Red algae - Knowledge

646:), which are found in both marine and freshwater environments. The BF are macroalgae, seaweed that usually do not grow to more than about 50 cm in length, but a few species can reach lengths of 2 m. In the SCRP clade the class Compsopogonophyceae is multicellular, with forms varying from microscopic filaments to macroalgae. Stylonematophyceae have both unicellular and small simple filamentous species, while Rhodellophyceae and Porphyridiophyceae are exclusively unicellular. Most rhodophytes are marine with a worldwide distribution, and are often found at greater depths compared to other seaweeds. While this was formerly attributed to the presence of pigments (such as 650:) that would permit red algae to inhabit greater depths than other macroalgae by chromatic adaption, recent evidence calls this into question (e.g. the discovery of green algae at great depth in the Bahamas). Some marine species are found on sandy shores, while most others can be found attached to rocky substrata. Freshwater species account for 5% of red algal diversity, but they also have a worldwide distribution in various habitats; they generally prefer clean, high-flow streams with clear waters and rocky bottoms, but with some exceptions. A few freshwater species are found in black waters with sandy bottoms and even fewer are found in more 81: 2673: 2564: 2631: 118: 538: 2585: 2610: 2543: 2652: 8920: 1753:

photosynthetic products are altered by the environmental conditions like change in pH, the salinity of medium, change in light intensity, nutrient limitation etc. When the salinity of the medium increases the production of floridoside is increased in order to prevent water from leaving the algal cells.

5714:

JunMo Lee, Eun Chan Yang, Louis Graf, Ji Hyun Yang, Huan Qiu, Udi Zelzion, Cheong Xin Chan, Timothy G Stephens, Andreas P M Weber, Ga Hun Boo, Sung Min Boo, Kyeong Mi Kim, Younhee Shin, Myunghee Jung, Seung Jae Lee, Hyung-Soon Yim, Jung-Hyun Lee, Debashish Bhattacharya, Hwan Su Yoon, "Analysis of the

2279:

Two kinds of fossils resembling red algae were found sometime between 2006 and 2011 in well-preserved sedimentary rocks in Chitrakoot, central India. The presumed red algae lie embedded in fossil mats of cyanobacteria, called stromatolites, in 1.6 billion-year-old Indian phosphorite – making them the

1806:

After a pit connection is formed, tubular membranes appear. A granular protein called the plug core then forms around the membranes. The tubular membranes eventually disappear. While some orders of red algae simply have a plug core, others have an associated membrane at each side of the protein mass,

654:

waters. Both marine and freshwater taxa are represented by free-living macroalgal forms and smaller endo/epiphytic/zoic forms, meaning they live in or on other algae, plants, and animals. In addition, some marine species have adopted a parasitic lifestyle and may be found on closely or more distantly

685:

or Chloroplastida). The authors use a hierarchical arrangement where the clade names do not signify rank; the class name Rhodophyceae is used for the red algae. No subdivisions are given; the authors say, "Traditional subgroups are artificial constructs, and no longer valid." Many subsequent studies

2520:

predicted the industry could be worth ~$ 1.1 billion by 2030. As of 2024, preparation included three stages of cultivation and drying. Australia's first commercial harvest was in 2022. Agriculture accounts for 37% of the world’s anthropogenic methane emissions. One cow produces between 154 to 264

1793:

Connections that exist between cells not sharing a common parent cell are labelled secondary pit connections. These connections are formed when an unequal cell division produced a nucleated daughter cell that then fuses to an adjacent cell. Patterns of secondary pit connections can be seen in the

446:, which give them their red color. Despite their name, red algae can vary in color from bright green, soft pink, resembling brown algae, to shades of red and purple, and may be almost black at greater depths. Unlike green algae, red algae store sugars as food reserves outside the chloroplasts as 1752:

The major photosynthetic products include floridoside (major product), D‐isofloridoside, digeneaside, mannitol, sorbitol, dulcitol etc. Floridean starch (similar to amylopectin in land plants), a long-term storage product, is deposited freely (scattered) in the cytoplasm. The concentration of

1706:

Red algae do not have flagella and centrioles during their entire life cycle. The distinguishing characters of red algal cell structure include the presence of normal spindle fibres, microtubules, un-stacked photosynthetic membranes, phycobilin pigment granules, pit connection between cells,

2361:

Red algae have a long history of use as a source of nutritional, functional food ingredients and pharmaceutical substances. They are a source of antioxidants including polyphenols, and phycobiliproteins and contain proteins, minerals, trace elements, vitamins and essential fatty acids.

1823:

The reproductive cycle of red algae may be triggered by factors such as day length. Red algae reproduce sexually as well as asexually. Asexual reproduction can occur through the production of spores and by vegetative means (fragmentation, cell division or propagules production).

1959:

The spores of a sporophyte produce either tetrasporophytes. Monospores produced by this phase germinates immediately, with no resting phase, to form an identical copy of the parent. Tetrasporophytes may also produce a carpospore, which germinates to form another

1743:

contain evenly spaced and ungrouped thylakoids and contain the pigments chlorophyll a, α- and β-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin. Their chloroplasts are enclosed in a double membrane, lack grana and phycobilisomes on the stromal surface of the thylakoid membrane.

3990:

Burki, Fabien; Inagaki, Yuji; Bråte, Jon; Archibald, John M.; Keeling, Patrick J.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Sakaguchi, Miako; Hashimoto, Tetsuo; Horak, Ales; Kumar, Surendra; Klaveness, Dag; Jakobsen, Kjetill S.; Pawlowski, Jan; Shalchian-Tabrizi, Kamran (2009).

3607: 1993:, which develops to a cm-scale leafy thallus. This too can reproduce via monospores, which are produced inside the thallus itself. They can also reproduce via spermatia, produced internally, which are released to meet a prospective carpogonium in its 1953:

Carpospores germinate into gametophytes, which produce sporophytes. Both of these are very similar; they produce monospores from monosporangia "just below a cross-wall in a filament" and their spores are "liberated through the apex of sporangial

2429:) and have protein content up to 47% of total biomass. Where a big portion of world population is getting insufficient daily iodine intake, a 150 ug/day requirement of iodine is obtained from a single gram of red algae. Red algae, like 1984:

phase, a carpospore can germinate to form a filamentous "conchocelis stage", which can also self-replicate using monospores. The conchocelis stage eventually produces conchosporangia. The resulting conchospore germinates to form a tiny

4200:

Nozaki, H.; Maruyama, S.; Matsuzaki, M.; Nakada, T.; Kato, S.; Misawa, K. (2009). "Phylogenetic positions of Glaucophyta, green plants (Archaeplastida) and Haptophyta (Chromalveolata) as deduced from slowly evolving nuclear genes".

2529:

Other algae-based markets include construction materials, fertilizers and other agricultural inputs, bioplastics, biofuels and fabric. Red algae also provides ecosystem services such as filtering water and carbon sequestration.

411:. Red algae are abundant in marine habitats. Approximately 5% of red algae species occur in freshwater environments, with greater concentrations in warmer areas. Except for two coastal cave dwelling species in the asexual class 6209:

Manivannan, K., Thirumaran, G., Karthikai, D.G., Anantharaman. P., Balasubramanian, P. (2009). "Proximate Composition of Different Group of Seaweeds from Vedalai Coastal Waters (Gulf of Mannar): Southeast Coast of India".

5919:

Wang, T., Jónsdóttir, R., Kristinsson, H. G., Hreggvidsson, G. O., Jónsson, J. Ó., Thorkelsson, G., & Ólafsdóttir, G. (2010). "Enzyme-enhanced extraction of antioxidant ingredients from red algae Palmaria palmata".

693:

Below are other published taxonomies of the red algae using molecular and traditional alpha taxonomic data; however, the taxonomy of the red algae is still in a state of flux (with classification above the level of

4588:

Scott, J.; Cynthia, B.; Schornstein, K.; Thomas, J. (1980). "Ultrastructure of Cell Division and Reproductive Differentiation of Male Plants in the Florideophyceae (Rhodophyta): Cell Division in Polysiphonia1".

3197: 5511: 1566:

Over 7,000 species are currently described for the red algae, but the taxonomy is in constant flux with new species described each year. The vast majority of these are marine with about 200 that live only in

6090:

Gressler, V., Yokoya, N. S., Fujii, M. T., Colepicolo, P., Filho, J. M., Torres, R. P., & Pinto, E. (2010). "Lipid, fatty acid, protein, amino acid and ash contents in four Brazilian red algae species".

3491:

Rossoni, Alessandro W; Price, Dana C; Seger, Mark; Lyska, Dagmar; Lammers, Peter; Bhattacharya, Debashish; Weber, Andreas PM (May 31, 2019). Tautz, Diethard; Rainey, Paul B; Fournier, Gregory (eds.).

1815:

The pit connections have been suggested to function as structural reinforcement, or as avenues for cell-to-cell communication and transport in red algae, however little data supports this hypothesis.

1865:

Upon their collision, the walls of the spermatium and carpogonium dissolve. The male nucleus divides and moves into the carpogonium; one half of the nucleus merges with the carpogonium's nucleus.

1533:

Some sources (such as Lee) place all red algae into the class "Rhodophyceae". (Lee's organization is not a comprehensive classification, but a selection of orders considered common or important.)

1807:

called cap membranes. The pit plug continues to exist between the cells until one of the cells dies. When this happens, the living cell produces a layer of wall material that seals off the plug.

2465:

are primarily known for their industrial use for phycocolloids (agar, algin, furcellaran and carrageenan) as thickening agent, textiles, food, anticoagulants, water-binding agents, etc. Dulse (

1780:. In red algae, cytokinesis is incomplete. Typically, a small pore is left in the middle of the newly formed partition. The pit connection is formed where the daughter cells remain in contact. 415:, no terrestrial species exist, which may be due to an evolutionary bottleneck in which the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity. 4444:

Goff, L. J.; Coleman, A. W. (1986). "A Novel Pattern of Apical Cell Polyploidy, Sequential Polyploidy Reduction and Intercellular Nuclear Transfer in the Red Alga Polysiphonia".

4767:

Karsten, U.; West, J. A.; Zuccarello, G. C.; Engbrodt, R.; Yokoyama, A.; Hara, Y.; Brodie, J. (2003). "Low Molecular Weight Carbohydrates of the Bangiophycidae (Rhodophyta)1".

2227: 1948:

In the carposporophyte: a spermatium merges with a trichogyne (a long hair on the female sexual organ), which then divides to form carposporangia – which produce carpospores.

1965:

The gametophyte may replicate asexually using monospores, but also produces nonmotile sperm in spermatangia, and a lower, nucleus-containing "egg" region of the carpogonium.

5787:

Grant, S. W. F.; Knoll, A. H.; Germs, G. J. B. (1991). "Probable Calcified Metaphytes in the Latest Proterozoic Nama Group, Namibia: Origin, Diagenesis, and Implications".

1783:

Shortly after the pit connection is formed, cytoplasmic continuity is blocked by the generation of a pit plug, which is deposited in the wall gap that connects the cells.

4970: 3170: 4809:

Lee, R. E. (1974). Chloroplast structure and starch grain production as phylogenetic indicators in the lower Rhodophyceae. British Phycological Journal, 9(3), 291–295.

2894:

Frey, Wolfgang; Engler, Adolf; Jaklitsch, Walter M.; Kamiya, Mitsunobu; Begerow, Dominik; McTaggart, Alistair; Agerer, R.; Fischer, Eberhard; Müller, Kai, eds. (2017).

2469:) is one of the most consumed red algae and is a source of iodine, protein, magnesium and calcium. Red algae's nutritional value is used for the dietary supplement of 4094:"Analysis of Rare Genomic Changes Does Not Support the Unikont–Bikont Phylogeny and Suggests Cyanobacterial Symbiosis as the Point of Primary Radiation of Eukaryotes" 1920:

gametophytes, or the carposporophytes may produce a tetraspore without going through a (free-living) tetrasporophyte phase. Tetrasporangia may be arranged in a row (

3931:

Fabien Burki; Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi; Marianne Minge; Åsmund Skjæveland; Sergey I. Nikolaev; Kjetill S. Jakobsen; Jan Pawlowski (2007). Butler, Geraldine (ed.).

2189: 5099:

Chen, Fei; Zhang, Jiawei; Chen, Junhao; Li, Xiaojiang; Dong, Wei; Hu, Jian; Lin, Meigui; Liu, Yanhui; Li, Guowei; Wang, Zhengjia; Zhang, Liangsheng (2018-01-01).

2238: 1913:– this produces spore tetrads, which dissociate and germinate into gametophytes. The gametophyte is typically (but not always) identical to the tetrasporophyte. 604:. In addition to multicellular brown algae, it is estimated that more than half of all known species of microbial eukaryotes harbor red-alga-derived plastids. 8631: 5846:

Yun, Z.; Xun-lal, Y. (1992). "New data on multicellular thallophytes and fragments of cellular tissues from Late Proterozoic phosphate rocks, South China".

3993:"Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analyses Reveal That Two Enigmatic Protist Lineages, Telonemia and Centroheliozoa, Are Related to Photosynthetic Chromalveolates" 2216: 6228: 3272: 686:

provided evidence that is in agreement for monophyly in the Archaeplastida (including red algae). However, other studies have suggested Archaeplastida is

8619: 1406: 4241:

G. W. Saunders & M. H. Hommersand (2004). "Assessing red algal supraordinal diversity and taxonomy in the context of contemporary systematic data".

8625: 4868:

Clinton JD, Scott FM, Bowler E (November–December 1961). "A Light- and Electron-Microscopic Survey of Algal Cell Walls. I. Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta".

