbors are 68 (54–82) and 150 (120–180) ohms. A sensible spacing, E6 is used for ±20% components; E12 for ±10%; E24 for ±5%; E48 for ±2%, E96 for ±1%; E192 for ±0.5% or better. Resistors are manufactured
1832:
High-resolution multiturn potentiometers are used in precision applications. These have wire-wound resistance elements typically wound on a helical mandrel, with the wiper moving on a helical track as the control is turned, making continuous contact with the wire. Some include a conductive-plastic
1739:
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be
1665:
In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-cooled lattice of stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes. Such industrial grade resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 amperes of current, with
1571:
coating baked at high temperature. These resistors are designed to withstand unusually high temperatures of up to 450 °C. Wire leads in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wirewound resistors, either
1218:
Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had uninsulated bodies; the
1012:
Power resistors are required to dissipate substantial amounts of power and are typically used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not
280:
compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is clogged with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair:
2397:
is a more compact marking system intended for physically small high-precision resistors. It uses a two-digit code plus a letter (a total of three alphanumeric characters) to indicate 1% resistance values to three significant digits. The two digits (from "01" to "96") are a code that indicates one of
5666:
Oftentimes circuits need to provide various reference voltages for other circuits (such as voltage comparators). A fixed voltage can be obtained by taking two resistors in series between two other fixed voltages (such as the source voltage and ground). The terminal between the two resistors will be
2117:
use. They may have four terminals, using one pair to carry an operating current and the other pair to measure the voltage drop; this eliminates errors caused by voltage drops across the lead resistances, because no charge flows through voltage sensing leads. It is important in small value resistors
1505:
Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though this is one technique used). The
1120:. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.
5735:
in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the resistor leads with the circuit board and with the resistor body. Common metal film resistors show such an effect at a magnitude of about 20 μV/°C. Some carbon composition resistors can exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high as 400 μV/°C,
1630:
Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and stability of any resistor available. One of the important parameters of stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low, and has been further improved over
1230:
Carbon composition resistors are still available, but relatively expensive. Values ranged from fractions of an ohm to 22 megohms. Due to their high price, these resistors are no longer used in most applications. However, they are used in power supplies and welding controls. They are also in demand
1107:
The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors
2177:
Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round numbers; a series might have 100, 125, 150, 200, 300, etc. Early power wirewound resistors, such as brown vitreous-enameled types, were made with a system of preferred values like some of those mentioned here. Resistors as manufactured are
1656:
alloy. Large bolts threaded into the blocks make the current connections, while much smaller screws provide volt meter connections. Shunts are rated by full-scale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current. Such meters are adapted to the shunt full current rating by using an
1647:
is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a value in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves, can usually accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes through the shunt across which the voltage drop is
1276:
carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m), can provide a wide range of resistance values. Carbon film resistors feature lower noise compared to carbon composition resistors because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without binding. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating
5771:
An alternative failure mode can be encountered where large value resistors are used (hundreds of kilohms and higher). Resistors are not only specified with a maximum power dissipation, but also for a maximum voltage drop. Exceeding this voltage causes the resistor to degrade slowly reducing in
2162:
Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire body for color-coding. This base color represented the first digit. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element to represent a second digit, and a color dot (or band) in the middle
1489:
Thin film resistors are usually far more expensive than thick film resistors. For example, SMD thin film resistors, with 0.5% tolerances and with 25 ppm/K temperature coefficients, when bought in full size reel quantities, are about twice the cost of 1%, 250 ppm/K thick film resistors.
5780:
fluctuates; this is especially noticed as the device is adjusted. This is similar to crackling caused by poor contact in switches, and like switches, potentiometers are to some extent self-cleaning: running the wiper across the resistance may improve the contact. Potentiometers which are seldom
1626:
thick. Chromium nickel alloys are characterized by having a large electrical resistance (about 58 times that of copper), a small temperature coefficient and high resistance to oxidation. Examples are
Chromel A and Nichrome V, whose typical composition is 80 Ni and 20 Cr, with a melting point of
5767:
Surface mount resistors have been known to fail due to the ingress of sulfur into the internal makeup of the resistor. This sulfur chemically reacts with the silver layer to produce non-conductive silver sulfide. The resistor's impedance goes to infinity. Sulfur resistant and anti-corrosive
1976:. Each of the two clips has a pair of jaws insulated from each other. One side of each clip applies the measuring current, while the other connections are only to sense the voltage drop. The resistance is again calculated using Ohm's Law as the measured voltage divided by the applied current.
1634:
The thermal stability of this type of resistor also has to do with the opposing effects of the metal's electrical resistance increasing with temperature, and being reduced by thermal expansion leading to an increase in thickness of the foil, whose other dimensions are constrained by a ceramic
1226:
The resistive element in carbon composition resistors is made from a mixture of finely powdered carbon and an insulating material, usually ceramic. A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher
5667:
at a voltage that is between the two voltages, at a linear distance based on the relative resistances of the two resistors. For instance, if a 200 ohm resistor and a 400 ohm resistor are placed in series between 6 V and 0 V, the terminal between them will be at 4 V.
1885:
A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is a unit containing resistors of many values, with one or more mechanical switches which allow any one of various discrete resistances offered by the box to be dialed in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high precision, ranging from
5651:
Resistors are commonly used to limit the amount of current flowing through a circuit. Many circuit components (such as LEDs) require the current flowing through them to be limited, but do not themselves limit the amount of current. Therefore, oftentimes resistors will be added to prevent
2144:
Axial resistor cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green (though other colors are occasionally found as well, such as dark red or dark gray), and display three to six colored stripes that indicate resistance (and by extension tolerance), and may include bands to indicate the temperature
1138:
A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual 47 ohm resistors. This package is also known as a SIP-9. One end of each resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the remaining (common) pin – pin 1, at the end identified by the white
1239:
A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal contact plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the plates. These resistors are used when an adjustable load is required, such as in testing automotive batteries or radio
134:. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
869:
867:
864:
863:
1305:(PCB) substrates as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Although this technique is more common on hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fibreglass PCBs. Tolerances are typically quite large and can be in the order of 30%. A typical application would be non-critical
868:
844:
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the
5736:
whereas specially constructed resistors can reduce this number to 0.05 μV/°C. In applications where the thermoelectric effect may become important, care has to be taken to mount the resistors horizontally to avoid temperature gradients and to mind the air flow over the board.
5712:
across the resistor per decade of frequency. The μV/V/decade value is frequently given in dB so that a resistor with a noise index of 0 dB exhibits 1 μV (rms) of excess noise for each volt across the resistor in each frequency decade. Excess noise is thus an example of
1021:
when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that will not produce flames with any overload of any duration.
1828:
which moves along the surface. An alternate construction is resistance wire wound on a form, with the wiper sliding axially along the coil. These have lower resolution, since as the wiper moves the resistance changes in steps equal to the resistance of a single turn.
5760:
When overheated, carbon-film resistors may decrease or increase in resistance. Carbon film and composition resistors can fail (open circuit) if running close to their maximum dissipation. This is also possible but less likely with metal film and wirewound resistors.
2163:
provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot", providing two significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was ±20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or gold-colored (±5%) paint on the other end.
871:
870:
611:
1046:
resistor) one is listed with a resistance of 100 MΩ and a maximum rated voltage of 750 V. However even placing 750 V across a 100 MΩ resistor continuously would only result in a power dissipation of less than 6 mW, making the nominal
866:
1329:(surface mount device) resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times thicker than thin films, but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors).
1898:
exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, making them useful for measuring temperatures. Since their resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat up due to the passage of current, they are also commonly used to prevent excessive
1240:
transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used as a speed control for small motors in household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred watts. A carbon pile resistor can be incorporated in automatic
1598:
Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the exception of high frequency applications. The high frequency response of wirewound resistors is substantially worse than that of a composition resistor.
6093:
Applying a constant voltage across resistors in that family below the critical resistance will exceed the maximum power rating first; resistances larger than the critical resistance fail first from exceeding the maximum voltage rating. See
1957:. Usually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the resistor. A simple ohmmeter may apply a voltage from a battery across the unknown resistor (with an internal resistor of a known value in series) producing a current which drives a
1115:
rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require
1481:
When first manufactured, thick film resistors had tolerances of 5%, but standard tolerances have improved to 2% or 1% in the last few decades. Temperature coefficients of thick film resistors are typically ±200 or ±250 ppm/K; a
462:. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 10 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 10 Ω) are also in common usage.
1572:
a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an insulating layer is used. If the outer case is ceramic, such resistors are sometimes described as "cement" resistors, though they do not actually contain any traditional
5775:
Variable resistors can also degrade in a different manner, typically involving poor contact between the wiper and the body of the resistance. This may be due to dirt or corrosion and is typically perceived as "crackling" as the
597:
192:
1567:, around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an
1648:
measured and interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on an insulating base. Between the blocks, and soldered or brazed to them, are one or more strips of low
1016:
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its
5652:
overcurrent situations. Additionally, oftentimes circuits do not need the amount of current that would be otherwise flowing through them, so resistors can be added to limit the power consumption of such circuits.
1514:
Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides which results in a higher operating temperature and greater stability and reliability than metal film. They are used in applications with high endurance demands.
1108:
may also be characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals). This is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits that may use them.