2796: 1039: 2672: 7499: 1732: 864: 2630: 9255: 8435: 7504: 5658:"Genome Survey Sequencing and Genetic Background Characterization of Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis (Rhodophyta) Based on Next-Generation Sequencing" 3028: 2152:, 27 complete transcriptomes and 10 complete genomes sequences of red algae are available. Listed below are the 10 complete genomes of red algae. 8637: 3032: 1500: 3477: 8767: 7600: 7362: 3024: 887: 9886: 1862:; once it has been fertilized, the cell wall at its base progressively thickens, separating it from the rest of the carpogonium at its base. 1508: 1425: 916: 4510:"Evolution of Red Algal Plastid Genomes: Ancient Architectures, Introns, Horizontal Gene Transfer, and Taxonomic Utility of Plastid Markers" 8447: 2563: 961: 3786:

Vis, M.L.; Sheath, R.G.; Chiasson, W.B. (2008). "A survey of Rhodophyta and associated macroalgae from coastal streams in French Guiana".

2737:

n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes"

2549: 8563: 4508:

Janouškovec, Jan; Liu, Shao-Lun; Martone, Patrick T.; Carré, Wilfrid; Leblanc, Catherine; Collén, Jonas; Keeling, Patrick J. (2013).

4290: 2443: 9847: 6283: 5568:"Unraveling the nuclear and chloroplast genomes of an agar producing red macroalga, Gracilaria changii (Rhodophyta, Gracilariales)" 2149: 2101:

from those below the lowest tide line, which are never exposed to atmospheric carbon. The latter group uses the more C-negative CO

9873: 8961: 2897:

Syllabus of plant families: Adolf Engler's Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien. Part 2/2: Photoautotropic eukaryotic algae, Rhodophyta

9991: 4834:, Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology, vol. 13, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 443–456, 3621:"PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE STYLONEMATALES (STYLONEMATOPHYCEAE, RHODOPHYTA): BIOGEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS DO NOT APPLY TO 3426:

Ciniglia, C.; Yoon, H.; Pollio, A.; Bhattacharya, D. (2004). "Hidden biodiversity of the extremophilic Cyanidiales red algae".

3302: 6075: 4919: 4847: 4692: 4575: 4372: 3207: 3180: 3153: 2973: 2905: 2878: 2365:

Traditionally, red algae are eaten raw, in salads, soups, meal and condiments. Several species are food crops, in particular

2105:

dissolved in sea water, whereas those with access to atmospheric carbon reflect the more positive signature of this reserve.

9878: 4682: 2584: 5738:"Three-dimensional preservation of cellular and subcellular structures suggests 1.6 billion-year-old crown-group red algae" 5384:"Genome structure and metabolic features in the red seaweed Chondrus crispus shed light on evolution of the Archaeplastida" 3298: 6310: 6262: 3493:"The genomes of polyextremophilic cyanidiales contain 1% horizontally transferred genes with diverse adaptive functions" 3169:

Reece, Jane B.; Meyers, Noel; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V. (May 20, 2015).

3088:"Extreme environments as potential drivers of convergent evolution by exaptation: the Atacama Desert Coastal Range case" 7593: 3814: 3729: 2609: 1851:. Animals also help with the dispersal and fertilization of the gametes. The first species discovered to do so is the 5043: 3000: 2340:. According to this theory, over time these endosymbiont red algae have evolved to become chloroplasts. This part of 9958: 7643: 6344: 80: 9891: 7638: 6339: 6029: 3746: 2762: 2651: 349: 6274: 6120: 4485: 4397:"The new red algal subphylum Proteorhodophytina comprises the largest and most divergent plastid genomes known" 3276: 2965: 1772:

Pit connections and pit plugs are unique and distinctive features of red algae that form during the process of

1698:

by boiling. The internal walls are mostly cellulose. They also have the most gene-rich plastid genomes known.

7722: 7712: 7695: 7586: 6423: 6413: 6396: 366: 4395:

Muñoz-Gómez, SA; Mejía-Franco, FG; Durnin, K; Colp, M; Grisdale, CJ; Archibald, JM; Ch, Slamovits (2017).

1934:

The two following case studies may be helpful to understand some of the life histories algae may display:

9795: 8954: 5062:

Maberly, S. C.; Raven, J. A.; Johnston, A. M. (1992). "Discrimination between C and C by marine plants".

2422: 1662: 722: 588:

eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages such as

9800: 2542: 6067: 5715:

Draft Genome of the Red Seaweed Gracilariopsis chorda Provides Insights into Genome Size Evolution" in

4243: 3620: 3145: 2072:

values of red algae reflect their lifestyles. The largest difference results from their photosynthetic

1927:

The carposporophyte may be enclosed within the gametophyte, which may cover it with branches to form a

1890: 622:

from prokaryotes, with about 1% of their genome having this origin, and two sister clades called SCRP (

467: 117: 94: 9901: 9098: 6131:

Dhargalkar VK, Verlecar XN. "Southern Ocean Seaweeds: a resource for exploration in food and drugs".

4736:"Ultrastructure and supramolecular organization of photosynthetic membranes of some marine red algae" 2732: 1647: 5607:

Qiu, H.; Price, D. C.; Weber, A. P. M.; Reeb, V.; Yang, E. C.; Lee, J. M.; Bhattacharya, D. (2013).

4720: 705:

If Plantae are defined more narrowly, to be the Viridiplantae, then the red algae might be excluded.

618:

found in sulphuric hot springs and other acidic environments, an adaptation partly made possible by

7578: 6164: 4828:"Low Molecular Weight Carbohydrates in Red Algae – an Ecophysiological and Biochemical Perspective" 3930: 702:

If the kingdom Plantae is defined as the Archaeplastida, then red algae will be part of that group.

619: 17: 9963: 9787: 4935: 1790:

is the norm in red algae, most cells have two primary pit connections, one to each adjacent cell.

1786:

Connections between cells having a common parent cell are called primary pit connections. Because

9183: 7727: 6428: 6303: 5991: 5609:"Adaptation through horizontal gene transfer in the cryptoendolithic red alga Galdieria phlegrea" 3478:"Plants and animals sometimes take genes from bacteria, study of algae suggests - Sciencemag.org" 2500: 2157: 1639: 1579: 844: 6165:"Safety and toxicological evaluation of AlgaeCal ® (AC), a novel plant-based calcium supplement" 9927: 9735: 8947: 5211:"A 100%-complete sequence reveals unusually simple genomic features in the hot-spring red alga 3805:

Sheath, R.G.; Hambrook, J.A. (1990). "Freshwater Ecology". In Cole, K.M.; Sheath, R.G. (eds.).

2741: 2476:

China, Japan, Republic of Korea are the top producers of seaweeds. In East and Southeast Asia,

2264: 1587: 342: 9950: 9922: 9411: 9061: 7690: 6391: 5266:"Gene transfer from bacteria and archaea facilitated evolution of an extremophilic eukaryote" 4040: 3884:"The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists" 3340: 2165: 1632: 1617: 1380: 1221: 1024: 565: 431: 101: 9914: 8928: 6146:"On the human consumption of the red seaweed dulse (Palmaria palmata (L.) Weber & Mohr)" 3373:

McFadden, G.I. (2001). "Primary and Secondary Endosymbiosis and the Evolution of Plastids".

580:, which together make up the oldest evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic eukaryotes, the 9821: 9773: 9076: 8923: 8669: 5855: 5796: 5669: 5620: 5520: 5454: 5395: 5336: 5277: 5173: 4776: 4598: 4521: 4408: 4307: 4298: 4154: 3944: 3683: 3636: 3562: 3435: 2810: 2750: 2704: 2341: 2314: 2200: 1594: 664: 5882:

Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (April 2000). "Membrane heredity and early chloroplast evolution".

4331: 8: 8088: 8071: 7981: 7829: 7206: 6990: 6229:"Cattle Are A Major Source Of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Hawaii Seaweed Could Change That" 4364: 1670: 1537: 1078: 1051: 627: 463: 214: 8939: 5859: 5800: 5673: 5624: 5524: 5458: 5399: 5340: 5281: 5177: 4780: 4602: 4525: 4412: 4311: 4158: 3948: 3747:"Indicator value of freshwater red algae in running waters for water quality assessment" 3687: 3670:

Norris, J. N.; Olsen, J. L. (1991). "Deep-water green algae from the Bahamas, including

3640: 3566: 3439: 3408: 2814: 2754: 9986: 9406: 9088: 8364: 8115: 8098: 7940: 7824: 7819: 7707: 7685: 7673: 7648: 7216: 6408: 6386: 6374: 6349: 6296: 5972: 5959: 5942: 5867: 5828: 5812: 5764: 5737: 5692: 5657: 5543: 5502: 5475: 5442: 5418: 5383: 5359: 5320: 5301: 5241: 5210: 5133: 5081: 5016: 4885: 4792: 4752: 4735: 4708: 4614: 4610: 4544: 4509: 4457: 4323: 4268: 4177: 4142: 4118: 4093: 4069: 4044: 4017: 3992: 3967: 3932: 3913: 3585: 3546: 3519: 3492: 3459: 3390: 3352: 3249: 3224: 3114: 3087: 3018: 2774: 2332:

algae (e.g., chrysophytes, diatoms, phaeophytes, dinophytes) seem to have evolved from

2208: 2194: 2077: 1686:

forms to complex parenchymatous and non- parenchymatous thallus. Red algae have double

1549: 1541: 1536:

A subphylum - Proteorhodophytina - has been proposed to encompass the existing classes

1465: 994: 945: 635: 623: 229: 219: 209: 112: 5895: 4658: 4633: 4141:

Kim, E.; Graham, L.E. & Graham, Linda E. (2008). Redfield, Rosemary Jeanne (ed.).

9909: 9808: 9198: 8830: 8731: 8719: 8542: 8256: 8076: 8007: 7997: 7927: 7717: 7680: 7668: 7658: 7550: 7476: 7457: 7167: 6750: 6418: 6381: 6369: 6359: 6254: 6192: 6184: 6145: 6116: 6071: 6011: 6007: 5964: 5899: 5820: 5769: 5697: 5638: 5589: 5548: 5480: 5423: 5364: 5293: 5246: 5191: 5138: 5120: 5039: 4915: 4843: 4788: 4688: 4663: 4571: 4549: 4491: 4481: 4426: 4368: 4319: 4260: 4218: 4182: 4123: 4074: 4022: 3972: 3905: 3900: 3883: 3810: 3761: 3725: 3699: 3652: 3648: 3590: 3524: 3451: 3447: 3386: 3344: 3254: 3203: 3176: 3149: 3119: 3006: 2996: 2969: 2935: 2911: 2901: 2874: 2801: 2797:"Precise age of Bangiomorpha pubescens dates the origin of eukaryotic photosynthesis" 2766: 2305:

crusts that have been interpreted as the remains of coralline red algae, date to the

2173: 2073: 1724: 1314: 1102: 506: 475: 443: 173: 5832: 4971:"In a First, Tiny Crustaceans Are Found to 'Pollinate' Seaweed like Bees of the Sea" 4796: 4618: 4327: 3463: 3394: 3356: 2778: 9474: 9353: 9245: 9188: 9128: 9123: 9051: 9036: 8743: 8737: 8701: 8384: 8246: 8131: 8032: 7632: 7522: 7468: 7222: 6668: 6333: 6176: 6163:

Marone, Palma Ann; Yasmin, Taharat; Gupta, Ramesh C.; Bagchi, Manashi (July 2010).

6100: 6096: 6003: 5954: 5925: 5891: 5863: 5804: 5759: 5749: 5720: 5687: 5677: 5628: 5579: 5538: 5528: 5470: 5462: 5413: 5403: 5354: 5344: 5305: 5285: 5236: 5226: 5181: 5128: 5112: 5101:"realDB: a genome and transcriptome resource for the red algae (phylum Rhodophyta)" 5073: 5008: 4877: 4835: 4810: 4784: 4747: 4653: 4645: 4606: 4539: 4529: 4453: 4416: 4315: 4272: 4252: 4210: 4172: 4162: 4113: 4105: 4064: 4056: 4012: 4004: 3962: 3952: 3917: 3895: 3862: 3691: 3644: 3580: 3570: 3514: 3504: 3443: 3382: 3336: 3244: 3236: 3109: 3099: 3068: 2818: 2758: 2591: 2482: 2426: 2181: 1624: 1609: 1480: 1261: 612: 510: 487: 447: 439: 303: 265: 90: 7154: 5976: 4999:

Kohlmeyer, J. (February 1975). "New Clues to the Possible Origin of Ascomycetes".

4289:

Hwan Su Yoon; K. M. Müller; R. G. Sheath; F. D. Ott & D. Bhattacharya (2006).

3695: 1881:

may have long, delicate appendages, which increase their chances of "hooking up".

9813: 9647: 9552: 9514: 9469: 9401: 9158: 9118: 9103: 8996: 8835: 8818: 8725: 8251: 8234: 8017: 7976: 7844: 7834: 7814: 7395: 6570: 6278: 6266: 6180: 5754: 5682: 5349: 4839: 4566:

W. J. Woelkerling (1990). "An introduction". In K. M. Cole; R. G. Sheath (eds.).

4534: 4167: 3957: 3140:

W. J. Woelkerling (1990). "An introduction". In K. M. Cole; R. G. Sheath (eds.).

2596: 2554: 2470: 2461: 2221: 2128:

in the amorphous sections of their cell walls, although red algae from the genus

1910: 1902: 1720: 1545: 1456: 1397: 1364: 1330: 1299: 1290: 1245: 1212: 1094: 902: 872: 818: 803: 779: 695: 643: 631: 608: 471: 412: 396: 243: 238: 224: 202: 5941:

MacArtain, P.; Gill, C. I. R.; Brooks, M.; Campbell, R.; Rowland, I. R. (2007).

5584: 5567: 4357: 4214: 1848: 9707: 9652: 9642: 9484: 9298: 9250: 9163: 9138: 9133: 9113: 9108: 9011: 9001: 8755: 8695: 8569: 8536: 8494: 8407: 8335: 8330: 8278: 7748: 7663: 7610: 7491: 7481: 7445: 7420: 7109: 6900: 6801: 6723: 6532: 6364: 5512:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4827: 4826:

Eggert, Anja; Karsten, Ulf (2010), Seckbach, Joseph; Chapman, David J. (eds.),

3717: 3555:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3306: 2091: 1762: 1736: 1556: 1504: 1334: 1129: 1098: 1011: 965: 674: 581: 557: 526: 192: 158: 132: 6259: 5929: 5808: 5633: 5608: 5265: 5116: 4908: 4814: 4421: 4396: 3010: 2992:

Freshwater ecology : concepts and environmental applications of limnology

2867: 1552:. This proposal was made on the basis of the analysis of the plastid genomes. 9980: 9758: 9431: 9416: 9378: 9303: 9239: 9225: 9173: 9168: 9082: 9071: 9066: 9046: 9041: 9016: 8845: 8689: 8652: 8609: 8522: 8498: 8315: 8037: 8012: 7894: 7839: 7527: 7326: 7318: 7148: 7069: 7009: 6920: 6894: 6623: 6188: 6062:

as food: cultivation and economics". In C. A. Lembi & J. Waaland (eds.).

5498: 5124: 4955:

In Archibald, J. M., In Simpson, A. G. B., & In Slamovits, C. H. (2017).

4634:"Properties and Ultrastructure of Phycoerythrin From Porphyridium cruentum12" 4495: 4288: 4143:"EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata" 3765: 3720:; Norton, T.A. (1990). "Marine Ecology". In Cole, J.M.; Sheath, R.G. (eds.). 3703: 3542: 3104: 3085: 2915: 2770: 2621: 2575: 2337: 2254:

One of the oldest fossils identified as a red alga is also the oldest fossil

2243: 2232: 2121: 2116: 2110: 1787: 1728: 1492: 1273: 1160: 1135: 767: 682: 647: 639: 585: 553: 514: 459: 400: 197: 9940: 5724: 5533: 5408: 5289: 4045:"Kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista and the eozoan root of the eukaryotic tree" 3575: 537: 9627: 9622: 9597: 9572: 9562: 9489: 9358: 9232: 9193: 9178: 9153: 9148: 9093: 9026: 8906: 8761: 8749: 8489: 8320: 8310: 8110: 8062: 7935: 7560: 7387: 7367: 7307: 7211: 7184: 7131: 7089: 7056: 6831: 6609: 6548: 6288: 6196: 6015: 5968: 5903: 5824: 5773: 5701: 5642: 5593: 5552: 5484: 5427: 5368: 5297: 5250: 5231: 5195: 5142: 4667: 4553: 4430: 4264: 4256: 4222: 4186: 4127: 4078: 4060: 4026: 3976: 3909: 3656: 3594: 3528: 3455: 3348: 3258: 3240: 3123: 2990: 2895: 2642: 2600: 2455: 2295:

period. Other algae of different origins filled a similar role in the late

2137: 1939: 1878: 1496: 1484: 1421: 1368: 1322: 761: 714: 698:

having received little scientific attention for most of the 20th century).

687: 615: 573: 5786: 5321:"The first symbiont-free genome sequence of marine red alga, Susabi-nori ( 5100: 4649: 3867: 3850: 1843:

to the female organs – although their sperm are capable of "gliding" to a

1707:

filamentous genera, and the absence of chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum.

418:

Red algae form a distinct group characterized by eukaryotic cells without

9860: 9767: 9682: 9657: 9602: 9577: 9499: 9494: 9459: 9449: 9143: 9056: 8713: 8707: 8502: 8483: 8441: 8391: 8198: 8141: 8082: 8027: 7960: 7910: 7880: 7862: 7854: 7451: 7377: 7229: 7193: 7173: 7121: 7095: 6985: 6933: 6906: 6888: 6861: 6628: 6497: 6486: 5503:"Insights into the red algae and eukaryotic evolution from the genome of 4109: 4008: 3619:

Zuccarello, Giuseppe C.; West, John A.; Kikuchi, Norio (April 11, 2008).

3608:

Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology, Second Edition (page 27)

3547:"Insights into the red algae and eukaryotic evolution from the genome of 2699: 2694: 2679: 2310: 2125: 2054: 2044: 1994: 1894: 1844: 1773: 1740: 1683: 1654: 1568: 1338: 1114: 832: 678: 589: 577: 569: 522: 451: 427: 145: 52: 45: 5501:; Blouin, NA; Ficko-Blean, E; Wheeler, GL; et al. (1 August 2017). 5186: 5157: 3509: 3086:

Azua-Bustos, A; González-Silva, C; Arenas-Fajardo, C; Vicuña, R (2012).

2988: 584:. A secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a 395:

amidst ongoing taxonomic revisions. The majority of species (6,793) are

9715: 9677: 9607: 9587: 9582: 9567: 9537: 9509: 9464: 9454: 9426: 9421: 9363: 9338: 9031: 9006: 8913: 8840: 8808: 8794: 8777: 8325: 8002: 7791: 7782: 7532: 7356: 7347: 7332: 7200: 7137: 6996: 6957: 6952: 6838: 6755: 6650: 6562: 5816: 5656:

Zhou, W.; Hu, Y.; Sui, Z.; Fu, F.; Wang, J.; Chang, L.; Li, B. (2013).

5466: 5085: 5077: 5020: 4889: 3327:

Gould, S.B.; Waller, R.F.; McFadden, G.I. (2008). "Plastid Evolution".

2710: 2663: 2616: 2517: 2431: 2411: 2403: 2387: 2288: 2098: 1986: 1906: 1898: 1859: 1795: 1716: 1512: 1488: 1326: 853: 794: 709:

A major research initiative to reconstruct the Red Algal Tree of Life (

597: 593: 561: 498: 479: 380: 9865: 9834: 9782: 9632: 9612: 9504: 9383: 9318: 9308: 9293: 9288: 9269: 9021: 8578: 8474: 8340: 8224: 8022: 7771: 7431: 7372: 7080: 7045: 7003: 6980: 6962: 6849: 6785: 6660: 6537: 6480: 6467: 6319: 6037: 5735: 5064: 3769: 2822: 2658: 2637: 2417: 2329: 2325: 2306: 2296: 2284: 2255: 2133: 1928: 1869: 1687: 1437: 1342: 1318: 1177: 977: 601: 435: 423: 372: 355: 9729: 7608: 6271: 5012: 4881: 9935: 9852: 9752: 9687: 9667: 9662: 9637: 9617: 9592: 9557: 9547: 9542: 9373: 9348: 9328: 8988: 8850: 8283: 8266: 7702: 7438: 7400: 7301: 7278: 6825: 6820: 6812: 6742: 6617: 6492: 6475: 6453: 6403: 2570: 2449: 2437: 2375: 2345: 2313:

resembling coralline red algae are known from the late Proterozoic

2292: 2129: 1971: 1872: 1833: 1524: 1354: 1195: 928: 493: 419: 9839: 9692: 9672: 9368: 9343: 9333: 9323: 9279: 9216: 8803: 8506: 8305: 7762: 7554: 7289: 7126: 6972: 6879: 6868: 6732: 6638: 6594: 6502: 4394: 4092:

Rogozin, I.B.; Basu, M.K.; Csürös, M. & Koonin, E.V. (2009).

3809:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–453. 3724:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 377–423. 3049:

Sheath, Robert G. (1284). "The biology of freshwater red algae".

2505: 2302: 2280:

oldest plant-like fossils ever found by about 400 million years.

1990: 1981: 1917: 1852: 1777: 1691: 1601: 718: 455: 408: 59: 9826: 5736:

Bengtson, S; Sallstedt, T; Belivanova, V; Whitehouse, M (2017).

2900:(13th ed.). Berlin: Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung. 2066: 9532: 9524: 9393: 7147: 6944: 6674: 6576: 6518: 5497: 2513: 2509: 2333: 2269: 1921: 1840: 1190: 710: 651: 384: 66: 8197: 5038:. W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers, New York. p. 324. 4734:

Tsekos, I.; Reiss, H.-D.; Orfanidis, S.; Orologas, N. (1996).

4240: 3425: 9441: 9313: 8789: 8202: 7900: 7614: 7514: 4766: 4587: 4199: 2366: 2259: 1836: 1694:

and agaropectin that can be extracted from the cell walls as

690:. As of January 2011, the situation appears unresolved. 404: 392: 388: 105: 4733: 2995:. Whiles, Matt R. (Third ed.). London, United Kingdom. 9479: 8971: 8574: 8293: 6771: 5940: 5034:

Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005).

2763:

10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2

2487: 2477: 2381: 2097:. An additional difference of about 1.71‰ separates groups 1858:

The trichogyne will continue to grow until it encounters a

1695: 518: 502: 391:, containing over 7,000 recognized species within over 900 333: 327: 318: 312: 292: 271: 7902: 4507: 3989: 2490:

cultivation in Japan goes back more than three centuries.

2143: 280: 8969: 3830:

Goff, L.J. (1982). "The biology of parasitic red algae".

3744: 2893: 286: 5158:"Genome sequence of the ultrasmall unicellular red alga 1839:. Hence, they rely on water currents to transport their 6162: 4291:"Defining the major lineages of red algae (Rhodophyta)" 4091: 3225:"The unique features of starch metabolism in red algae" 2989:

Dodds, Walter K. (Walter Kennedy), 1958- (7 May 2019).

2486:. These rhodophytes are easily grown and, for example, 2108:

Photosynthetic pigments of Rhodophyta are chlorophylls

7616: 3851:"Are all red algal parasites cut from the same cloth?" 3754:

International Journal of Oceanography and Hydrobiology

3490: 2276:

and occurs in rocks dating to 1.05 billion years ago.

1574:

Some examples of species and genera of red algae are:

6111:

Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. (1995).

6057: 3933:"Phylogenomics Reshuffles the Eukaryotic Supergroups" 3618: 2392: 2136:. They also produce a specific type of tannin called 324: 306: 283: 5061: 2498:

Researchers in Australia discovered that limu kohu (

725:

as part of the Assembling the Tree of Life Program.

450:, a type of starch that consists of highly branched 379: 'plant'), make up one of the oldest groups of 330: 315: 309: 289: 277: 268: 3326: 3222: 3172:

Campbell Biology Australian and New Zealand Edition

3168: 1875:is produced, which triggers carpospore production. 383:algae. The Rhodophyta comprises one of the largest 321: 274: 8424: 5845: 5719:, Volume 35, Issue 8, August 2018, pp. 1869–1886, 5033: 4907: 4867: 4570:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 1–6. 4356: 2866: 1715:The presence of the water-soluble pigments called 8373: 8097: 5606: 4354: 4033: 3785: 3139: 3135: 3133: 2730: 1739:, gives red algae their distinctive color. Their 470:that may have three generations rather than two. 9978: 9256:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms 7926: 4994: 4992: 4990: 3368: 3366: 3196:Morrissey, John; Sumich, James (June 11, 2012). 1756: 466:. The life history of red algae is typically an 8605: 7467: 5443:"Genome of the red alga Porphyridium purpureum" 5098: 4684:The Fine Structure of Algal Cells - 1st Edition 4348: 4140: 3195: 1690:. The outer layers contain the polysaccharides 8555: 8204: 5881: 5057: 5055: 4475: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4039: 3804: 3130: 2320: 2287:reefs. The earliest such coralline algae, the 8955: 7746: 7594: 6304: 4998: 4987: 4825: 4134: 3363: 3044: 3042: 2397: 2140:, but in a lower amount than brown algae do. 1916:Carpospores may also germinate directly into 1682:Red algal morphology is diverse ranging from 6318: 5440: 4914:(4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3848: 3738: 3229:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 3223:Viola, R.; Nyvall, P.; Pedersén, M. (2001). 2929: 2927: 2925: 2873:(4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 728: 7183: 5717:Rhodophyta, Molecular Biology and Evolution 5655: 5263: 5052: 4478:The structure and reproduction of the algae 4464: 4443: 4236: 4234: 4232: 3669: 3027:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2794: 2516:experiment, the reduction reached 77%. The 2124:. They contain the sulfated polysaccharide 1658:, with freshwater as well as marine species 556:event between an ancestral, photosynthetic 552:Chloroplasts probably evolved following an 8962: 8948: 8919: 7601: 7587: 6311: 6297: 5915: 5913: 5566:Ho, C.-L.; Lee, W.-K.; Lim, E.-L. (2018). 4901: 4899: 3716: 3199:Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life 3069:"Huan Qiu Red Algae DEENR at Rutgers SEBS" 3039: 3031:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3023:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2933: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2724: 2425:(eicopentaenoic acid, docohexaenoic acid, 2049:−20.8‰ to −10.5‰ 2039:−34.5‰ to −29.9‰ 1924:), in a cross (cruciate), or in a tetrad. 1643:, became extinct in the early 20th century 673:2005, the red algae are classified in the 79: 8473: 8222: 6561: 6115:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 5958: 5780: 5763: 5753: 5691: 5681: 5632: 5583: 5542: 5532: 5474: 5417: 5407: 5358: 5348: 5240: 5230: 5185: 5155: 5132: 5027: 4751: 4657: 4543: 4533: 4420: 4176: 4166: 4117: 4068: 4016: 3983: 3966: 3956: 3924: 3899: 3866: 3710: 3584: 3574: 3518: 3508: 3248: 3113: 3103: 2959: 2922: 2864: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2272:, strongly resembles the modern red alga 2059:−20.3‰ to −8.8‰ 6466: 5565: 5318: 4229: 3372: 3341:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092915 2953: 2790: 2788: 2027:−22.5‰ to −9.6‰ 536: 8987: 6451: 5910: 5839: 5264:Schönknecht; et al. (March 2013). 4896: 4363:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4284: 4282: 3875: 3541: 3296: 2344:is supported by various structural and 2144:Genomes and transcriptomes of red algae 1561: 14: 9979: 9215: 7569:denotes groups with over 1,000 species 6226: 6058:T. F. Mumford & A. Muira (1988). " 5989: 5943:"Nutritional Value of Edible Seaweeds" 5381: 5208: 4905: 3303:National University of Ireland, Galway 3275:. autocww.colorado.edu. Archived from 3048: 2829: 2083:as a carbon source have less negative 681:and the green algae plus land plants ( 517:and are used to make products such as 9734: 9733: 8943: 8196: 7582: 6292: 6222: 6220: 5156:Matsuzaki; et al. (April 2004). 4680: 4631: 4203:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 3290: 3216: 2785: 2268:, a multicellular fossil from arctic 9902:38cbf85b-c36c-418c-a0fe-2f3bccbe7561 5992:"Micro-algae as a source of protein" 4968: 4480:, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 4279: 3855:Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 3829: 3745:Eloranta, P.; Kwandrans, J. (2004). 2356: 2283:Red algae are important builders of 669:In the classification system of Adl 3881: 3849:Salomaki, E.D.; Lane, C.E. (2014). 3202:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 1747: 598:Stramenopiles (or Heterokontophyta) 576:which emerged within them) and the 24: 6217: 6113:Algae An Introduction to Phycology 5960:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00278.x 5868:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1992.tb01788.x 5441:Bhattacharya; et al. (2013). 4753:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1996.tb01923.x 4681:Dodge, John David (January 1973). 4611:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1980.tb03068.x 4458:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1986.tb08558.x 3888:Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 3882:Adl, Sina M.; et al. (2005). 2258:that belongs to a specific modern 1767: 741:Classification system according to 736:Classification system according to 568:) is at the origin of the red and 478:and play a major role in building 25: 10003: 6248: 6169:Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 6036:. Quality Sea Veg. Archived from 5922:LWT – Food Science and Technology 2934:Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M. (2016). 1701: 8918: 6008:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.11.002 4789:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.02192.x 4320:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00210.x 3901:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x 3649:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00467.x 3448:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02180.x 3387:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.01126.x 2671: 2650: 2629: 2608: 2583: 2562: 2541: 2336:that have acquired red algae as 2249: 2090:values than those that only use 1827: 302: 264: 116: 43: 6203: 6156: 6138: 6125: 6105: 6084: 6051: 6022: 5983: 5934: 5874: 5729: 5708: 5649: 5600: 5559: 5491: 5434: 5375: 5312: 5257: 5202: 5149: 5092: 4962: 4949: 4928: 4861: 4819: 4803: 4760: 4727: 4674: 4625: 4581: 4560: 4501: 4437: 4388: 4193: 4085: 3842: 3823: 3798: 3779: 3663: 3612: 3601: 3535: 3484: 3470: 3419: 3401: 3320: 3265: 3189: 3175:. Pearson Higher Education AU. 3162: 3079: 2480:is most commonly produced from 2351: 1818: 1710: 607:Red algae are divided into the 8929:Current definitions of Plantae 7048: 7044: 6804: 6800: 6212:Middle-East J. Scientific Res. 6101:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.10.028 5319:Nakamura; et al. (2013). 3832:Progress Phycological Research 3329:Annual Review of Plant Biology 3061: 3051:Progress Phycological Research 2982: 2887: 2493: 1969:A rather different example is 572:(including the land plants or 407:algae, including many notable 13: 1: 9992:Proterozoic first appearances 6227:Heaton, Thomas (2024-06-03). 5896:10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01598-3 3696:10.2216/i0031-8884-30-4-315.1 2718: 1884: 1757:Pit connections and pit plugs 1677: 738:Saunders and Hommersand 2004 611:, a class of unicellular and 6181:10.3109/15376516.2010.490966 5755:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000735 5683:10.1371/journal.pone.0069909 5507:(Bangiophyceae, Rhodophyta)" 5382:Collen; et al. (2013). 5350:10.1371/journal.pone.0057122 5209:Nozaki; et al. (2007). 4840:10.1007/978-90-481-3795-4_24 4832:Red Algae in the Genomic Age 4535:10.1371/journal.pone.0059001 4168:10.1371/journal.pone.0002621 4098:Genome Biology and Evolution 3997:Genome Biology and Evolution 3958:10.1371/journal.pone.0000790 3551:(Bangiophyceae, Rhodophyta)" 2299:, and in more recent reefs. 2228:Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis 2001: 1801: 1735:), which are localized into 532: 509:) are a traditional part of 7: 5990:Becker, E.W. (March 2007). 5585:10.1016/j.ygeno.2017.09.003 4215:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.015 3674:sp. nov. (Cladophorales)". 3148:, Cambridge. pp. 1–6. 2688: 2682:when not covered with water 2423:polyunsaturated fatty acids 2393: 2373:) and members of the genus 2321:Relationship to other algae 2120:. Red algae are red due to 1810: 1663:Polysiphonia ceramiaeformis 723:National Science Foundation 658: 10: 10008: 6068:Cambridge University Press 4870:American Journal of Botany 4446:American Journal of Botany 4355:Robert Edward Lee (2008). 4244:American Journal of Botany 3146:Cambridge University Press 2731:N. J. Butterfield (2000). 2574:sp., haploid and diploid ( 2533: 2409:Red algal species such as 1937:In a simple case, such as 1897:generation, many have two 1891:alternation of generations 1760: 1557:Eukaryote § Phylogeny 1554: 885: 792: 759: 721:approach is funded by the 662: 468:alternation of generations 365: 348: 9742: 9705: 9523: 9440: 9392: 9277: 9268: 9211: 8983: 8979: 8974:phyla/divisions by domain 8901: 8817: 8776: 8665: 8650: 8601: 8592: 8551: 8531: 8520: 8469: 8460: 8420: 8405: 8401: 8361: 8357: 8292: 8265: 8233: 8218: 8214: 8192: 8140: 8124: 8106: 8060: 8056: 7990: 7969: 7957: 7953: 7922: 7893: 7871: 7853: 7801: 7781: 7761: 7757: 7742: 7626: 7545: 7513: 7490: 7417: 7386: 7346: 7317: 7297: 7288: 7276: 7272: 7117: 7108: 7079: 7064: 7055: 7042: 7038: 6971: 6943: 6928: 6919: 6878: 6857: 6848: 6811: 6798: 6794: 6781: 6768: 6764: 6741: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6659: 6646: 6637: 6604: 6591: 6557: 6546: 6528: 6515: 6462: 6447: 6443: 6327: 5930:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.05.010 5809:10.1017/S002233600002014X 5634:10.1016/j.cub.2013.08.046 4815:10.1080/00071617400650351 4422:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.054 3212:– via Google Books. 3185:– via Google Books. 2398: 1909:, which germinate into a 1648:Acrochaetium efflorescens 1235: 860: 851: 743:Hwan Su Yoon et al. 2006 740: 735: 729:Classification comparison 655:related red algal hosts. 620:horizontal gene transfers 543:Botryocladia occidentalis 362: 'rose' and 186: 181: 113:Scientific classification 111: 87: 78: 34: 6774: 6770: 6272:Tree of Life: Rhodophyta 6260:Seaweed Site: Rhodophyta 5036:Biology of Plants 7th ed 4957:Handbook of the protists 4568:Biology of the Red Algae 3807:Biology of the Red Algae 3722:Biology of the Red Algae 3142:Biology of the Red Algae 3105:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00426 2524: 560:and an early eukaryotic 399:, and mostly consist of 9184:Thermodesulfobacteriota 6064:Algae and Human Affairs 5884:Trends in Plant Science 5789:Journal of Paleontology 5534:10.1073/pnas.1703088114 5409:10.1073/pnas.1221259110 5290:10.1126/science.1231707 5213:Cyanidioschyzon merolae 5160:Cyanidioschyzon merolae 5117:10.1093/database/bay072 4476:Fritsch, F. E. (1945), 3672:Cladophora vandenhoekii 3576:10.1073/pnas.1703088114 3413:The Scientist Magazine® 3299:"Rhodophyta: red algae" 2501:Asparagopsis taxiformis 2158:Cyanidioschyzon merolae 1640:Vanvoorstia bennettiana 1580:Cyanidioschyzon merolae 845:Cyanidioschyzon merolae 41:Mesoproterozoic–present 5996:Biotechnology Advances 5232:10.1186/1741-7007-5-28 4257:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1494 4061:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0948 4041:Cavalier-Smith, Thomas 3241:10.1098/rspb.2001.1644 2966:Natural History Museum 2735:Bangiomorpha pubescens 2662:sp. (Florideophyceae: 2641:sp. (Florideophyceae: 2620:sp. (Florideophyceae: 2521:pounds of methane/yr. 2265:Bangiomorpha pubescens 2190:Porphyridium purpureum 1588:Atractophora hypnoides 1583:, a primitive red alga 1082:Saunders et Hommersand 1055:Saunders et Hommersand 665:Wikispecies:Rhodophyta 549: 434:or unstacked (stroma) 27:Division of plant life 9923:Paleobiology Database 9412:Neocallimastigomycota 6255:AlgaeBase: Rhodophyta 5725:10.1093/molbev/msy081 5447:Nature Communications 4650:10.1104/pp.44.11.1629 3868:10.5586/asbp.2014.047 3788:Cryptogamie Algologie 3659:– via CrossRef. 2638:Corallina officinalis 2379:, variously known as 2291:, are known from the 2239:Gracilariopsis chorda 2166:Galdieria sulphuraria 1633:Mastocarpus stellatus 1618:Schmitzia hiscockiana 1381:Corallina officinalis 1222:Hildenbrandiophycidae 1025:Porphyridium cruentum 663:Further information: 566:primary endosymbiosis 564:. This event (termed 540: 458:. Most red algae are 432:endoplasmic reticulum 102:Mastocarpus stellatus 9077:Coprothermobacterota 8924:List of plant orders 8804:Pinopsida (conifers) 8790:Cycadopsida (cycads) 8782:(living gymnosperms) 8279:Leiosporocerotopsida 7998:Nephroselmidophyceae 5924:, 43(9), 1387–1393. 5505:Porphyra umbilicalis 4769:Journal of Phycology 4591:Journal of Phycology 4299:Journal of Phycology 3629:Journal of Phycology 3549:Porphyra umbilicalis 3375:Journal of Phycology 2795:T.M. Gibson (2018). 2705:History of phycology 2342:endosymbiotic theory 2315:Doushantuo formation 2201:Porphyra umbilicalis 1666:, banded siphon weed 1605:, a freshwater genus 1595:Gelidiella calcicola 1562:Species of red algae 8632:Archaeopteridopsida 8365:Polysporangiophytes 8089:Klebsormidiophyceae 8072:Mesostigmatophyceae 8018:Chlorodendrophyceae 7982:Pyramimonadophyceae 7936:Prasinodermophyceae 7830:Compsopogonophyceae 7446:Gunflint microbiota 7207:Klebsormidiophyceae 6991:Hyphochytriomycetes 6233:Honolulu Civil Beat 6135:2009; 287: 229–242. 6095:, 120(2), 585–590. 5860:1992Letha..25....1Y 5801:1991JPal...65....1G 5674:2013PLoSO...869909Z 5625:2013CBio...23.R865Q 5525:2017PNAS..114E6361B 5519:(31): E6361–E6370. 5459:2013NatCo...4.1941B 5400:2013PNAS..110.5247C 5341:2013PLoSO...857122N 5282:2013Sci...339.1207S 5276:(6124): 1207–1210. 