2094:. Difficulties in precisely measuring the physical constants to replicate this standard result in variations of as much as 30 ppm. From 1900 the mercury ohm was replaced with a precision machined plate of
5752:
Low-power thin-film resistors can be damaged by long-term high-voltage stress, even below maximum specified voltage and below maximum power rating. This is often the case for the startup resistors feeding a
2370:
Many precision resistors, including surface mount and axial-lead types, are marked with a four-digit code. The first three digits are the significant figures and the fourth is the power of ten. For example:
1354:
Because the time during which the sputtering is performed can be controlled, the thickness of the thin film can be accurately controlled. The type of material also varies, consisting of one or more ceramic
1340:) the resistive material onto an insulating substrate. The film is then etched in a similar manner to the old (subtractive) process for making printed circuit boards; that is, the surface is coated with a
1743:
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a
5781:
adjusted, especially in dirty or harsh environments, are most likely to develop this problem. When self-cleaning of the contact is insufficient, improvement can usually be obtained through the use of
5700:, particularly in the first stage of amplification. As a dissipative element, even an ideal resistor naturally produces a randomly fluctuating voltage, or noise, across its terminals. This
1851:
950:
865:
6239:
1678:
and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC distribution, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric substations.
256:
for three significant digits. When the value can be expressed without the need for a prefix (that is, multiplicator 1), an "R" is used instead of the decimal separator. For example,
1281:
range of −55 °C to 155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.
1989:
Resistor characteristics are quantified and reported using various national standards. In the US, MIL-STD-202 contains the relevant test methods to which other standards refer.
6061:
1135:
800:{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {eq} }=\left(\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{R_{i}}}\right)^{-1}=\left({1 \over R_{1}}+{1 \over R_{2}}+{1 \over R_{3}}+\dots +{1 \over R_{n}}\right)^{-1}}
1182:) leaving the body "axially", that is, on a line parallel with the part's longest axis. Others have leads coming off their body "radially" instead. Other components may be
351:
5764:
There can also be failure of resistors due to mechanical stress and adverse environmental factors including humidity. If not enclosed, wirewound resistors can corrode.
2222:
488:
968:, the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat which must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature rises excessively.
6626:
5708:. Using a larger value of resistance produces a larger voltage noise, whereas a smaller value of resistance generates more current noise, at a given temperature.
1808:
at the terminal connected to the tapping point. Volume control in an audio device is a common application of a potentiometer. A typical low power potentiometer
1926:
in 1938, is a type of resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a pair (half bridge), or four resistors connected in a
850:
421:
401:
377:
2256:
series for components of progressively finer resolution, with 12, 24, 48, 96, and 192 different values within each decade. The actual values used are in the
5768:
resistors are sold into automotive, industrial, and military applications. ASTM B809 is an industry standard that tests a part's susceptibility to sulfur.
1458:
The resistance of both thin and thick film resistors after manufacture is not highly accurate; they are usually trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or
1587:
than other types of resistor. However, winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ
1384:
1470:
levels, on the level of 10–100 times less than thick film resistors. Thick film resistors may use the same conductive ceramics, but they are mixed with
1796:) is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob or by a linear slider. The name
1321:
Laser
Trimmed Precision Thin Film Resistor Network from Fluke, used in the Keithley DMM7510 multimeter. Ceramic backed with glass hermetic seal cover.
2284:. Zero-ohm links are often used instead of wire links, so that they can be inserted by a resistor-inserting machine. Their resistance is negligible.
1422:
1025:
Resistors may be specified with higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service to account for poor air circulation, high altitude, or high
6454:
156:
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine
6874:
6638:
1277:
range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megaohm. The carbon film resistor has an
1244:
for generators, where the carbon pile controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage. This principle is also applied in the
971:
Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems are typically rated as
241:
7924:
6477:
5319:
6522:
6246:
6298:
2145:
coefficient and reliability class. In four-striped resistors, the first two stripes represent the first two digits of the resistance in
8156:
5312:
2320:
Resistances less than 100 Ω are written: 100, 220, 470. The final zero represents ten to the power zero, which is 1. For example:
1941:
to sense mechanical stress. It passes a current whose magnitude can vary by a factor of 10 in response to changes in applied pressure.
2406:
multiplier. For example, the marking "01C" represents 10 kOhm; "10C" represents 12.4 kOhm; "96C" represents 97.6 kOhm.
7748:
6492:
6069:
2257:
2229:
213:
6547:
1032:
All resistors have a maximum voltage rating; this may limit the power dissipation for higher resistance values. For instance, among
890:
601:
The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistors.
149:. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within
8194:
6716:
8096:
7389:
6784:
6758:
8199:
1649:
5704:
is a fundamental noise source which depends only upon the temperature and resistance of the resistor, and is predicted by the
6692:
6020:
5905:
161:
8031:
7306:
1219:
lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for
6614:
1478:. This composite of glass and conductive ceramic (cermet) material is then fused (baked) in an oven at about 850 °C.
7087:
6867:
6840:
5705:
2118:(100–0.0001 ohm) where lead resistance is significant or even comparable with respect to resistance standard value.
236:, this notation uses a letter loosely associated with SI prefixes corresponding with the part's resistance. For example,
6822:
1934:. With the strain gauge and a filter, amplifier, and analog/digital converter, the strain on an object can be measured.
1081:; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. And while even an ideal resistor inherently has
1001:
watt. They usually absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require little attention to their power rating.
8144:
8043:
5825:
1462:. Thin film resistors are usually specified with tolerances of 1% and 5%, and with temperature coefficients of 5 to 50
130:
of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
6816:
2059:
8078:
7917:
7070:
6966:
6768:
6578:
6129:
6105:
1591:, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits, resistors with
7210:
6937:
2295:
and above) are printed with numerical values in a code related to that used on axial resistors. Standard-tolerance
6751:
114:
as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to
8090:
8026:
7258:
7057:
6509:
2137:
2086:
for resistance, the "mercury ohm" was initially defined in 1884 in as a column of mercury 106.3 cm long and
321:
1644:
8359:
6860:
6828:
6659:
6417:
6189:
6012:
Exactly Solved Models: A Journey in
Statistical Mechanics : Selected Papers with Commentaries (1963–2008)
8369:
8216:
8084:
2172:
443:
2292:
7910:
7289:
7041:
6036:
2362:
More recent surface-mount resistors are too small, physically, to permit practical markings to be applied.
1938:
1348:
light, and then the exposed photo-sensitive coating is developed, and underlying thin film is etched away.
473:
1839:
809:
For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor produces
88:
8333:
8228:
7093:
7030:
5893:
1931:
252:(BOM) indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ. Additional zeros imply a tighter tolerance, for example
6461:
2150:
1498:
A common type of axial-leaded resistor today is the metal-film resistor. Metal
Electrode Leadless Face (
8248:
8206:
7753:
7300:
5754:
1531:
on an electric railway car. Such resistors may dissipate many kilowatts for an extended length of time.
1499:
1220:
478:
The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance values.
8364:
8149:
8134:
8060:
8020:
7507:
7221:
7064:
6949:
6478:
Fusing
Resistors and Temperature-Limited Resistors for Radio- and Television- Type Appliances UL 1412
5732:
5701:
1584:
1317:
1264:
In manufacturing carbon film resistors, a carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a
1186:(surface mount technology), while high power resistors may have one of their leads designed into the
1094:
8161:
8066:
8054:
7516:
7374:
7226:
7082:
2296:
2288:
1968:
Measuring low-value resistors, such as fractional-ohm resistors, with acceptable accuracy requires
1592:
1554:
1326:
1183:
1894:
There are various devices whose resistance changes with various quantities. The resistance of NTC
427:
resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12-volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04
207:
8211:
7989:
7984:
7527:
7247:
7046:
6526:
1877:
1463:
1101:
1043:
1018:
101:
42:
6672:
5731:
if its ends are at different temperatures. This induced DC voltage can degrade the precision of
8305:
8102:
7696:
7263:
7128:
7104:
6305:
5830:
104:
6010:
2299:
resistors are marked with a three-digit code, in which the first two digits are the first two
2192:
8317:
8271:
8139:
8037:
7974:
7765:
7717:
7538:
7354:
7269:
7200:
7036:
6407:
5850:
5835:
5728:
2385:
Axial-lead precision resistors often use color code bands to represent this four-digit code.
2186:
2179:
2127:
1973:
1969:
1930:
configuration. The strain resistor is bonded with adhesive to an object that is subjected to
1858:
1666:
a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in applications such as
1302:
1278:
1026:
1008:
An aluminium-encased power resistor rated for dissipation of 50 W when mounted on a heat-sink
447:
111:
201:-style: (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer
8243:
8238:
8221:
7941:
7839:
7583:
7478:
7252:
7145:
6999:
6960:
6891:
6883:
6329:
Zandman, F.; Stein, S. (1964). "A New
Precision Film Resistor Exhibiting Bulk Properties".
5975:
5820:
1657:
appropriately marked dial face; no change need to be made to the other parts of the meter.