5187:10.1038/nature02398 5178:2004Natur.428..653M 4975:Scientific American 4938:. FHL Marine Botany 4781:2003JPcgy..39..584K 4603:1980JPcgy..16..507S 4526:2013PLoSO...859001J 4413:2017CBio...27E1677M 4312:2006JPcgy..42..482Y 4159:2008PLoSO...3.2621K 3949:2007PLoSO...2..790B 3688:1991Phyco..30..315N 3641:2008JPcgy..44..384Z 3567:2017PNAS..114E6361B 3561:(31): E6361–E6370. 3510:10.7554/eLife.45017 3440:2004MolEc..13.1827C 3409:"Steal My Sunshine" 3235:(1474): 1417–1422. 2815:2018Geo....46..135G 2755:2000Pbio...26..386B 2678:Some red algae are 1893:. In addition to a 1671:Vertebrata simulans 1538:Compsopogonophyceae 1079:Compsopogonophyceae 1052:Compsopogonophyceae 628:Compsopogonophyceae 462:, macroscopic, and 215:Compsopogonophyceae 9407:Blastocladiomycota 8823:(flowering plants) 8744:Lyginopteridopsida 8537:Eophyllophytopsida 8490:Zosterophyllopsida 8428:Paratracheophytes* 8206:sensu strictissimo 8116:Coleochaetophyceae 8099:Phragmoplastophyta 7941:Palmophyllophyceae 7863:Glaucocystophyceae 7825:Stylonematophyceae 7820:Porphyridiophyceae 7609:Classification of 7217:Coleochaetophyceae 6597: 6593: 6521: 6517: 6284:Monterey Bay Flora 6277:2012-05-02 at the 6265:2012-07-09 at the 5467:10.1038/ncomms2931 5078:10.1007/BF00650320 4687:. Academic Press. 4110:10.1093/gbe/evp011 4009:10.1093/gbe/evp022 2960:D. Thomas (2002). 2865:Lee, R.E. (2008). 2217:Galdieria phlegrea 2209:Gracilaria changii 2195:Porphyridiophyceae 1550:Stylonematophyceae 1542:Porphyridiophyceae 1466:Rhodymeniophycidae 995:Porphyridiophyceae 946:Stylonematophyceae 636:Porphyridiophyceae 624:Stylonematophyceae 550: 485:Red algae such as 464:reproduce sexually 444:accessory pigments 230:Stylonematophyceae 220:Porphyridiophyceae 210:Proteorhodophytina 9974: 9973: 9910:Open Tree of Life 9736:Taxon identifiers 9727: 9726: 9723: 9722: 9701: 9700: 9264: 9263: 9207: 9206: 9199:Verrucomicrobiota 8937: 8936: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8892: 8889: 8888: 8885: 8884: 8881: 8880: 8877: 8876: 8873: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8865: 8864: 8861: 8860: 8831:Basal angiosperms 8732:Gigantopteridales 8681:seed plant groups 8679:and other extinct 8646: 8645: 8620:Noeggerathiopsida 8588: 8587: 8543:Trimerophytopsida 8516: 8515: 8456: 8455: 8412:(vascular plants) 8377:Protracheophytes* 8353: 8352: 8349: 8348: 8316:Andreaeobryopsida 8257:Jungermanniopsida 8188: 8187: 8184: 8183: 8180: 8179: 8176: 8175: 8172: 8171: 8168: 8167: 8164: 8163: 8160: 8159: 8077:Chlorokybophyceae 8052: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8008:Chloropicophyceae 7949: 7948: 7928:Prasinodermophyta 7889: 7888: 7576: 7575: 7541: 7540: 7477:Spironematellidae 7458:Meteora sporadica 7413: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7342: 7341: 7268: 7267: 7264: 7263: 7260: 7259: 7256: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7168:Prasinodermophyta 7104: 7103: 7034: 7033: 7030: 7029: 7026: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7018: 7017: 6915: 6914: 6751:Centroplasthelida 6709: 6708: 6705: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6693: 6692: 6689: 6688: 6685: 6684: 6587: 6586: 6511: 6510: 6077:978-0-521-32115-0 5947:Nutrition Reviews 5619:(19): R865–R866. 5394:(13): 5247–5252. 5323:Pyropia yezoensis 5172:(6983): 653–657. 4921:978-0-521-63883-8 4849:978-90-481-3795-4 4694:978-0-12-219150-3 4644:(11): 1629–1638. 4632:Gantt, E (1969). 4576:978-0-521-34301-5 4407:(11): 1677–1684. 4374:978-0-521-68277-0 4251:(10): 1494–1507. 3623:STYLONEMA ALSIDII 3428:Molecular Ecology 3209:978-0-7637-8160-6 3182:978-1-4860-1229-9 3155:978-0-521-34301-5 3073:deenr.rutgers.edu 2975:978-0-565-09175-0 2940:www.algaebase.org 2907:978-3-443-01094-2 2880:978-0-521-63883-8 2406:(British Isles). 2357:Human consumption 2185:, Florideophyceae 2174:Pyropia yezoensis 2169:, Cyanidiophyceae 2161:, Cyanidiophyceae 2076:: algae that use 2074:metabolic pathway 2063: 2062: 2036:-using red algae 1901:generations, the 1855:Idotea balthica. 1725:phycoerythrobilin 1531: 1530: 1461: 1407:Ahnfeltiophycidae 1402: 1315:Batrachospermales 1295: 1250: 1217: 1165: 1140: 1103:Erythropeltidales 1083: 1056: 907: 877: 858: 823: 799: 784: 677:, along with the 613:thermoacidophilic 547: 482:, belong there. 476:calcium carbonate 440:phycobiliproteins 430:without external 253: 252: 177: 16:(Redirected from 9999: 9967: 9966: 9954: 9953: 9944: 9943: 9931: 9930: 9918: 9917: 9905: 9904: 9895: 9894: 9882: 9881: 9869: 9868: 9856: 9855: 9843: 9842: 9830: 9829: 9817: 9816: 9804: 9803: 9791: 9790: 9778: 9777: 9776: 9763: 9762: 9761: 9731: 9730: 9475:Anthocerotophyta 9354:Hemimastigophora 9275: 9274: 9246:Nitrososphaerota 9213: 9212: 9189:Thermomicrobiota 9129:Kiritimatiellota 9124:Ignavibacteriota 9089:Deferribacterota 9052:Campylobacterota 9037:Bdellovibrionota 8985: 8984: 8981: 8980: 8964: 8957: 8950: 8941: 8940: 8922: 8921: 8836:Core angiosperms 8824: 8783: 8778:Acrogymnospermae 8756:Peltaspermopsida 8738:Glossopteridales 8720:Corystospermales 8702:Callistophytales 8682: 8674: 8668: 8663: 8662: 8659: 8658: 8626:Aneurophytopsida 8608: 8603: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8595: 8553: 8552: 8529: 8528: 8525: 8484:Barinophytopsida 8471: 8470: 8467: 8466: 8463: 8427: 8422: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8414: 8413: 8403: 8402: 8385:Horneophytopsida 8376: 8371: 8370: 8367: 8359: 8358: 8299: 8284:Anthocerotopsida 8272: 8267:Anthocerotophyta 8247:Haplomitriopsida 8240: 8231: 8230: 8227: 8220: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8208: 8194: 8193: 8147: 8138: 8137: 8132:Zygnematophyceae 8122: 8121: 8104: 8103: 8095: 8094: 8065: 8058: 8057: 8033:Trebouxiophyceae 8003:Picocystophyceae 7967: 7966: 7963: 7955: 7954: 7924: 7923: 7920: 7919: 7916: 7906: 7808: 7759: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7751: 7744: 7743: 7655: 7635: 7620: 7603: 7596: 7589: 7580: 7579: 7523:Collodictyonidae 7469:Hemimastigophora 7465: 7464: 7424: 7295: 7294: 7286: 7285: 7282: 7274: 7273: 7223:Zygnematophyceae 7181: 7180: 7161: 7145: 7144: 7115: 7114: 7062: 7061: 7053: 7052: 7049: 7040: 7039: 6926: 6925: 6855: 6854: 6809: 6808: 6805: 6796: 6795: 6779: 6778: 6775: 6766: 6765: 6739: 6738: 6726: 6719: 6718: 6715: 6714: 6669:Choanoflagellata 6644: 6643: 6602: 6601: 6598: 6559: 6558: 6555: 6554: 6551: 6526: 6525: 6522: 6464: 6463: 6460: 6459: 6456: 6449: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6356: 6336: 6313: 6306: 6299: 6290: 6289: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239: 6224: 6215: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6160: 6154: 6153: 6152:. December 2013. 6150:researchgate.net 6142: 6136: 6129: 6123: 6109: 6103: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6045: 6032:Palmaria palmata 6026: 6020: 6019: 5987: 5981: 5980: 5962: 5938: 5932: 5917: 5908: 5907: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5767: 5757: 5733: 5727: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5695: 5685: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5636: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5587: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5546: 5536: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5478: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5421: 5411: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5362: 5352: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5244: 5234: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5189: 5153: 5147: 5146: 5136: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5059: 5050: 5049: 5031: 5025: 5024: 4996: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4969:Tamisiea, Jack. 4966: 4960: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4913: 4903: 4894: 4893: 4865: 4859: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4823: 4817: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4764: 4758: 4757: 4755: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4718: 4714: 4712: 4704: 4702: 4701: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4661: 4638:Plant Physiology 4629: 4623: 4622: 4585: 4579: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4547: 4537: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4473: 4462: 4461: 4452:(8): 1109–1130. 4441: 4435: 4434: 4424: 4392: 4386: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4362: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4342: 4336: 4330:. Archived from 4295: 4286: 4277: 4276: 4238: 4227: 4226: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4180: 4170: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4121: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4072: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4020: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3970: 3960: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3903: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3870: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3768:. Archived from 3751: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3616: 3610: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3588: 3578: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3522: 3512: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3434:(7): 1827–1838. 3423: 3417: 3416: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3370: 3361: 3360: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3315: 3314: 3305:. Archived from 3294: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3284: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3252: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3117: 3107: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3046: 3037: 3036: 3022: 3014: 2986: 2980: 2979: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2931: 2920: 2919: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2872: 2862: 2827: 2826: 2823:10.1130/G39829.1 2792: 2783: 2782: 2728: 2675: 2654: 2633: 2612: 2592:Chondrus crispus 2587: 2566: 2545: 2483:Gelidium amansii 2467:Palmaria palmata 2427:arachidonic acid 2401: 2400: 2396: 2371:Palmaria palmata 2182:Chondrus crispus 2086: 2069: 2006: 2005: 1960:tetrasporophyte. 1748:Storage products 1625:Chondrus crispus 1610:Palmaria palmata 1481:Bonnemaisoniales 1459: 1400: 1293: 1262:Hildenbrandiales 1248: 1215: 1163: 1138: 1081: 1054: 1040:Metarhodophytina 905: 875: 856: 821: 797: 782: 733: 732: 545: 488:Palmaria palmata 474:, which secrete 448:floridean starch 376: 369: 359: 352: 340: 339: 336: 335: 332: 329: 326: 323: 320: 317: 314: 311: 308: 299: 298: 295: 294: 291: 288: 285: 282: 279: 276: 273: 270: 172: 121: 120: 91:Chondrus crispus 83: 73: 69: 62: 55: 48: 42: 38:Temporal range: 32: 31: 21: 10007: 10006: 10002: 10001: 10000: 9998: 9997: 9996: 9977: 9976: 9975: 9970: 9962: 9957: 9949: 9947: 9939: 9934: 9926: 9921: 9913: 9908: 9900: 9898: 9890: 9885: 9877: 9872: 9864: 9859: 9851: 9846: 9838: 9833: 9825: 9820: 9812: 9807: 9799: 9794: 9786: 9781: 9772: 9771: 9766: 9757: 9756: 9751: 9738: 9728: 9719: 9697: 9648:Gnathostomulida 9553:Xenacoelomorpha 9519: 9515:Flowering plant 9470:Marchantiophyta 9436: 9402:Chytridiomycota 9388: 9260: 9203: 9159:Planctomycetota 9119:Gemmatimonadota 9104:Elusimicrobiota 8997:Acidobacteriota 8975: 8968: 8938: 8933: 8857: 8822: 8821: 8813: 8781: 8780: 8772: 8726:Czekanowskiales 8680: 8678: 8676: 8675: 8672: 8666: 8656: 8655: 8651: 8642: 8606: 8593: 8584: 8556:Moniliformopses 8547: 8521: 8512: 8462:Eutracheophytes 8461: 8452: 8425: 8411: 8410: 8406: 8397: 8374: 8362: 8345: 8336:Polytrichopsida 8331:Tetraphidopsida 8297: 8296: 8288: 8270: 8269: 8261: 8252:Marchantiopsida 8238: 8237: 8235:Marchantiophyta 8223: 8210: 8156: 8145: 8144: 8136: 8120: 8093: 8061: 8044: 7986: 7977:Mamiellophyceae 7958: 7945: 7914: 7908: 7898: 7897: 7885: 7867: 7849: 7845:Florideophyceae 7835:Rhodellophyceae 7815:Cyanidiophyceae 7806: 7805: 7797: 7777: 7747: 7738: 7737: 7653: 7631: 7622: 7607: 7577: 7572: 7537: 7509: 7500:Ancyromonadidae 7486: 7463: 7418: 7405: 7396:Malawimonadidae 7382: 7338: 7313: 7277: 7236: 7179: 7152: 7151: 7143: 7100: 7075: 7043: 7014: 6967: 6939: 6911: 6874: 6844: 6799: 6790: 6769: 6760: 6737: 6722: 6681: 6655: 6633: 6592: 6583: 6547: 6542: 6516: 6507: 6452: 6439: 6438: 6354: 6332: 6323: 6317: 6279:Wayback Machine 6267:Wayback Machine 6251: 6246: 6237: 6235: 6225: 6218: 6208: 6204: 6161: 6157: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6130: 6126: 6110: 6106: 6089: 6085: 6078: 6056: 6052: 6043: 6041: 6028: 6027: 6023: 5988: 5984: 5953:(12): 535–543. 5939: 5935: 5918: 5911: 5879: 5875: 5844: 5840: 5785: 5781: 5748:(3): e2000735. 5734: 5730: 5713: 5709: 5654: 5650: 5613:Current Biology 5605: 5601: 5564: 5560: 5496: 5492: 5439: 5435: 5380: 5376: 5317: 5313: 5262: 5258: 5207: 5203: 5154: 5150: 5097: 5093: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5032: 5028: 5013:10.2307/1297108 4997: 4988: 4979: 4977: 4967: 4963: 4954: 4950: 4941: 4939: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4922: 4906:Lee RE (2008). 4904: 4897: 4882:10.2307/2439535 4876:(10): 925–934. 4866: 4862: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4824: 4820: 4808: 4804: 4765: 4761: 4740:New Phytologist 4732: 4728: 4716: 4715: 4706: 4705: 4699: 4697: 4695: 4679: 4675: 4630: 4626: 4586: 4582: 4565: 4561: 4506: 4502: 4488: 4474: 4465: 4442: 4438: 4393: 4389: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4353: 4349: 4340: 4338: 4334: 4293: 4287: 4280: 4239: 4230: 4198: 4194: 4139: 4135: 4090: 4086: 4049:Biology Letters 4038: 4034: 3988: 3984: 3929: 3925: 3880: 3876: 3847: 3843: 3828: 3824: 3817: 3803: 3799: 3784: 3780: 3772: 3749: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3715: 3711: 3668: 3664: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3602: 3540: 3536: 3489: 3485: 3476: 3475: 3471: 3424: 3420: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3371: 3364: 3325: 3321: 3312: 3310: 3295: 3291: 3282: 3280: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3221: 3217: 3210: 3194: 3190: 3183: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3138: 3131: 3092:Front Microbiol 3084: 3080: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3047: 3040: 3016: 3015: 3003: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2964:. Life Series. 