1580:
309:
107:
6718:
Audio Noise
Reduction Through the Use of Bulk Metal Foil Resistors – "Hear the Difference"
6489:
2303:
of the value and the third digit is the power of ten (the number of zeroes). For example:
1622:
The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a chromium nickel alloy foil several
8:
8290:
8233:
8072:
7994:
7969:
7933:
7559:
7467:
7359:
7195:
7172:
6557:
5691:
2099:
2016:
1671:
1364:
1090:
1086:
157:
150:
57:
6725:
5979:
5871:
28:
8310:
8295:
8176:
8014:
7979:
7864:
7724:
7432:
7399:
7215:
7099:
7077:
6698:
5991:
5965:
5802:
5777:
2225:
2103:
1293:
Carbon resistors (black rectangles) printed directly onto the SMD pads on the PCB of a
1268:
is cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the
1198:
406:
386:
362:
142:
138:
131:
6388:
5987:
8266:
7859:
7780:
7671:
7623:
7452:
7379:
7341:
6792:
6764:
6702:
6688:
6655:
6413:
6214:
6185:
6125:
6101:
6016:
5995:
5901:
2300:
2281:
1992:
There are various standards specifying properties of resistors for use in equipment:
1927:
1919:
1729:
1675:
1619:
and Sidney J. Stein presented a development of resistor film of very high stability.
1337:
1245:
1241:
1129:
277:
249:
233:
183:
173:
123:
64:
6271:
5643:
There are several common usage patterns that resistors are commonly configured in.
2276:
This image shows four surface-mount resistors (the component at the upper left is a
7999:
7575:
7522:
7349:
6988:
6680:
6338:
5983:
5697:
5676:
2334:
Resistances less than 10 Ω have 'R' to indicate the position of the decimal point (
2233:
2083:
1360:
1351:
Thick film resistors are manufactured using screen and stencil printing processes.
1306:
1162:
380:
286:
7384:
2185:
A logical scheme is to produce resistors in a range of values which increase in a
1064:
VZR power resistor 1.5 kΩ 12 W, manufactured in 1963 in the Soviet Union
846:
8189:
8184:
8166:
8129:
8124:
8049:
8009:
7852:
7785:
7638:
7369:
7279:
7123:
6496:
5927:
5782:
5661:
1819:
1801:
1667:
1588:
1573:
1568:
1546:
1528:
1475:
1294:
1112:
592:{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {eq} }=\sum _{i=1}^{n}R_{i}=R_{1}+R_{2}+\cdots +R_{n}.}
451:
245:
115:
7010:
6684:
6062:"Through Hole Resistor, 0.1 Gohm, RGP Series, 250 mW, ± 5%, Axial Leaded, 750 V"
1756:
1004:
8119:
7827:
7608:
7598:
7364:
7167:
6834:
6168:
5810:
2394:
1923:
1900:
1717:
1707:
1467:
1459:
1380:
403:) passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (
77:
72:
6098:
Reference data for engineers: radio, electronics, computer, and communications
1289:
1060:
1013:
use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below.
272:
8353:
8300:
8283:
8278:
7889:
7712:
7628:
7447:
7274:
7242:
6368:
6342:
5713:
2356:
2272:
2156:
1908:
1789:
1616:
1535:
1082:
1857:
An assortment of small through-hole potentiometers designed for mounting on
7770:
7758:
7646:
7613:
7442:
7427:
6994:
5956:
Wu, F. Y. (2004). "Theory of resistor networks: The two-point resistance".
5874:. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo
5724:
2403:
1962:
1958:
1915:
1693:. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic circuit topology.
1686:
1231:
for repair of vintage electronic equipment where authenticity is a factor.
1156:
965:
313:
299:
6590:
1256:
7812:
7554:
7503:
7409:
7394:
7177:
7139:
6602:
2335:
2132:
2110:
2098:. Since 1990 the international resistance standard has been based on the
1818:
of carbon composition, metal film, or conductive plastic, with a springy
1690:
1345:
1341:
1269:
1211:
1078:
146:
6852:
6433:
5970:
1260:
Carbon film resistor with exposed carbon spiral (Tesla TR-212 1 kΩ)
875:
Resistor warming caused by electrical current captured by thermal camera
605:
8338:
8004:
7949:
7884:
7874:
7807:
7681:
7651:
7618:
7593:
7588:
7565:
7437:
7417:
7295:
7157:
7134:
7020:
6922:
6917:
6912:
6552:
5845:
5840:
5815:
2402:
of 1% resistor values. The uppercase letter is a code that indicates a
2399:
2114:
2040:
2026:
2012:
1954:
1895:
1872:
1623:
1563:
Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually
1333:
1202:
Old style "dog bone" resistors with "body, tip, dot" color code marking
1074:
435:
7902:
6095:
1685:
is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to the
1607:
1206:
482:
221:
The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies.
7964:
7847:
7691:
7686:
7676:
7603:
7483:
7317:
7312:
7237:
7162:
6142:
2277:
2074:
There are other United States military procurement MIL-R- standards.
2036:
2030:
2000:
1996:
1805:
1273:
1187:
1117:
229:
6846:
6740:, Application note AN0003, Vishay Intertechnology Inc, 12 July 2005.
5926:
Doug DeMaw, ed. (1968). "Electrical Laws and
Circuits —Resistance".
2331:
Sometimes these values are marked as 10 or 22 to prevent a mistake.
7959:
7869:
7817:
7775:
7661:
7656:
7544:
7533:
7462:
7232:
5796:
5610:
CB3932: power dissipation capacity = 1/4 watts, resistance value =
5583:
EB1041: power dissipation capacity = 1/2 watts, resistance value =
2095:
2020:
1950:
1904:
1745:
1712:
1653:
1564:
1474:(powdered) glass and a carrier liquid so that the composite can be
1471:
225:
177:
5892:
7729:
7666:
7488:
7473:
7327:
7284:
6932:
6455:"Test method standard: electronic and electrical component parts"
6089:
A family of resistors may also be characterized according to its
5727:, producing a small DC voltage differential across it due to the
2008:
2004:
1523:
1486:(70 °F) temperature change can change the resistance by 1%.
1418:
356:
282:
126:, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many
119:
5723:
While not an example of "noise" per se, a resistor may act as a
7802:
7493:
7457:
7422:
6982:
6954:
6927:
6902:
5696:
In amplifying faint signals, it is often necessary to minimize
1702:
1483:
1356:
1325:
Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most
1134:
961:
459:
428:
1168:
1148:
7879:
7790:
7549:
7322:
7115:
6977:
6972:
6791:. US Food and Drug Administration. 1978-01-16. Archived from
5896:(ARRL) (2021). "Fundamental Theory—Circuits and Components".
2064:
MIL-R-39017 (Fixed, General
Purpose, Established Reliability)
1903:
when equipment is powered on. Similarly, the resistance of a
1265:
6615:"SMD Resistor Codes: How to Find the Value of SMD Resistors"
16:
Passive electrical component providing electrical resistance
7822:
7205:
7151:
7052:
7005:
6943:
2109:
Resistors of extremely high precision are manufactured for
1111:
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum
455:
198:
127:
6008:
1301:
Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto
439:
5872:"Resistors: A Motor with a Constant Force (Force Source)"
2355:
000 and 0000 sometimes appear as values on surface-mount
2146:
1152:
Axial resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting
424:
6391:. Milwaukee Resistor Corporation. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
6145:. (PDF; 252 kB), 26 May 2005, retrieved 24 January 2017.
5557:
Steps to find out the resistance or capacitance values:
6841:
4-terminal resistors – How ultra-precise resistors work
5561:
First two letters gives the power dissipation capacity.
2106:, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1985.
160:. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the
1780:) terminals connected to ends of resistance element, (
6299:"Measuring the Temperature Coefficient of a Resistor"
2195:
1907:
varies with humidity. One sort of photodetector, the
1768:) stationary carbon composition resistance element, (
1174:
893:
614:
491:
409:
389:
365:
324:
6204:. United States Department of the Army (1985). p. 13
5792:
2359:, since these have (approximately) zero resistance.
2049:
MIL-PRF-39007 (Fixed power, established reliability)
1171:
1165:
92:
Various resistor types of different shapes and sizes
6182:
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology
6169:"Basics of Linear Fixed Resistors Application Note"
5869:
1911:, has a resistance which varies with illumination.
6752:"Chapter 7 – Hardware and Housekeeping Techniques"
5670:
2216:
2070:UL 1412 (fusing and temperature limited resistors)
1760:Potentiometer with case cut away, showing parts: (
944:
799:
591:
415:
395:
371:
345:
167:
6512:. Nobel lecture, December 9, 1985. nobelprize.org
6096:Middleton, Wendy; Van Valkenburg, Mac E. (2002).
2393:The former EIA-96 marking system now included in
2052:MIL-PRF-55342 (Surface-mount thick and thin film)
8351:
5946:, pp. 18–21, The English Universities Press Ltd.
1949:The value of a resistor can be measured with an
465:
6232:
5685:
956:(volts) is the voltage across the resistor and
6639:"Surface Mount Resistor: codes & markings"
6369:"Alpha Electronics Corp. Metal Foil Resistors"
5958:Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General
5564:Next three digits gives the resistance value.
5291:
2365:
1210:Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s
1159:components typically have "leads" (pronounced
945:{\displaystyle P=IV=I^{2}R={\frac {V^{2}}{R}}}
7918:
6868:
6627:"Marking Codes used on Welwyn Chip Resistors"
6490:Stability of Double-Walled Manganin Resistors
6143:"SR Series: Surge Resistors for PCB Mounting"
1344:, covered by a pattern film, irradiated with
883:(watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance
6328:
6296:
5900:(98 ed.). American Radio Relay League.