2958: 2954: 2944: 2942: 2932: 2923: 2908: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2863: 2830: 2793: 2786: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2691: 2686: 2683: 2676: 2667: 2655: 2646: 2634: 2625: 2613: 2604: 2597:Florideophyceae 2588: 2579: 2567: 2558: 2555:Cyanidiophyceae 2546: 2536: 2527: 2496: 2471:algas calcareas 2359: 2354: 2323: 2252: 2222:Cyanidiophytina 2212:, Gracilariales 2204:, Bangiophyceae 2177:, Bangiophyceae 2148:As enlisted in 2146: 2104: 2095: 2089: 2084: 2081: 2067: 2035: 2020: 2004: 1911:tetrasporophyte 1903:carposporophyte 1887: 1832:Red algae lack 1830: 1821: 1813: 1804: 1770: 1768:Pit connections 1765: 1759: 1750: 1733:phycobiliviolin 1721:phycocyanobilin 1713: 1704: 1680: 1564: 1559: 1546:Rhodellophyceae 1457:Florideophyceae 1398:Florideophyceae 1365:Rhodogorgonales 1331:Colaconematales 1300:Nemaliophycidae 1291:Florideophyceae 1246:Florideophyceae 1213:Florideophyceae 1095:Compsopogonales 903:Rhodellophyceae 891:subphylum novus 873:Rhodellophyceae 865:Rhodellophytina 819:Cyanidiophyceae 807:subphylum novus 804:Cyanidiophytina 780:Cyanidiophyceae 749:Multicellular? 742: 737: 731: 667: 661: 644:Florideophyceae 632:Rhodellophyceae 609:Cyanidiophyceae 548: 546:scale bar: 2 cm 535: 472:Coralline algae 413:Cyanidiophyceae 397:Florideophyceae 305: 301: 267: 263: 244:Cyanidiophyceae 239:Cyanidiophytina 225:Rhodellophyceae 203:Florideophyceae 171: 115: 98: 74: 72: 71: 67: 64: 60: 57: 53: 50: 46: 40: 39: 36: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10005: 9995: 9994: 9989: 9972: 9971: 9969: 9968: 9955: 9945: 9932: 9919: 9906: 9896: 9883: 9870: 9857: 9844: 9831: 9818: 9805: 9792: 9779: 9764: 9748: 9746: 9740: 9739: 9725: 9724: 9721: 9720: 9713: 9711: 9708:Incertae sedis 9703: 9702: 9699: 9698: 9696: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9653:Micrognathozoa 9650: 9645: 9643:Acanthocephala 9640: 9635: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9615: 9610: 9605: 9600: 9595: 9590: 9585: 9580: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9529: 9527: 9521: 9520: 9518: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9492: 9487: 9485:Lycopodiophyta 9482: 9477: 9472: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9452: 9446: 9444: 9438: 9437: 9435: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9398: 9396: 9390: 9389: 9387: 9386: 9381: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9299:Ancyromonadida 9296: 9291: 9285: 9283: 9272: 9266: 9265: 9262: 9261: 9259: 9258: 9253: 9251:Thermoproteota 9248: 9243: 9236: 9229: 9221: 9219: 9209: 9208: 9205: 9204: 9202: 9201: 9196: 9191: 9186: 9181: 9176: 9171: 9166: 9164:Pseudomonadota 9161: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9139:Mycoplasmatota 9136: 9134:Lentisphaerota 9131: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9114:Fusobacteriota 9111: 9109:Fibrobacterota 9106: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9012:Armatimonadota 9009: 9004: 9002:Actinomycetota 8999: 8993: 8991: 8977: 8976: 8967: 8966: 8959: 8952: 8944: 8935: 8934: 8932: 8931: 8926: 8916: 8910: 8902: 8899: 8898: 8895: 8894: 8891: 8890: 8887: 8886: 8883: 8882: 8879: 8878: 8875: 8874: 8871: 8870: 8867: 8866: 8863: 8862: 8859: 8858: 8856: 8855: 8854: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8833: 8827: 8825: 8815: 8814: 8812: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8792: 8786: 8784: 8774: 8773: 8771: 8770: 8764: 8762:Pentoxylopsida 8758: 8752: 8746: 8740: 8734: 8728: 8722: 8716: 8710: 8704: 8698: 8696:Calamopityales 8692: 8685: 8683: 8660: 8653:Spermatophytes 8648: 8647: 8644: 8643: 8641: 8640: 8634: 8628: 8622: 8615: 8613: 8610:Progymnosperms 8596: 8590: 8589: 8586: 8585: 8583: 8582: 8575:Polypodiopsida 8572: 8570:Cladoxylopsida 8566: 8559: 8557: 8549: 8548: 8546: 8545: 8539: 8532: 8526: 8523:Euphyllophytes 8518: 8517: 8514: 8513: 8511: 8510: 8495:Lycopodiopsida 8492: 8486: 8479: 8477: 8464: 8458: 8457: 8454: 8453: 8451: 8450: 8444: 8438: 8436:Cooksoniopsida 8431: 8429: 8415: 8399: 8398: 8396: 8395: 8387: 8380: 8378: 8368: 8355: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8346: 8344: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8326:Oedipodiopsida 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8290: 8289: 8287: 8286: 8281: 8275: 8273: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8243: 8241: 8228: 8212: 8211: 8190: 8189: 8186: 8185: 8182: 8181: 8178: 8177: 8174: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8166: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8158: 8157: 8155: 8154: 8150: 8148: 8135: 8134: 8128: 8126: 8119: 8118: 8113: 8107: 8101: 8092: 8091: 8086: 8079: 8074: 8068: 8066: 8054: 8053: 8050: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8043: 8042: 8041: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7994: 7992: 7988: 7987: 7985: 7984: 7979: 7973: 7971: 7970:Prasinophytina 7964: 7951: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7943: 7938: 7932: 7930: 7917: 7891: 7890: 7887: 7886: 7884: 7883: 7877: 7875: 7873:incertae sedis 7869: 7868: 7866: 7865: 7859: 7857: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7811: 7809: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7795: 7787: 7785: 7779: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7767: 7765: 7752: 7749:Archaeplastida 7740: 7739: 7736: 7735: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7731: 7728:Mesomycetozoea 7725: 7720: 7710: 7700: 7699: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7677: 7676: 7664:Diaphoretickes 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7628: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7611:Archaeplastida 7606: 7605: 7598: 7591: 7583: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7564: 7557: 7553:excluded from 7546: 7543: 7542: 7539: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7519: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7507: 7505:Planomonadidae 7502: 7496: 7494: 7492:Ancyromonadida 7488: 7487: 7485: 7484: 7482:Paramastigidae 7479: 7473: 7471: 7462: 7461: 7454: 7448: 7442: 7434: 7427: 7425: 7421:Incertae sedis 7415: 7414: 7411: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7403: 7398: 7392: 7390: 7384: 7383: 7381: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7352: 7350: 7344: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7336: 7329: 7323: 7321: 7315: 7314: 7312: 7311: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7283: 7270: 7269: 7266: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7250: 7249: 7246: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7234: 7226: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7197: 7189: 7187: 7178: 7177: 7170: 7164: 7162: 7142: 7141: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7118: 7112: 7110:Archaeplastida 7106: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7085: 7083: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7073: 7065: 7059: 7050: 7036: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7028: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7016: 7015: 7013: 7012: 7007: 7000: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6977: 6975: 6969: 6968: 6966: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6949: 6947: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6937: 6929: 6923: 6917: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6910: 6909: 6904: 6901:Dinoflagellata 6897: 6895:Chrompodellida 6892: 6884: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6872: 6865: 6858: 6852: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6842: 6835: 6828: 6823: 6817: 6815: 6806: 6792: 6791: 6789: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6762: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6753: 6747: 6745: 6736: 6735: 6729: 6727: 6724:Diaphoretickes 6711: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6699: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6671: 6665: 6663: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6653: 6647: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6613: 6605: 6599: 6589: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6581: 6573: 6567: 6565: 6552: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6529: 6523: 6513: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6483: 6478: 6472: 6470: 6457: 6441: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6433: 6432: 6429:Mesomycetozoea 6426: 6421: 6411: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6365:Diaphoretickes 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6322:classification 6316: 6315: 6308: 6301: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6281: 6269: 6257: 6250: 6249:External links 6247: 6245: 6244: 6216: 6202: 6175:(6): 334–344. 6155: 6137: 6124: 6104: 6093:Food Chemistry 6083: 6076: 6050: 6021: 6002:(2): 207–210. 5982: 5933: 5909: 5890:(4): 174–182. 5880:Summarised in 5873: 5838: 5779: 5728: 5707: 5648: 5599: 5578:(2): 124–133. 5558: 5490: 5433: 5374: 5311: 5256: 5201: 5148: 5091: 5051: 5044: 5026: 4986: 4961: 4948: 4927: 4920: 4895: 4860: 4848: 4818: 4802: 4775:(3): 584–589. 4759: 4746:(4): 543–551. 4726: 4717:|website= 4693: 4673: 4624: 4597:(4): 507–524. 4580: 4559: 4500: 4486: 4463: 4436: 4387: 4373: 4347: 4306:(2): 482–492. 4278: 4228: 4209:(3): 872–880. 4192: 4133: 4084: 4032: 3982: 3923: 3894:(5): 399–451. 3874: 3861:(4): 369–375. 3841: 3822: 3816:978-0521343015 3815: 3797: 3778: 3775:on 2011-07-27. 3737: 3731:978-0521343015 3730: 3709: 3682:(4): 315–328. 3662: 3635:(2): 384–393. 3611: 3600: 3534: 3483: 3469: 3418: 3400: 3381:(6): 951–959. 3362: 3319: 3289: 3264: 3215: 3208: 3188: 3181: 3161: 3154: 3129: 3078: 3060: 3038: 3001: 2981: 2974: 2952: 2921: 2906: 2886: 2879: 2828: 2809:(2): 135–138. 2784: 2749:(3): 386–404. 2722: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2715: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2690: 2687: 2685: 2684: 2677: 2670: 2668: 2656: 2649: 2647: 2635: 2628: 2626: 2614: 2607: 2605: 2589: 2582: 2580: 2568: 2561: 2559: 2547: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2526: 2523: 2495: 2492: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348:similarities. 2322: 2319: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2235: 2224: 2213: 2205: 2197: 2186: 2178: 2170: 2162: 2145: 2142: 2102: 2093: 2088: 2079: 2061: 2060: 2057: 2051: 2050: 2047: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2025: 2018: 2014: 2013: 2012:δC range 2010: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1998: 1967: 1966: 1962: 1961: 1956: 1955: 1950: 1949: 1886: 1883: 1829: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1812: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1769: 1766: 1763:Pit connection 1761:Main article: 1758: 1755: 1749: 1746: 1737:phycobilisomes 1712: 1709: 1703: 1702:Cell structure 1700: 1679: 1676: 1675: 1674: 1667: 1659: 1651: 1644: 1636: 1629: 1621: 1614: 1606: 1598: 1591: 1584: 1563: 1560: 1529: 1528: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1505:Nemastomatales 1478: 1477: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1472: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1419: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1385: 1384: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1335:Acrochaetiales 1312: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1278: 1277: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1259: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1234: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1224: 1200: 1199: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1174: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1142: 1141: 1130:Eurhodophytina 1119: 1118: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1099:Rhodochaetales 1092: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1043: 1042: 1029: 1028: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012:Porphyridiales 1008: 1007: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1003: 1002: 1001: 1000: 982: 981: 974: 971: 968: 966:Stylonematales 959: 958: 957: 956: 955: 954: 953: 952: 951: 933: 932: 925: 922: 919: 914: 913: 912: 911: 910: 909: 908: 906:Cavalier-Smith 893: 884: 883: 882: 881: 880: 879: 878: 876:Cavalier-Smith 859: 849: 848: 841: 838: 835: 830: 829: 828: 827: 826: 825: 824: 809: 800: 791: 790: 789: 788: 787: 786: 785: 770: 764: 757: 756: 753: 750: 747: 744: 739: 730: 727: 707: 706: 703: 675:Archaeplastida 660: 657: 582:Archaeplastida 558:cyanobacterium 541: 534: 531: 527:food additives 515:Asian cuisines 251: 250: 249: 248: 247: 246: 236: 235: 234: 233: 232: 227: 222: 217: 207: 206: 205: 200: 193:Eurhodophytina 184: 183: 179: 178: 166: 162: 161: 159:Archaeplastida 156: 149: 148: 143: 136: 135: 133:Diaphoretickes 130: 123: 122: 109: 108: 85: 84: 76: 75: 65: 58: 51: 44: 37: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10004: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9984: 9982: 9965: 9960: 9956: 9952: 9946: 9942: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9911: 9907: 9903: 9897: 9893: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9875: 9871: 9867: 9862: 9858: 9854: 9849: 9845: 9841: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9810: 9806: 9802: 9797: 9793: 9789: 9784: 9780: 9775: 9769: 9765: 9760: 9754: 9750: 9749: 9747: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9732: 9718: 9717: 9712: 9710: 9709: 9704: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9530: 9528: 9526: 9522: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9448: 9447: 9445: 9443: 9439: 9433: 9432:Basidiomycota 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9417:Glomeromycota 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9399: 9397: 9395: 9391: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9379:Stramenopiles 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9304:Apusomonadida 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9267: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9241: 9240:Nanoarchaeota 9237: 9234: 9230: 