1812:is constructed of a flat resistance element
6591:"CRP0603 Series - Precision Chip Resistors"
6163:
6161:
6159:
6157:
6155:
6153:
6151:
6135:
5932:(45 ed.). American Radio Relay League.
5567:First two digits are the significant values
2140:Resistor Color Code guide. Circa 1945–1950.
1937:A related but more recent invention uses a
1502:) resistors often use the same technology.
1284:
1089:characteristics and so may be an issue for
379:) across a resistor is proportional to the
7925:
7911:
6875:
6861:
6749:
6579:"Chapter 2 - Resistor standards and codes"
6037:"Specifications and How to Interpret Them"
5944:An Introduction to Linear Network Analysis
5925:
5921:
5919:
5917:
1866:
1104:of the resistance may also be of concern.
6882:
6652:Electronics and Communications Simplified
6603:"Online calculator - EIA-96 SMD resistor"
6389:"Grid Resistors: High Power/High Current"
6322:
6120:Harter, James H. and Lin, Paul Y. (1982)
5969:
5955:
1800:comes from its function as an adjustable
1527:High-power wire wound resistors used for
6670:
6401:
6399:
6397:
6184:. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 360.
6148:
6124:. Reston Publishing Company. pp. 96–97.
5638:
2271:
2131:
1876:
1755:
1606:
1534:
1522:
1316:
1288:
1255:
1205:
1197:
1147:
1133:
1059:
1003:
860:
271:
87:
8097:Application-specific integrated circuit
7932:
6460:. Department of Defense. Archived from
5914:
2077:
1984:
1734:
8352:
6434:"Decade Box – Resistance Decade Boxes"
5898:ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications
1602:
1312:
1068:
1042:watt resistors (a very common sort of
267:
7906:
6856:
6829:Difference between types of resistors
6523:"Standard Resistance Unit Type 4737B"
6405:
6394:
6100:(9 ed.). Newnes. pp. 5–10.
6009:Wu, Fa Yueh; Yang, Chen Ning (2009).
1723:
1650:temperature coefficient of resistance
1539:Types of windings in wire resistors:
1193:
8032:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
7307:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
6548:"1940 Catalog – page 60 – Resistors"
6331:IEEE Transactions on Component Parts
1696:
1143:
1100:In some precision applications, the
856:
853:can be used to solve such problems.
7088:Programmable unijunction transistor
6785:"Electronic components – resistors"
6015:. World Scientific. pp. 489–.
5646:
2398:the 96 "positions" in the standard
2166:
2121:
1509:
13:
8044:Erasable programmable logic device
6989:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
6847:Beginners' Guide to Potentiometers
6356:Procedures in Experimental Physics
5826:High value resistors (electronics)
5655:
2291:resistors of larger sizes (metric
2260:60063 lists of preferred numbers.
2159:resistors are marked numerically.
1961:. The current, in accordance with
1889:
1123:
1073:Practical resistors have a series
624:
621:
501:
498:
14:
8381:
8079:Complex programmable logic device
6967:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
6817:Color Coded Resistance Calculator
6810:
6673:"Basic Resistor Circuit Patterns"
6202:Principles of automotive vehicles
2388:
1953:, which may be one function of a
1845:Typical panel mount potentiometer
1751:
1638:
137:Resistors are common elements of
7211:Heterostructure barrier varactor
6938:Chemical field-effect transistor
6835:Basics of Linear Fixed Resistors
6823:Resistor Types – Does It Matter?
6654:, 9th ed., Khanna Publications.
6245:. Digi-Key (SEI). Archived from
5795:
5739:
5575:Final digit gives the tolerance.
2267:
2178:subject to a certain percentage
2067:MIL-PRF-32159 (zero ohm jumpers)
1850:
1838:
1660:
1579:Because wirewound resistors are
1332:Thin film resistors are made by
1161:
604:
481:
206:
191:
76:
71:
33:An array of axial-lead resistors
27:
8091:Field-programmable object array
8027:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
7259:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
6777:
6743:
6709:
6664:
6644:
6632:
6620:
6608:
6596:
6584:
6572:
6540:
6525:. Tinsley.co.uk. Archived from
6515:
6502:
6483:
6471:
6447:
6426:
6412:. CUP Archive. pp. 57–61.
6382:
6361:
6349:
6290:
6264:
6207:
6195:
6174:
6122:Essentials of electric circuits
6114:
5706:fluctuation–dissipation theorem
5671:Pull-down and pull-up resistors
168:Electronic symbols and notation
122:active elements, and terminate
6409:Discrete Electronic Components
6083:
6054:
6029:
6002:
5949:
5936:
5886:
5863:
5570:Third digit is the multiplier.
2297:surface-mount technology (SMT)
1944:
1784:) terminal connected to wiper.
1251:
1234:
164:, indicated on the component.
1:
8217:Hardware description language
8085:Field-programmable gate array
5856:
5745:(specified by the resistor's
2173:E-series of preferred numbers
1518:
1493:
1466:. They also have much lower
466:Series and parallel resistors
431:flows through that resistor.
7290:Silicon controlled rectifier
7152:Organic light-emitting diode
7042:Diffused junction transistor
6819:- University of Pennsylvania
6760:Op Amp Applications Handbook
6180:Morris, C. G. (ed.) (1992).
5686:Electrical and thermal noise
5457:Industrial type designation
1979:
1939:Quantum Tunnelling Composite
1776:) shaft attached to wiper, (
1085:, some resistors have worse
474:Series and parallel circuits
454:. An ohm is equivalent to a
293:
7:
8229:Formal equivalence checking
7094:Static induction transistor
7031:Bipolar junction transistor
6983:MOS field-effect transistor
6955:Fin field-effect transistor
6789:Inspector's Technical Guide
6685:10.1007/978-1-4842-5979-5_9
6671:Bartlett, Jonathan (2020).
6480:. ulstandardsinfonet.ul.com
5988:10.1088/0305-4470/37/26/004
5894:American Radio Relay League
5788:
5297:Power Rating at 70 °C
5292:Industrial type designation
2378:4992 = 499 × 10 Ω = 49.9 kΩ
2375:1001 = 100 × 10 Ω = 1.00 kΩ
2366:Precision resistor markings
1583:they have more undesirable
346:{\displaystyle V=I\cdot R.}
308:(i.e. a resistance without
281:It requires a larger push (
10:
8386:
8249:Hierarchical state machine
8207:Transaction-level modeling
7301:Static induction thyristor
6240:"Thick Film and Thin Film"
6167:Beyschlag, Vishay (2008).
5755:switched-mode power supply
5733:instrumentation amplifiers
5689:
5674:
5659:
2170:
2125:
2043:(Standard E series values)
1870:
1772:) phosphor bronze wiper, (
1727:
1127:
964:flowing through it. Using
879:At any instant, the power
471:
355:Ohm's law states that the
297:
285:) to drive the same flow (
260:indicates 1.2 Ω, and
171:
8326:
8259:
8175:
8150:Digital signal processing
8135:Logic in computer science
8112:
8061:Programmable logic device
8021:Hybrid integrated circuit
7940:
7838:
7738:
7705:
7637:
7574:
7502:
7470:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
7408:
7340:
7222:Hybrid integrated circuit
7186:
7114:
7065:Light-emitting transistor
7019:
6901:
6890:
6677:Electronics for Beginners
6510:The Quantized Hall Effect
6141:HVR International (ed.).
5870:Harder, Douglas Wilhelm.
3859:
2421:
2381:1000 = 100 × 10 Ω = 100 Ω
2149:, the third represents a
1970:four-terminal connections
1057:watt rating meaningless.
887:(ohms) is calculated as:
423:). For example, if a 300-
224:One common scheme is the
70:
63:
48:
38:
26:
8162:Switching circuit theory
8067:Programmable Array Logic
8055:Programmable logic array
7517:Backward-wave oscillator
7227:Light emitting capacitor
7083:Point-contact transistor
7053:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
6763:. Newnes. p. 7.11.
6343:10.1109/TCP.1964.1135008
6171:, Document Number 28771.
5579:If a resistor is coded:
2310:222 = 22 × 10 Ω = 2.2 kΩ
2307:334 = 33 × 10 Ω = 330 kΩ
2217:{\displaystyle 10^{1/6}}
1342:photo-sensitive material
1285:Printed carbon resistors
186:symbols are as follows:
8212:Register-transfer level
7528:Crossed-field amplifier
7047:Field-effect transistor
6042:. Stackpole Electronics
5929:Radio Amateurs Handbook
2313:473 = 47 × 10 Ω = 47 kΩ
2236:values. There are also
1867:Resistance decade boxes
1748:and has two terminals.
1551:common on a thin former
1102:temperature coefficient
1019:temperature coefficient
825:ohms of resistance, or
162:manufacturing tolerance
8103:Tensor Processing Unit
7697:Voltage-regulator tube
7264:MOS integrated circuit
7129:Constant-current diode
7105:Unijunction transistor
6358:, John Strong, p. 546.