9227: 9226:Euryarchaeota 9223: 9222: 9220: 9218: 9214: 9210: 9200: 9197: 9195: 9192: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9174:Spirochaetota 9172: 9170: 9169:Rhodothermota 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9099:Dictyoglomota 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9084: 9083:Cyanobacteria 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9072:Chrysiogenota 9070: 9068: 9067:Chloroflexota 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9047:Calditrichota 9045: 9043: 9042:Caldisericota 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9017:Atribacterota 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8994: 8992: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8978: 8973: 8965: 8960: 8958: 8953: 8951: 8946: 8945: 8942: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8917: 8915: 8911: 8908: 8904: 8903: 8900: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8828: 8826: 8820: 8816: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8798: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8787: 8785: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8765: 8763: 8759: 8757: 8753: 8751: 8747: 8745: 8741: 8739: 8735: 8733: 8729: 8727: 8723: 8721: 8717: 8715: 8711: 8709: 8705: 8703: 8699: 8697: 8693: 8691: 8690:Bennettitales 8687: 8686: 8684: 8671: 8670:Pteridosperms 8664: 8661: 8657:(seed plants) 8654: 8649: 8639: 8638:Protopityales 8635: 8633: 8629: 8627: 8623: 8621: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8604: 8600: 8597: 8591: 8580: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8567: 8565: 8561: 8560: 8558: 8554: 8550: 8544: 8540: 8538: 8534: 8533: 8530: 8527: 8524: 8519: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8487: 8485: 8481: 8480: 8478: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8465: 8459: 8449: 8445: 8443: 8439: 8437: 8433: 8432: 8430: 8423: 8419: 8416: 8409: 8408:Tracheophytes 8404: 8400: 8394: 8393: 8388: 8386: 8382: 8381: 8379: 8372: 8369: 8366: 8360: 8356: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8321:Andreaeopsida 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8295: 8291: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8276: 8274: 8268: 8264: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8244: 8242: 8236: 8232: 8229: 8226: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8207: 8200: 8195: 8191: 8152: 8151: 8149: 8146:(land plants) 8143: 8139: 8133: 8130: 8129: 8127: 8123: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8108: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8096: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8084: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8059: 8055: 8039: 8038:Chlorophyceae 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8013:Pedinophyceae 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7991:Chlorophytina 7989: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7962: 7956: 7952: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7931: 7929: 7925: 7921: 7918: 7912: 7907: 7905: 7896: 7895:Viridiplantae 7892: 7882: 7879: 7878: 7876: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7861: 7860: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7840:Bangiophyceae 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7812: 7810: 7804: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7789: 7788: 7786: 7784: 7780: 7774: 7773: 7769: 7768: 7766: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7753: 7750: 7745: 7741: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7704: 7701: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7691:Stramenopiles 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7670: 7667: 7666: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7654:(major groups 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7634: 7630: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7619: 7612: 7604: 7599: 7597: 7592: 7590: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7568: 7565: 7562: 7558: 7556: 7552: 7549:¹traditional 7548: 7547: 7544: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7528:Mantamonadida 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7516: 7512: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7497: 7495: 7493: 7489: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7470: 7466: 7460: 7459: 7455: 7453: 7449: 7447: 7443: 7441: 7440: 7435: 7433: 7429: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7416: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7389: 7385: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7354: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7345: 7335: 7334: 7330: 7328: 7327:Heterolobosea 7325: 7324: 7322: 7320: 7319:Discicristata 7316: 7310: 7309: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7287: 7284: 7280: 7275: 7271: 7232: 7231: 7227: 7225: 7224: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7202: 7198: 7196: 7195: 7191: 7190: 7188: 7186: 7182: 7176: 7175: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7159: 7158: 7150: 7149:Viridiplantae 7146: 7140: 7139: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7119: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7082: 7078: 7072: 7071: 7070:Microheliella 7067: 7066: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7054: 7051: 7047: 7041: 7037: 7011: 7010:Actinophryida 7008: 7006: 7005: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6946: 6942: 6936: 6935: 6931: 6930: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6921:Stramenopiles 6918: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6902: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6890: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6866: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6847: 6841: 6840: 6836: 6834: 6833: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6814: 6810: 6807: 6803: 6797: 6793: 6787: 6784: 6783: 6780: 6777: 6773: 6767: 6763: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6740: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6677: 6676: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6662: 6658: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6624:Ichthyosporea 6622: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6612: 6611: 6607: 6606: 6603: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6579: 6578: 6574: 6572: 6571:Rotosphaerida 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6550: 6545: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6533:Apusomonadida 6531: 6530: 6527: 6524: 6520: 6514: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6488: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6392:Stramenopiles 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6372: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6355:(major groups 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6326: 6321: 6314: 6309: 6307: 6302: 6300: 6295: 6294: 6291: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6264: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6252: 6234: 6230: 6223: 6221: 6213: 6206: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6159: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6134: 6128: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6087: 6079: 6073: 6070:, Cambridge. 6069: 6065: 6061: 6054: 6040:on 2012-02-22 6039: 6035: 6033: 6025: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5986: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5937: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5914: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5842: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5732: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5711: 5703: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5668:(7): e69909. 5667: 5663: 5659: 5652: 5644: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5603: 5595: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5562: 5554: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5506: 5500: 5494: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5437: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5335:(3): e57122. 5334: 5330: 5326: 5324: 5315: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5260: 5252: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5214: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5161: 5152: 5144: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5066: 5058: 5056: 5047: 5045:0-7167-1007-2 5041: 5037: 5030: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4976: 4972: 4965: 4958: 4952: 4937: 4931: 4923: 4917: 4912: 4911: 4902: 4900: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4851: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4730: 4722: 4710: 4696: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4677: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4584: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4520:(3): e59001. 4519: 4515: 4511: 4504: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4440: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4391: 4376: 4370: 4366: 4361: 4360: 4351: 4337:on 2016-03-04 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4300: 4292: 4285: 4283: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4137: 4129: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4036: 4028: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3927: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3869: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3826: 3818: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3741: 3733: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3624: 3615: 3609: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3479: 3473: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3367: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3309:on 2007-05-04 3308: 3304: 3300: 3297:M. D. Guiry. 3293: 3279:on 2012-03-15 3278: 3274: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3211: 3205: 3201: 3200: 3192: 3184: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3165: 3157: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3136: 3134: 3125: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3043: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3002:9780128132555 2998: 2994: 2993: 2985: 2977: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2956: 2941: 2937: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2890: 2882: 2876: 2871: 2870: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2803: 2798: 2791: 2789: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2743: 2738: 2736: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2681: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2660: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2639: 2632: 2627: 2623: 2622:Gracilariales 2619: 2618: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2576:Bangiophyceae 2573: 2572: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2538: 2531: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2508:emissions in 2507: 2504:) can reduce 2503: 2502: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2457: 2452: 2451: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2439: 2434: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2419: 2414: 2413: 2407: 2405: 2402:(China), and 2395: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2377: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2338:endosymbionts 2335: 2331: 2327: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2266: 2261: 2257: 2250:Fossil record 2245: 2244:Gracilariales 2241: 2240: 2236: 2234: 2233:Gracilariales 2230: 2229: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2184: 2183: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2171: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2151: 2141: 2139: 2138:phlorotannins 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2122:phycoerythrin 2119: 2118: 2113: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2096: 2082: 2075: 2071: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2042: 2038: 2031: 2030: 2026: 2024: 2016: 2015: 2011: 2008: 2007: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1964: 1963: 1958: 1957: 1952: 1951: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1889:They display 1882: 1880: 1876: 1874: 1871: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1835: 1828:Fertilization 1825: 1816: 1808: 1799: 1797: 1791: 1789: 1788:apical growth 1784: 1781: 1779: 1775: 1764: 1754: 1745: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1729:phycourobilin 1726: 1722: 1718: 1708: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1673: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1637: 1635: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1622: 1620: 1619: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1597: 1596: 1592: 1590: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1581: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1527: 1526: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1501:Rhodymeniales 1498: 1494: 1493:Gracilariales 1490: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1453: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1449: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1408: 1404: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1313: 1301: 1297: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1283: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1274:Hildenbrandia 1271: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1247: 1243: 1242: 1241: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1192: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1179: 1175: 1162: 1161:Bangiophyceae 1158: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1137: 1136:Bangiophyceae 1133: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1080: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1053: 1049: 1048: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1013: 1009: 999: 996: 992: 991: 990: 989: 988: 987: 986: 985: 984: 983: 980: 979: 975: 972: 969: 967: 963: 960: 950: 947: 943: 942: 941: 940: 