6215:"Carbon Film Resistor"
5831:Iron-hydrogen resistor
2327:220 = 22 × 10 Ω = 22 Ω
2324:100 = 10 × 10 Ω = 10 Ω
2316:105 = 10 × 10 Ω = 1 MΩ
2285:
2218:
2141:
1882:
1859:printed circuit boards
1804:to provide a variable
1785:
1612:
1560:
1532:
1322:
1298:
1261:
1215:
1203:
1153:
1140:
1065:
1009:
946:
876:
801:
659:
593:
530:
417:
397:
373:
347:
290:
232:. Rather than using a
145:and are ubiquitous in
93:
82:IEEE schematic symbols
8360:Electrical components
8318:Electronic literature
8272:Hardware acceleration
8140:Computer architecture
8038:Emitter-coupled logic
7975:Printed circuit board
7766:Electrolytic detector
7539:Inductive output tube
7355:Low-dropout regulator
7270:Organic semiconductor
7201:Printed circuit board
7037:Darlington transistor
6884:Electronic components
6650:Maini, A. K. (2008),
6406:Mazda, F. F. (1981).
6272:"Thin and Thick film"
5851:Trimmer (electronics)
5836:Piezoresistive effect
5729:thermoelectric effect
5702:Johnson–Nyquist noise
5639:Common usage patterns
2275:
2219:
2187:geometric progression
2135:
2128:Electronic color code
2100:quantized Hall effect
2090:in cross-section, at
2033:(Resistor color code)
1881:Resistance decade box
1880:
1759:
1610:
1538:
1526:
1359:) conductors such as
1320:
1303:printed circuit board
1292:
1279:operating temperature
1259:
1209:
1201:
1151:
1137:
1077:and a small parallel
1063:
1027:operating temperature
1007:
947:
874:
802:
639:
594:
510:
448:electrical resistance
418:
398:
374:
348:
275:
264:indicates 18 Ω.
112:electrical resistance
91:
8370:Resistive components
8244:Finite-state machine
8222:High-level synthesis
8157:Circuit minimization
7584:Beam deflection tube
7253:Metal oxide varistor
7146:Light-emitting diode
7000:Thin-film transistor
6961:Floating-gate MOSFET
6679:. pp. 129–144.
6252:on 27 September 2011
6091:critical resistance.
5942:Farago, P.S. (1961)
5821:Electrical impedance
5757:integrated circuit.
2193:
2078:Resistance standards
1985:Production resistors
1735:Adjustable resistors
1593:Ayrton–Perry winding
1091:low-noise amplifiers
891:
612:
489:
407:
387:
363:
322:
147:electronic equipment
108:electrical component
8291:Digital photography
8073:Generic Array Logic
7995:Combinational logic
7970:Printed electronics
7934:Digital electronics
7560:Traveling-wave tube
7360:Switching regulator
7196:Printed electronics
7173:Step recovery diode
6950:Depletion-load NMOS
6750:Jung, Walt (2005).
6508:Klaus von Klitzing
5980:2004JPhA...37.6653W
5692:Noise (electronics)
5453:
5298:
2395:IEC 60062:2016
2088:1 square millimeter
2017:Resistor color code
1611:Metal foil resistor
1603:Metal foil resistor
1313:Thick and thin film
1214:(vacuum tube) radio
1069:Nonideal properties
268:Theory of operation
158:orders of magnitude
151:integrated circuits
143:electronic circuits
139:electrical networks
58:Electric resistance
23:
8239:Asynchronous logic
8015:Integrated circuit
7980:Electronic circuit
7865:Crystal oscillator
7725:Variable capacitor
7400:Switched capacitor
7342:Voltage regulators
7216:Integrated circuit
7100:Tetrode transistor
7078:Pentode transistor
7071:Organic LET (OLET)
7058:Organic FET (OFET)
6495:2006-10-06 at the
6371:. Alpha-elec.co.jp
5803:Electronics portal
5778:contact resistance
5451:
5296:
2301:significant digits
2286:
2282:zero-ohm resistors
2214:
2142:
2104:Klaus von Klitzing
1883:
1786:
1724:Variable resistors
1613:
1561:
1533:
1323:
1299:
1262:
1242:voltage regulators
1216:
1204:
1194:Carbon composition
1154:
1141:
1066:
1010:
942:
877:
797:
589:
413:
393:
369:
343:
291:
124:transmission lines
94:
21:
8347:
8346:
8296:Digital telephone
8267:Computer hardware
8234:Synchronous logic
7900:
7899:
7860:Ceramic resonator
7672:Mercury-arc valve
7624:Video camera tube
7576:Cathode-ray tubes
7336:
7335:
6944:Complementary MOS
6694:978-1-4842-5978-8
6297:Kuhn, Kenneth A.
6276:resistorguide.com
6219:The Resistorguide
6022:978-981-281-388-6
5964:(26): 6653–6673.
5907:978-1-62595-139-7
5555:
5554:
5449:
5448:
5289:
5288:
5285:
5284:
3847:
3846:
2092:0 degrees Celsius
2060:Standard Canceled
1932:mechanical strain
1928:Wheatstone bridge
1920:Edward E. Simmons
1730:List of resistors
1697:Special varieties
1385:bismuth ruthenate
1338:vacuum deposition
1307:pull-up resistors
1246:carbon microphone
1144:Lead arrangements
1130:List of resistors
940:
872:
857:Power dissipation
820:1/10 + 1/5 + 1/15
781:
755:
735:
715:
675:
416:{\displaystyle R}
396:{\displaystyle I}
372:{\displaystyle V}
278:hydraulic analogy
250:bill of materials
234:decimal separator
184:schematic diagram
174:Electronic symbol
86:
85:
65:Electronic symbol
50:Working principle
8377:
8365:Electric heating
8000:Sequential logic
7927:
7920:
7913:
7904:
7903:
7754:electrical power
7639:Gas-filled tubes
7523:Cavity magnetron
7350:Linear regulator
6899:
6898:
6877:
6870:
6863:
6854:
6853:
6831:- Analog Devices
6804:
6803:
6801:
6800:
6781:
6775:
6774:
6756:
6747:
6741:
6739:
6737:
6736:
6730:
6724:. Archived from
6723:
6713:
6707:
6706:
6668:
6662:
6648:
6642:
6636:
6630:
6624:
6618:
6612:
6606:
6600:
6594:
6588:
6582:
6576:
6570:
6569:
6567:
6565:
6556:. Archived from
6544:
6538:
6537:
6535:
6534:
6519:
6513:
6506:
6500:
6487:
6481:
6475:
6469:
6468:
6466:
6459:
6451:
6445:
6444:
6442:
6441:
6430:
6424:
6423:
6403:
6392:
6386:
6380:
6379:
6377:
6376:
6365:
6359:
6353:
6347:
6346:
6326:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6316:
6310:
6304:. Archived from
6303:
6294:
6288:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6278:. resistor guide
6268:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6257:
6251:
6244:
6236:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6211:
6205:
6199:
6193:
6178:
6172:
6165:
6146:
6139:
6133:
6118:
6112:
6111:
6087:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6077:
6068:. Archived from
6058:
6052:
6051:
6049:
6047:
6041:
6033:
6027:
6026:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5973:
5953:
5947:
5940:
5934:
5933:
5923:
5912:
5911:
5890:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5879:
5867:
5805:
5800:
5799:
5698:electronic noise
5677:Pull-up resistor
5647:Current limiting
5633:
5631:
5625:
5623:
5617:
5615:
5606:
5604:
5598:
5596:
5590:
5588:
5463:MIL designation
5454:
5450:
5383:
5382:
5378:
5361:
5360:
5356:
5339:
5338:
5334:
5299:
5295:
3880:B / H
3874:X / R
3871:Y / S
3851:
3850:
2442:B / H
2436:X / R
2433:Y / S
2413:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2338:). For example:
2280:) including two
2234:preferred number
2223:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2167:Preferred values
2122:Resistor marking
2093:
2089:
2084:primary standard
1854:
1842:
1826:
1816:
1510:Metal oxide film
1454:
1453:
1452:
1444:
1443:
1435:
1434:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1406:
1405:
1397:
1396:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1361:tantalum nitride
1181:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1000:
999:
995:
990:
989:
985:
980:
979:
975:
951:
949:
948:
943:
941:
936:
935:
926:
918:
917:
873:
840:
838:
837:
834:
831:
824:
822:
821:
818:
815:
806:
804:
803:
798:
796:
795:
787:
783:
782:
780:
779:
767:
756:
754:
753:
741:
736:
734:
733:
721:
716:
714:
713:
701:
690:
689:
681:
677:
676:
674:
673:
661:
658:
653:
629:
628:
627:
608:
598:
596:
595:
590:
585:
584:
566:
565:
553:
552:
540:
539:
529:
524:
506:
505:
504:
485:
422:
420:
419:
414:
402:
400:
399:
394:
378:
376:
375:
370:
352:
350:
349:
344:
287:electric current
210:
195:
110:that implements
80:
75:
54:
53:
31:
24:
20:
8385:
8384:
8380:
8379:
8378:
8376:
8375:
8374:
8350:
8349:
8348:
8343:
8322:
8255:
8190:Place and route
8185:Logic synthesis
8171:
8167:Gate equivalent
8130:Logic synthesis
8125:Boolean algebra
8108:
8050:Macrocell array
8010:Boolean circuit
7936:
7931:
7901:
7896:
7834:
7749:audio and video
7734:
7701:
7633:
7570:
7498:
7479:Photomultiplier
7404:
7332:
7280:Quantum circuit
7188:
7182:
7124:Avalanche diode
7110:
7022:
7015:
6904:
6893:
6886:
6881:
6813:
6808:
6807:
6798:
6796:
6783:
6782:
6778:
6771:
6754:
6748:
6744:
6734:
6732:
6728:
6721:
6715:
6714:
6710:
6695:
6669:
6665:
6649:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6625:
6621:
6613:
6609:
6601:
6597:
6589:
6585:
6577:
6573:
6563:
6561:
6560:on 11 July 2017
6546:
6545:
6541:
6532:
6530:
6521:
6520:
6516:
6507:
6503:
6497:Wayback Machine
6488:
6484:
6476:
6472:
6464:
6457:
6453:
6452:
6448:
6439:
6437:
6432:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6404:
6395:
6387:
6383:
6374:
6372:
6367:
6366:
6362:
6354:
6350:
6327:
6323:
6314:
6312:
6308:
6301:
6295:
6291:
6281:
6279:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6255:
6253:
6249:
6242:
6238:
6237:
6233:
6223:
6221:
6213:
6212:
6208:
6200:
6196:
6179:
6175:
6166:
6149:
6140:
6136:
6119:
6115:
6108:
6088:
6084:
6075:
6073:
6060:
6059:
6055:
6045:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6034:
6030:
6023:
6007:
6003:
5971:math-ph/0402038
5954:
5950:
5941:
5937:
5924:
5915:
5908:
5891:
5887:
5877:
5875:
5868:
5864:
5859:
5801:
5794:
5791:
5783:contact cleaner
5742:
5694:
5688:
5679:
5673:
5664:
5662:Voltage divider
5658:
5656:Voltage divider
5649:
5641:
5629:
5627:
5621:
5619:
5618:±20% = between
5613:
5611:
5602:
5600:
5594:
5592:
5591:±10% = between
5586:
5584:
5452:Tolerance code
5380:
5376:
5375:
5358:
5354:
5353:
5336:
5332:
5331:
5322:
5315:
5308:
5306:
5294:
2391:
2368:
2289:Surface mounted
2270:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2175:
2169:
2130:
2124:
2091:
2087:
2080:
1987:
1982:
1947:
1892:
1890:Special devices
1875:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1846:
1843:
1824:
1820:phosphor bronze
1814:
1802:voltage divider
1792:(colloquially,
1754:
1737:
1732:
1726:
1699:
1668:dynamic braking
1663:
1641:
1605:
1589:bifilar winding
1559:
1529:dynamic braking
1521:
1512:
1496:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1423:bismuth iridate
1419:nickel chromium
1413:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1365:ruthenium oxide
1315:
1295:Psion Organiser
1287:
1254:
1237:
1196:
1164:
1160:
1146:
1132:
1126:
1124:Fixed resistors
1071:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1038:
1034:
1033:
997:
993:
992:
987:
983:
982:
977:
973:
972:
931:
927:
925:
913:
909:
892:
889:
888:
861:
859:
835:
832:
829:
828:
826:
819:
816:
813:
812:
810:
788:
775:
771:
766:
749:
745:
740:
729:
725:
720:
709:
705:
700:
699:
695:
694:
682:
669:
665:
660:
654:
643:
638:
634:
633:
620:
619:
615:
613:
610:
609:
580:
576:
561:
557:
548:
544:
535:
531:
525:
514:
497:
496:
492:
490:
487:
486:
476:
468:
452:Georg Simon Ohm
408:
405:
404:
388:
385:
384:
364:
361:
360:
323:
320:
319:
302:
296:
270:
246:circuit diagram
217:
216:resistor symbol
211:
202:
196:
180:
172:Main articles:
170:
116:divide voltages
81:
51:
49:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8383:
8373:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8345:
8344:
8342:
8341:
8336:
8330:
8328:
8324:
8323:
8321:
8320:
8315:
8314:
8313:
8308:
8306:cinematography
8298:
8293:
8288:
8287:
8286:
8276:
8275:
8274:
8263:
8261:
8257:
8256:
8254:
8253:
8252:
8251:
8241:
8236:
8231:
8226:
8225:
8224:
8219:
8209:
8204:
8203:
8202:
8197:
8187:
8181:
8179:
8173:
8172:
8170:
8169:
8164:
8159:
8154:
8153:
8152:
8145:Digital signal
8142:
8137:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8120:Digital signal
8116:
8114:
8110:
8109:
8107:
8106:
8100:
8094:
8088:
8082:
8076:
8070:
8064:
8058:
8052:
8047:
8041:
8035:
8029:
8024:
8018:
8012:
8007:
8002:
7997:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7977:
7972:
7967:
7962:
7957:
7952:
7946:
7944:
7938:
7937:
7930:
7929:
7922:
7915:
7907:
7898:
7897:
7895:
7894:
7893:
7892:
7887:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7856:
7855:
7844:
7842:
7836:
7835:
7833:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7828:Wollaston wire
7820:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7794:
7793:
7788:
7778:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7762:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7742:
7740:
7736:
7735:
7733:
7732:
7727:
7722:
7721:
7720:
7709:
7707:
7703:
7702:
7700:
7699:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7669:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7643:
7641:
7635:
7634:
7632:
7631:
7626:
7621:
7616:
7611:
7609:Selectron tube
7606:
7601:
7599:Magic eye tube
7596:
7591:
7586:
7580:
7578:
7572:
7571:
7569:
7568:
7563:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7536:
7531:
7525:
7520:
7513:
7511:
7500:
7499:
7497:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7465:
7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7440:
7435:
7430:
7425:
7420:
7414:
7412:
7406:
7405:
7403:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7346:
7344:
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2389:EIA-96 marking
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2357:zero-ohm links
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2126:Main article:
2123:
2120:
2102:discovered by
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2062:
2056:
2053:
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2047:
2044:
2034:
2024:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1959:meter movement
1946:
1943:
1924:Arthur C. Ruge
1918:, invented by
1901:current surges
1891:
1888:
1871:Main article:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1856:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1837:
1822:wiper contact
1753:
1752:Potentiometers
1750:
1736:
1733:
1728:Main article:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1718:Water resistor
1715:
1710:
1705:
1698:
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1659:
1640:
1639:Ammeter shunts
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1476:screen-printed
1460:laser trimming
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1393:
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1253:
1250:
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1233:
1223:of its value.
1195:
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1145:
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1128:Main article:
1125:
1122:
1070:
1067:
960:(amps) is the
939:
934:
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924:
921:
916:
912:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
858:
855:
851:matrix methods
841:= 2.727 ohms.
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472:Main article:
467:
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450:, named after
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306:ideal resistor
298:Main article:
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8334:Metastability
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8327:Design issues
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8301:Digital video
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8121:
8118:
8117:
8115:
8111:
8104:
8101:
8098:
8095:
8092:
8089:
8086:
8083:
8080:
8077:
8074:
8071:
8068:
8065:
8062:
8059:
8056:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8045:
8042:
8039:
8036:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8022:
8019:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7976:
7973:
7971:
7968:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7947:
7945:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7928:
7923:
7921:
7916:
7914:
7909:
7908:
7905:
7891:
7890:mercury relay
7888:
7886:
7883:
7882:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7854:
7851:
7850:
7849:
7846:
7845:
7843:
7841:
7837:
7829:
7826:
7825:
7824:
7821:
7819:
7816:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7783:
7782:
7779:
7777:
7774:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7760:
7757:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7747:
7746:
7744:
7743:
7741:
7737:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7719:
7716:
7715:
7714:
7713:Potentiometer
7711:
7710:
7708:
7704:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7644:
7642:
7640:
7636:
7630:
7629:Williams tube
7627:
7625:
7622:
7620:
7617:
7615:
7612:
7610:
7607:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7581:
7579:
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7567:
7564:
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7558:
7556:
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7551:
7548:
7546:
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7509:
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7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7469:
7466:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7448:Fleming valve
7446:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7415:
7413:
7411:
7407:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7347:
7345:
7343:
7339:
7329:
7326:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7308:
7305:
7302:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7275:Photodetector
7273:
7271:
7268:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7254:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7243:Memtransistor
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7193:
7191:
7185:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7153:
7150:
7147:
7144:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7121:
7119:
7117:
7113:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7095:
7092:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7072:
7069:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7032:
7029:
7028:
7026:
7024:
7018:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6990:
6987:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6968:
6965:
6962:
6959:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6945:
6942:
6939:
6936:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6910:
6908:
6906:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:Semiconductor
6889:
6885:
6878:
6873:
6871:
6866:
6864:
6859:
6858:
6855:
6848:
6845:
6842:
6839:
6836:
6833:
6830:
6827:
6824:
6821:
6818:
6815:
6814:
6795:on 2008-04-03
6794:
6790:
6786:
6780:
6772:
6770:0-7506-7844-5
6766:
6762:
6761:
6753:
6746:
6731:on 2013-01-19
6727:
6720:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6667:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6647:
6640:
6635:
6628:
6623:
6616:
6611:
6604:
6599:
6592:
6587:
6580:
6575:
6559:
6555:
6554:
6549:
6543:
6529:on 2008-08-21
6528:
6524:
6518:
6511:
6505:
6498:
6494:
6491:
6486:
6479:
6474:
6463:
6456:
6450:
6436:. Ietlabs.com
6435:
6429:
6421:
6415:
6411:
6410:
6402:
6400:
6398:
6390:
6385:
6370:
6364:
6357:
6352:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6332:
6325:
6311:on 2016-03-04
6307:
6300:
6293:
6277:
6273:
6267:
6248:
6241:
6235:
6220:
6216:
6210:
6203:
6198:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6177:
6170:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6158:
6156:
6154:
6152:
6144:
6138:
6131:
6130:0-8359-1767-3
6127:
6123:
6117:
6109:
6107:0-7506-7291-9
6103:
6099:
6092:
6086:
6072:on 2021-07-09
6071:
6067:
6063:
6057:
6038:
6032:
6024:
6018:
6014:
6013:
6005:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5952:
5945:
5939:
5931:
5930:
5922:
5920:
5918:
5909:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5889:
5873:
5866:
5862:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5808:
5804:
5798:
5793:
5786:
5784:
5779:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5762:
5758:
5756:
5750:
5748:
5740:Failure modes
5737:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5721:
5719:
5717:
5709:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5693:
5683:
5678:
5668:
5663:
5653:
5644:
5609:
5582:
5581:
5580:
5574:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5559:
5558:
5550:
5547:
5544:
5543:
5539:
5536:
5533:
5532:
5528:
5525:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5514:
5511:
5510:
5506:
5503:
5500:
5499:
5495:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5484:
5481:
5478:
5477:
5473:
5470:
5467:
5466:
5462:
5459:
5456:
5455:
5444:
5441:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5430:
5427:
5424:
5421:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5410:
5407:
5406:
5402:
5399:
5396:
5393:
5392:
5388:
5385:
5374:
5371:
5370:
5366:
5363:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5344:
5341:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5321:
5318:
5314:
5311:
5304:
5301:
5300:
5280:
5277:
5274:
5271:
5268:
5265:
5262:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5251:
5248:
5245:
5242:
5239:
5236:
5233:
5230:
5227:
5226:
5222:
5219:
5216:
5213:
5210:
5207:
5204:
5201:
5198:
5197:
5193:
5190:
5187:
5184:
5181:
5178:
5175:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5158:
5155:
5152:
5149:
5146:
5143:
5140:
5139:
5135:
5132:
5129:
5126:
5123:
5120:
5117:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5106:
5103:
5100:
5097:
5094:
5091:
5088:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5077:
5074:
5071:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5059:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5048:
5045:
5042:
5039:
5036:
5033:
5030:
5027:
5024:
5023:
5019:
5016:
5013:
5010:
5007:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4995:
4994:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4978:
4975:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4965:
4961:
4958:
4955:
4952:
4949:
4946:
4943:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4932:
4929:
4926:
4923:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4900:
4897:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4868:
4865:
4862:
4859:
4856:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4839:
4836:
4833:
4830:
4827:
4824:
4821:
4820:
4816:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4787:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4775:
4772:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4717:
4714:
4711:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4685:
4682:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4668:
4665:
4662:
4659:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4630:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4618:
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4613:
4610:
4607:
4604:
4601:
4598:
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4592:
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4588:
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4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4566:
4563:
4560:
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4555:
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4549:
4546:
4543:
4540:
4537:
4534:
4531:
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4526:
4523:
4520:
4517:
4514:
4511:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4494:
4491:
4488:
4485:
4482:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4410:
4407:
4404:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4352:
4349:
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4343:
4340:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4328:
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4323:
4320:
4317:
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4311:
4308:
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4299:
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4140:
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4134:
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4128:
4125:
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4120:
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4108:
4105:
4102:
4099:
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4018:
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4012:
4009:
4008:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3989:
3986:
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3960:
3957:
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3902:
3899:
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3893:
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3879:
3876:
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3870:
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3856:
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3842:
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3818:
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3810:
3807:
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3801:
3798:
3795:
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3788:
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3778:
3775:
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3711:
3708:
3705:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3694:
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3688:
3685:
3682:
3679:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3668:
3665:
3662:
3659:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3644:
3643:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3595:
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3589:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3572:
3569:
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3560:
3557:
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3540:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3527:
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3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
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2879:
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2860:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2386:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2351:0R01 = 0.01 Ω
2350:
2348:0R22 = 0.22 Ω
2347:
2345:R300 = 0.30 Ω
2344:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2268:SMT resistors
2265:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2174:
2164:
2160:
2158:
2157:Surface-mount
2154:
2152:
2148:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2085:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1942:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1909:photoresistor
1906:
1902:
1897:
1887:
1879:
1874:
1860:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1810:(see drawing)
1807:
1803:
1799:
1798:potentiometer
1795:
1791:
1790:potentiometer
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1749:
1747:
1741:
1731:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1683:grid resistor
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1661:Grid resistor
1658:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1645:ammeter shunt
1636:
1632:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1617:Felix Zandman
1609:
1600:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1570:
1566:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1530:
1525:
1516:
1507:
1503:
1501:
1491:
1487:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1424:
1420:
1386:
1382:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1336:(a method of
1335:
1330:
1328:
1319:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1291:
1282:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1258:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1222:
1213:
1208:
1200:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1158:
1150:
1136:
1131:
1121:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1098:
1097:electronics.
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1083:Johnson noise
1080:
1076:
1062:
1058:
1045:
1030:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1014:
1006:
1002:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
937:
932:
928:
922:
919:
914:
910:
906:
903:
900:
897:
894:
886:
882:
854:
852:
848:
847:Y-Δ transform
842:
807:
792:
789:
784:
776:
772:
768:
763:
760:
757:
750:
746:
742:
737:
730:
726:
722:
717:
710:
706:
702:
696:
691:
686:
683:
678:
670:
666:
662:
655:
650:
647:
644:
640:
635:
630:
616:
607:
602:
599:
586:
581:
577:
573:
570:
567:
562:
558:
554:
549:
545:
541:
536:
532:
526:
521:
518:
515:
511:
507:
493:
484:
479:
475:
470:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
432:
430:
426:
410:
390:
382:
366:
358:
353:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
317:
315:
311:
307:
301:
288:
284:
279:
274:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
222:
215:
209:
204:
200:
194:
189:
188:
187:
185:
179:
175:
165:
163:
159:
154:
152:
148:
144:
140:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
106:
103:
99:
90:
79:
74:
69:
66:
62:
59:
56:
47:
44:
41:
37:
30:
25:
19:
8260:Applications
7954:
7797:
7647:Cold cathode
7614:Storage tube
7504:Vacuum tubes
7453:Neutron tube
7428:Beam tetrode
7410:Vacuum tubes
6995:Power MOSFET
6825:- Aiken Amps
6797:. Retrieved
6793:the original
6788:
6779:
6759:
6745:
6733:. Retrieved
6726:the original
6717:
6711:
6676:
6666:
6651:
6646:
6634:
6622:
6610:
6598:
6586:
6574:
6562:. Retrieved
6558:the original
6551:
6542:
6531:. Retrieved
6527:the original
6517:
6504:
6485:
6473:
6462:the original
6449:
6438:. Retrieved
6428:
6408:
6384:
6373:. Retrieved
6363:
6355:
6351:
6334:
6330:
6324:
6313:. Retrieved
6306:the original
6292:
6280:. Retrieved
6275:
6266:
6254:. Retrieved
6247:the original
6234:
6222:. Retrieved
6218:
6209:
6201:
6197:
6181:
6176:
6137:
6121:
6116:
6097:
6090:
6085:
6074:. Retrieved
6070:the original
6065:
6056:
6044:. Retrieved
6031:
6011:
6004:
5961:
5957:
5951:
5943:
5938:
5928:
5897:
5888:
5876:. Retrieved
5865:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5763:
5759:
5751:
5747:power rating
5746:
5743:
5725:thermocouple
5722:
5715:
5710:
5695:
5680:
5665:
5650:
5642:
5578:
5556:
2404:power of ten
2392:
2384:
2369:
2361:
2354:
2333:
2330:
2319:
2287:
2262:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2184:
2176:
2161:
2155:
2143:
2136:Wheel-based
2108:
2081:
2073:
2023:, date code)
1991:
1988:
1974:Kelvin clips
1967:
1948:
1936:
1916:strain gauge
1913:
1893:
1884:
1831:
1823:
1813:
1809:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1742:
1738:
1687:control grid
1682:
1680:
1672:load banking
1664:
1642:
1633:
1629:
1621:
1614:
1597:
1578:
1562:
1555:Ayrton–Perry
1513:
1504:
1497:
1488:
1480:
1457:
1353:
1350:
1331:
1324:
1300:
1297:II from 1989
1263:
1238:
1229:
1225:
1221:color-coding
1217:
1157:Through-hole
1155:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1072:
1031:
1024:
1015:
1011:
970:
957:
953:
884:
880:
878:
843:
808:
603:
600:
480:
477:
469:
433:
354:
318:
305:
303:
261:
257:
253:
242:marking code
237:
223:
220:
182:Two typical
181:
155:
136:
105:two-terminal
97:
95:
18:
7990:Memory cell
7813:Transformer
7555:Sutton tube
7395:Charge pump
7248:Memory cell
7178:Zener diode
7140:Laser diode
7023:transistors
6905:transistors
5320:MIL-R-39008
2342:4R7 = 4.7 Ω
2336:radix point
2111:calibration
2055:MIL-PRF-914
2039:(IEC 63) /
1999:(IEC 62) /
1945:Measurement
1896:thermistors
1691:vacuum tube
1676:locomotives
1635:substrate.
1624:micrometers
1421:(NiCr), or
1346:ultraviolet
1270:resistivity
1252:Carbon film
1235:Carbon pile
1079:capacitance
8354:Categories
8339:Runt pulse
8311:television
8005:Logic gate
7950:Transistor
7942:Components
7885:reed relay
7875:Parametron
7808:Thermistor
7786:resettable
7745:Connector
7706:Adjustable
7682:Nixie tube
7652:Crossatron
7619:Trochotron
7594:Iconoscope
7589:Charactron
7566:X-ray tube
7438:Compactron
7418:Acorn tube
7375:Buck–boost
7296:Solaristor
7158:Photodiode
7135:Gunn diode
7131:(CLD, CRD)
6913:Transistor
6799:2008-06-11
6735:2009-08-03
6660:817409217X
6553:RadioShack
6533:2008-09-22
6499:. NIST.gov
6440:2008-09-22
6419:0521234700
6375:2008-09-22
6315:2010-03-18
6282:3 December
6190:0122004000
6076:2023-10-07
5878:9 November
5857:References
5846:Thermistor
5841:Shot noise
5816:Dummy load
5460:Tolerance
2400:E96 series
2171:See also:
2151:multiplier
2115:laboratory
2046:MIL-PRF-26
2041:JIS C 5063
2027:EIA RS-279
2013:JIS C 5062
1955:multimeter
1873:Decade box
1764:) shaft, (
1595:are used.
1585:inductance
1519:Wire wound
1494:Metal film
1381:lead oxide
1334:sputtering
1118:heat sinks
1075:inductance
228:following
132:generators
8195:Placement
7985:Flip-flop
7965:Capacitor
7848:Capacitor
7692:Trigatron
7687:Thyratron
7677:Neon lamp
7604:Monoscope
7484:Phototube
7468:Pentagrid
7433:Barretter
7318:Trancitor
7313:Thyristor
7238:Memristor
7163:PIN diode
6940:(ChemFET)
6703:226539488
5996:119611570
5599:ohms and
5302:Type no.
2278:capacitor
2226:E6 series
2180:tolerance
2058:MIL-R-11
2037:IEC 60063
2031:DIN 41429
2001:DIN 40825
1997:IEC 60062
1980:Standards
1963:Ohm's law
1806:potential
1681:The term
1615:In 1960,
1274:amorphous
1188:heat sink
1095:sensitive
1093:or other
966:Ohm's law
790:−
761:⋯
684:−
641:∑
571:⋯
512:∑
442:) is the
438:(symbol:
335:⋅
314:Ohm's law
310:reactance
300:Ohm's law
294:Ohm's law
230:IEC 60062
7960:Inductor
7955:Resistor
7870:Inductor
7840:Reactive
7818:Varistor
7798:Resistor
7776:Antifuse
7662:Ignitron
7657:Dekatron
7545:Klystron
7534:Gyrotron
7463:Nuvistor
7380:Split-pi
7266:(MOS IC)
7233:Memistor
6991:(MuGFET)
6985:(MOSFET)
6957:(FinFET)
6837:- Vishay
6493:Archived
6224:10 March
5789:See also
5313:MIL-R-11
5309:(watts)
2096:manganin
2021:RKM code
1951:ohmmeter
1905:humistor
1746:rheostat
1713:Tantalum
1708:Phenolic
1654:manganin
1565:nichrome
1472:sintered
446:unit of
312:) obeys
248:or in a
240:as part
226:RKM code
178:RKM code
98:resistor
22:Resistor
8200:Routing
8034:(3D IC)
7771:Ferrite
7739:Passive
7730:Varicap
7718:digital
7667:Krytron
7489:Tetrode
7474:Pentode
7328:Varicap
7309:(3D IC)
7285:RF CMOS
7189:devices
6963:(FGMOS)
6894:devices
6629:. p. 2.
6593:. p. 3.
6564:11 July
6256:23 July
6046:July 6,
5976:Bibcode
5379:⁄
5357:⁄
5335:⁄
3865:Digits
3860:Letter
3857:Series
2427:Digits
2422:Letter
2419:Series
2228:of the
2009:IS 8186
2005:BS 1852
1547:bifilar
1383:(PbO),
1363:(TaN),
1052:⁄
1037:⁄
996:⁄
986:⁄
976:⁄
962:current
839:
827:
823:
811:
429:amperes
381:current
357:voltage
283:voltage
244:, in a
102:passive
52:
43:Passive
8177:Design
8113:Theory
8099:(ASIC)
8093:(FPOA)
8087:(FPGA)
8081:(CPLD)
8046:(EPLD)
7803:Switch
7494:Triode
7458:Nonode
7423:Audion
7303:(SITh)
7187:Other
7154:(OLED)
7116:Diodes
7067:(LET)
7049:(FET)
7021:Other
6969:(IGBT)
6946:(CMOS)
6933:BioFET
6928:BiCMOS
6767:
6701:
6691:
6658:
6416:
6188:
6128:
6104:
6019:
5994:
5904:
5537:±0.25%
5417:RCR42
5403:RCR32
5389:RCR20
5367:RCR07
5345:RCR05
5323:style
5316:style
5307:rating
2232:60063
2015:etc. (
1740:used.
1703:Cermet
1652:(TCR)
1574:cement
1569:enamel
1543:common
1484:kelvin
1357:cermet
1044:leaded
952:where
460:ampere
8284:radio
8105:(TPU)
8075:(GAL)
8069:(PAL)
8063:(PLD)
8057:(PLA)
8040:(ECL)
8023:(HIC)
7880:Relay
7853:types
7791:eFUSE
7562:(TWT)
7550:Maser
7541:(IOT)
7530:(CFA)
7519:(BWO)
7443:Diode
7390:SEPIC
7370:Boost
7323:TRIAC
7292:(SCR)
7255:(MOV)
7229:(LEC)
7148:(LED)
7107:(UJT)
7096:(SIT)
7090:(PUT)
7033:(BJT)
7002:(TFT)
6978:LDMOS
6973:ISFET
6849:- ESP
6843:- PSL
6755:(PDF)
6729:(PDF)
6722:(PDF)
6699:S2CID
6465:(PDF)
6458:(PDF)
6309:(PDF)
6302:(PDF)
6250:(PDF)
6243:(PDF)
6040:(PDF)
5992:S2CID
5966:arXiv
5718:noise
5634:ohms.
5607:ohms.
5548:±0.1%
5526:±0.5%
5305:Power
5281:9M76
5260:9.76
5252:9M53
5231:9.53
5223:9M31
5202:9.31
5194:9M09
5173:9.09
5165:8M87
5144:8.87
5136:8M66
5115:8.66
5107:8M45
5086:8.45
5078:8M25
5057:8.25
5049:8M06
5028:8.06
5020:7M87
4999:7.87
4991:7M68
4970:7.68
4962:7M50
4941:7.50
4933:7M32
4912:7.32
4904:7M15
4883:7.15
4875:6M98
4854:6.98
4846:6M81
4825:6.81
4817:6M65
4796:6.65
4788:6M49
4767:6.49
4759:6M34
4738:6.34
4730:6M19
4709:6.19
4701:6M04
4680:6.04
4672:5M90
4651:5.90
4643:5M76
4622:5.76
4614:5M62
4593:5.62
4585:5M49
4564:5.49
4556:5M36
4535:5.36
4527:5M23
4506:5.23
4498:5M11
4477:5.11
4469:4M99
4448:4.99
4440:4M87
4419:4.87
4411:4M75
4390:4.75
4382:4M64
4361:4.64
4353:4M53
4332:4.53
4324:4M42
4303:4.42
4295:4M32
4274:4.32
4266:4M22
4245:4.22
4237:4M12
4216:4.12
4208:4M02
4187:4.02
4179:3M92
4158:3.92
4150:3M83
4129:3.83
4121:3M74
4100:3.74
4092:3M65
4071:3.65
4063:3M57
4042:3.57
4034:3M48
4013:3.48
4005:3M40
3984:3.40
3976:3M32
3955:3.32
3947:3M24
3926:3.24
3918:3M16
3897:3.16
3854:Code
3843:3M09
3822:3.09
3814:3M01
3793:3.01
3785:2M94
3764:2.94
3756:2M87
3735:2.87
3727:2M80
3706:2.80
3698:2M74
3677:2.74
3669:2M67
3648:2.67
3640:2M61
3619:2.61
3611:2M55
3590:2.55
3582:2M49
3561:2.49
3553:2M43
3532:2.43
3524:2M37
3503:2.37
3495:2M32
3474:2.32
3466:2M26
3445:2.26
3437:2M21
3416:2.21
3408:2M15
3387:2.15
3379:2M10
3358:2.10
3350:2M05
3329:2.05
3321:2M00
3300:2.00
3292:1M96
3271:1.96
3263:1M91
3242:1.91
3234:1M87
3213:1.87
3205:1M82
3184:1.82
3176:1M78
3155:1.78
3147:1M74
3126:1.74
3118:1M69
3097:1.69
3089:1M65
3068:1.65
3060:1M62
3039:1.62
3031:1M58
3010:1.58
3002:1M54
2981:1.54
2973:1M50
2952:1.50
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2865:1.40
2857:1M37
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1581:coils
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849:, or
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7823:Wire
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6017:ISBN
5902:ISBN
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5628:46.8
5626:and
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5482:±20%
5414:RC42
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