939: 938: 937: 936: 935: 934: 931: 930: 926: 923: 920: 918: 915: 904: 900: 899: 898: 897: 896: 895: 894: 892: 889: 874: 870: 869: 868: 867: 866: 862: 861: 855: 850: 847: 846: 842: 839: 836: 834: 831: 822:Merola et al. 820: 816: 815: 814: 813: 812: 811: 810: 808: 805: 801: 796: 783:Merola et al. 781: 777: 776: 775: 774: 773: 772: 771: 769: 768:Cyanidiophyta 765: 763: 758: 754: 751: 748: 745: 734: 726: 724: 720: 716: 712: 704: 701: 700: 699: 697: 691: 689: 684: 683:Viridiplantae 680: 676: 672: 666: 656: 653: 649: 648:phycoerythrin 645: 641: 640:Bangiophyceae 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 616:extremophiles 614: 610: 605: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 586:heterotrophic 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 554:endosymbiotic 544: 539: 530: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 495: 490: 489: 483: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 460:multicellular 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 401:multicellular 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 375: 368: 364: 361: 358: 351: 347: 344: 343:Ancient Greek 338: 297: 261: 257: 245: 242: 241: 240: 237: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 212: 211: 208: 204: 201: 199: 198:Bangiophyceae 196: 195: 194: 191: 190: 189:Rhodophytina 188: 187: 185: 180: 175: 170: 167: 164: 163: 160: 157: 154: 151: 150: 147: 144: 141: 138: 137: 134: 131: 128: 125: 124: 119: 114: 110: 107: 104: 103: 96: 93: 92: 86: 82: 77: 70: 63: 56: 49: 33: 30: 19: 9743: 9714: 9706: 9628:Orthonectida 9623:Gastrotricha 9598:Nematomorpha 9573:Chaetognatha 9563:Hemichordate 9490:Pteridophyta 9359:Malawimonada 9233:Korarchaeota 9194:Thermotogota 9179:Synergistota 9154:Nitrospirota 9149:Nitrospinota 9094:Deinococcota 9027:Bacteroidota 8907:paraphyletic 8819:Angiospermae 8796: 8795:Ginkgoales ( 8768:Petriellales 8750:Medullosales 8677:(seed ferns) 8390: 8311:Sphagnopsida 8306:Takakiopsida 8239:(liverworts) 8205: 8199:Embryophytes 8153:(see below↓) 8111:Charophyceae 8081: 8063:Streptophyta 7915:land plants) 7903: 7872: 7802: 7790: 7783:Rhodelphidia 7770: 7713:Opisthokonta 7617: 7566: 7561:paraphyletic 7456: 7437: 7419: 7388:Malawimonada 7368:Anaeromonada 7363:Anaeramoebae 7355: 7331: 7308:Tsukubamonas 7306: 7228: 7221: 7212:Charophyceae 7199: 7192: 7185:Streptophyta 7172: 7156: 7136: 7132:Rhodelphidia 7090:Palpitomonas 7088: 7068: 7057:Pancryptista 7002: 6995: 6932: 6899: 6887: 6867: 6837: 6832:Foraminifera 6830: 6673: 6616: 6610:Tunicaraptor 6608: 6575: 6549:Opisthokonta 6485: 6414:Opisthokonta 6236:. Retrieved 6232: 6211: 6205: 6172: 6168: 6158: 6149: 6140: 6132: 6127: 6112: 6107: 6092: 6086: 6063: 6059: 6053: 6042:. Retrieved 6038:the original 6031: 6024: 5999: 5995: 5985: 5950: 5946: 5936: 5921: 5887: 5883: 5876: 5851: 5847: 5841: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5745: 5741: 5731: 5716: 5710: 5665: 5661: 5651: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5575: 5571: 5561: 5516: 5510: 5504: 5493: 5450: 5446: 5436: 5391: 5387: 5377: 5332: 5328: 5322: 5314: 5273: 5269: 5259: 5222: 5218: 5212: 5204: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5151: 5108: 5104: 5094: 5069: 5063: 5035: 5029: 5007:(2): 86–93. 5004: 5000: 4978:. Retrieved 4974: 4964: 4956: 4951: 4940:. Retrieved 4930: 4909: 4873: 4869: 4863: 4853:, retrieved 4831: 4821: 4805: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4743: 4739: 4729: 4698:. Retrieved 4683: 4676: 4641: 4637: 4627: 4594: 4590: 4583: 4567: 4562: 4517: 4513: 4503: 4477: 4449: 4445: 4439: 4404: 4400: 4390: 4378:. Retrieved 4358: 4350: 4339:. Retrieved 4332:the original 4303: 4297: 4248: 4242: 4206: 4202: 4195: 4153:(7): e2621. 4150: 4146: 4136: 4101: 4097: 4087: 4055:(3): 342–5. 4052: 4048: 4035: 4000: 3996: 3985: 3940: 3936: 3926: 3891: 3887: 3877: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3835: 3831: 3825: 3806: 3800: 3791: 3787: 3781: 3770:the original 3760:(1): 47–54. 3757: 3753: 3740: 3721: 3712: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3614: 3603: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3537: 3500: 3496: 3486: 3472: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3412: 3403: 3378: 3374: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3311:. Retrieved 3307:the original 3292: 3281:. Retrieved 3277:the original 3267: 3232: 3228: 3218: 3198: 3191: 3171: 3164: 3141: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3072: 3063: 3054: 3050: 2991: 2984: 2961: 2955: 2945:November 20, 2943:. Retrieved 2939: 2896: 2889: 2868: 2806: 2800: 2746: 2742:Paleobiology 2740: 2734: 2726: 2709: 2657: 2643:Corallinales 2636: 2615: 2601:Gigartinales 2590: 2569: 2548: 2528: 2499: 2497: 2481: 2475: 2466: 2460: 2456:Acanthophora 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2421:are rich in 2416: 2410: 2408: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2370: 2364: 2360: 2352:Applications 2324: 2311:Thallophytes 2301: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2263: 2253: 2237: 2226: 2215: 2207: 2199: 2188: 2180: 2172: 2164: 2156: 2147: 2115: 2109: 2107: 2064: 2022: 2009:Algal group 1970: 1968: 1940:Rhodochorton 1938: 1936: 1933: 1926: 1915: 1888: 1879:Spermatangia 1877: 1867: 1864: 1857: 1831: 1822: 1819:Reproduction 1814: 1805: 1792: 1785: 1782: 1771: 1751: 1741:chloroplasts 1714: 1711:Chloroplasts 1705: 1681: 1669: 1661: 1653: 1646: 1638: 1631: 1628:, Irish moss 1623: 1616: 1608: 1600: 1593: 1586: 1578: 1573: 1565: 1535: 1532: 1523: 1497:Halymeniales 1485:Gigartinales 1436: 1422:Ahnfeltiales 1379: 1369:Corallinales 1353: 1323:Balbianiales 1272: 1189: 1176: 1113: 1023: 1010: 998:classis nova 997: 976: 949:classis nova 948: 927: 890: 888:Rhodophytina 843: 806: 762:Rhodoplantae 715:phylogenetic 708: 692: 688:paraphyletic 679:glaucophytes 670: 668: 606: 578:glaucophytes 574:Embryophytes 551: 542: 525:, and other 523:carrageenans 492: 491:(dulse) and 486: 484: 428:chloroplasts 417: 373: 370: 363: 356: 353: 346: 259: 255: 254: 168: 152: 139: 126: 100: 89: 29: 9861:iNaturalist 9768:Wikispecies 9683:Brachiopoda 9658:Cycliophora 9603:Onychophora 9578:Kinorhyncha 9500:Ginkgophyta 9495:Cycadophyta 9460:Chlorophyta 9450:Glaucophyta 9144:Myxococcota 9062:Chlorobiota 9057:Chlamydiota 8714:Cordaitales 8708:Caytoniales 8594:Lignophytes 8577:(ferns and 8503:spikemosses 8442:Rhyniopsida 8392:Aglaophyton 8271:(hornworts) 8142:Embryophyta 8125:Anydrophyta 8083:Spirotaenia 8028:Ulvophyceae 7961:Chlorophyta 7911:green algae 7881:Algospongia 7855:Glaucophyta 7807:(red algae) 7452:Chitinozoan 7378:Parabasalia 7230:Embryophyta 7194:Chlorokybus 7174:Chlorophyta 7122:Glaucophyta 7096:Cryptophyta 6986:Pirsoniales 6953:Bicosoecida 6934:Platysulcus 6907:Perkinsozoa 6889:Apicomplexa 6862:Colponemida 6629:Pluriformea 6498:Archamoebea 6487:Eumycetozoa 6214:, 4: 72–77. 6133:Aquaculture 5854:(1): 1–18. 5795:(1): 1–18. 5499:Brawley, SH 5219:BMC Biology 4936:"Pit Plugs" 3943:(8): e790. 3543:Brawley, SH 3335:: 491–517. 2936:"Algaebase" 2700:Green algae 2695:Brown algae 2494:Animal feed 2289:solenopores 2126:carrageenan 2055:Green algae 2045:Brown algae 1995:conceptacle 1907:carpospores 1905:-producing 1895:gametophyte 1845:carpogonium 1774:cytokinesis 1717:phycobilins 1684:unicellular 1655:Audouinella 1569:fresh water 1509:Plocamiales 1426:Pihiellales 1339:Palmariales 1115:Compsopogon 917:Rhodellales 833:Cyanidiales 760:Subkingdom 752:Pit plugs? 590:Cryptophyta 570:green algae 480:coral reefs 452:amylopectin 341:; from 99:E-F : 88:A-D : 54:Proterozoic 9981:Categories 9774:Rhodophyta 9744:Rhodophyta 9716:Parakaryon 9678:Entoprocta 9613:Arthropoda 9608:Tardigrada 9588:Priapulida 9583:Loricifera 9568:Echinoderm 9538:Ctenophora 9510:Gnetophyta 9465:Charophyta 9455:Rhodophyta 9427:Ascomycota 9422:Zygomycota 9364:Metamonada 9339:Euglenozoa 9324:Ciliophora 9032:Balneolota 9007:Aquificota 8841:Magnoliids 8809:Gnetopsida 8579:horsetails 8507:quillworts 8499:clubmosses 8475:Lycophytes 8448:Renaliales 8225:Bryophytes 7803:Rhodophyta 7792:Rhodelphis 7533:Rigifilida 7432:Acritarchs 7357:Barthelona 7348:Metamonada 7333:Euglenozoa 7201:Mesostigma 7157:sensu lato 7138:Rhodophyta 6997:Ochrophyta 6958:Placidozoa 6869:Ciliophora 6839:Radiolaria 6756:Haptophyta 6651:Filasterea 6563:Holomycota 6238:2024-06-04 6121:0521304199 6044:2007-06-28 5072:(4): 481. 5001:BioScience 4980:2023-08-16 4942:2016-06-30 4855:2023-08-16 4700:2023-08-16 4487:0521050421 4380:31 January 4341:2011-12-09 4104:: 99–113. 3838:: 289–369. 3794:: 161–174. 3718:Kain, J.M. 3676:Phycologia 3503:: e45017. 3313:2007-06-28 3283:2012-11-30 3011:1096190142 2968:, London. 2719:References 2711:Litostroma 2680:iridescent 2664:Ceramiales 2617:Gracilaria 2518:World Bank 2432:Gracilaria 2412:Gracilaria 2099:intertidal 1987:prothallus 1942:investiens 1899:sporophyte 1885:Life cycle 1860:spermatium 1849:trichogyne 1796:Ceramiales 1776:following 1688:cell walls 1678:Morphology 1555:See also: 1513:Ceramiales 1489:Gelidiales 1327:Nemaliales 1128:Subphylum 1038:Subphylum 962:Rufusiales 886:Subphylum 863:Subphylum 854:Rhodophyta 802:Subphylum 795:Rhodophyta 638:) and BF ( 594:Haptophyta 562:phagotroph 438:, and use 436:thylakoids 424:centrioles 381:eukaryotic 260:Rhodophyta 169:Rhodophyta 165:Division: 95:Stackhouse 9987:Red algae 9941:100364594 9783:AlgaeBase 9633:Dicyemida 9505:Pinophyta 9384:Telonemia 9319:Cryptista 9309:Breviatea 9294:Amoebozoa 9289:Alveolata 9270:Eukaryote 9022:Bacillota 8341:Bryopsida 8294:Bryophyta 8023:UTC clade 7772:Picomonas 7708:Amoebozoa 7686:Alveolata 7674:Cryptista 7649:Eukaryota 7373:Fornicata 7279:Excavates 7081:Cryptista 7004:Oomycetes 6981:Developea 6963:Sagenista 6850:Alveolata 6786:Telonemia 6661:Choanozoa 6538:Breviatea 6481:Tubulinea 6468:Amoebozoa 6409:Amoebozoa 6387:Alveolata 6375:Cryptista 6350:Eukaryota 6320:Eukaryote 6189:1537-6516 5742:PLOS Biol 5125:1758-0463 5065:Oecologia 4910:Phycology 4719:ignored ( 4709:cite book 4496:223742770 4401:Curr Biol 4359:Phycology 4003:: 231–8. 3766:1730-413X 3704:0031-8884 3057:: 89–157. 3019:cite book 2916:911004269 2869:Phycology 2771:0094-8373 2659:Laurencia 2550:Cyanidium 2512:. In one 2418:Laurencia 2391:(Korea), 2385:(Japan), 2330:Alveolata 2326:Chromista 2307:Ediacaran 2297:Paleozoic 2285:limestone 2256:eukaryote 2134:porphyran 2023:red algae 2002:Chemistry 1929:cystocarp 1870:polyamine 1802:Pit plugs 1464:Subclass 1460:Cronquist 1438:Ahnfeltia 1405:Subclass 1401:Cronquist 1343:Thoreales 1319:Balliales 1298:Subclass 1294:Cronquist 1249:Cronquist 1220:Subclass 1216:Cronquist 1178:Bangiales 1164:Wettstein 1139:Wettstein 978:Stylonema 857:Wettstein 798:Wettstein 602:Alveolata 533:Evolution 497:species ( 256:Red algae 174:Wettstein 35:Red algae 9936:Tropicos 9753:Wikidata 9693:Annelida 9688:Mollusca 9668:Phoronid 9663:Nemertea 9638:Rotifera 9618:Flatworm 9593:Nematoda 9558:Chordate 9548:Cnidaria 9543:Placozoa 9374:Rhizaria 9349:Haptista 9329:Cercozoa 8989:Bacteria 8851:Eudicots 8846:Monocots 8564:Ibykales 8298:(mosses) 8203:Plantae 7901:Plantae 7703:Amorphea 7681:Rhizaria 7669:Hacrobia 7659:Excavata 7644:Bacteria 7615:Plantae 7555:protists 7551:kingdoms 7439:Grypania 7401:Imasidae 7302:Jakobida 6826:Endomyxa 6821:Cercozoa 6813:Rhizaria 6743:Haptista 6675:Animalia 6618:Bicellum 6493:Variosea 6476:Discosea 6454:Amorphea 6404:Amorphea 6382:Rhizaria 6370:Hacrobia 6360:Excavata 6345:Bacteria 6275:Archived 6263:Archived 6197:20528255 6060:Porphyra 6030:"Dulse: 6016:17196357 5969:18236692 5904:10740299 5833:26792772 5825:11538648 5774:28291791 5702:23875008 5662:PLOS ONE 5643:24112977 5594:28890206 5572:Genomics 5553:28716924 5485:23770768 5453:: 1941. 5428:23503846 5369:23536760 5329:PLOS ONE 5298:23471408 5251:17623057 5196:15071595 5143:30020436 5105:Database 4797:84561417 4668:16657250 4619:83062611 4554:23536846 4514:PLOS ONE 4431:28528908 4328:27377549 4265:21652305 4223:19698794 4187:18612431 4147:PLOS ONE 4128:20333181 4079:20031978 4043:(2009). 4027:20333193 3977:17726520 3937:PLOS ONE 3910:16248873 3657:27041194 3595:28716924 3545:(2017). 3529:31149898 3464:21858509 3456:15189206 3395:51945442 3357:30458113 3349:18315522 3259:11429143 3124:23267354 2962:Seaweeds 2779:36648568 2689:See also 2571:Porphyra 2462:Palmaria 2450:Porphyra 2438:Gelidium 2376:Porphyra 2309:Period. 2293:Cambrian 2132:contain 2130:Porphyra 1991:rhizoids 1974:gardneri 1972:Porphyra 1918:thalloid 1873:spermine 1811:Function 1525:Gelidium 1355:Nemalion 1196:Porphyra 929:Rhodella 755:Example 713:) using 659:Taxonomy 511:European 494:Porphyra 454:without 420:flagella 409:seaweeds 18:Red alga 9951:7173230 9827:2540515 9759:Q103169 9673:Bryozoa 9369:Provora 9344:Jakobea 9334:Discoba 9280:Protist 9217:Archaea 8970:Extant 8914:extinct 7763:Picozoa 7718:Animals 7639:Archaea 7290:Discoba 7155:Plants 7127:Picozoa 6973:Gyrista 6880:Myzozoa 6733:Provora 6639:Filozoa 6595:Holozoa 6503:Cutosea 6419:Animals 6340:Archaea 5856:Bibcode 5848:Lethaia 5817:1305691 5797:Bibcode 5765:5349422 5693:3713064 5670:Bibcode 5621:Bibcode 5544:5547612 5521:Bibcode 5476:3709513 5455:Bibcode 5419:3612618 5396:Bibcode 5360:3594237 5337:Bibcode 5306:5502148 5278:Bibcode 5270:Science 5242:1955436 5174:Bibcode 5134:6051438 5086:4220100 5021:1297108 4890:2439535 4777:Bibcode 4599:Bibcode 4545:3607583 4522:Bibcode 4409:Bibcode 4308:Bibcode 4273:9925890 4178:2440802 4155:Bibcode 4119:2817406 4070:2880060 4018:2817417 3968:1949142 3945:Bibcode 3918:8060916 3684:Bibcode 3637:Bibcode 3586:5547612 3563:Bibcode 3520:6629376 3436:Bibcode 3273:"Algae" 3250:1088757 3115:3526103 3098:: 426. 2811:Bibcode 2802:Geology 2751:Bibcode 2534:Gallery 2506:methane 2444:Euchema 2346:genetic 2334:bikonts 2303:Calcite 2021:-using 1982:diploid 1980:In its 1841:gametes 1778:mitosis 1692:agarose 1613:, dulse 1602:Lemanea 852:Phylum 793:Phylum 766:Phylum 746:Orders 719:genomic 456:amylose 182:Clades 61:Archean 9948:uBio: 9915:878953 9899:NZOR: 9879:660046 9533:Sponge 9525:Animal 8909:groups 8797:Ginkgo 8505:& 8363: 7959: 7696:Plants 7633:Domain 7563:groups 6945:Bigyra 6519:Obazoa 6397:Plants 6334:Domain 6195: 6187: 6119: 6074: 6014: 5977:494897 5975: 5967: 5902: 5831: 5823: 5815: 5772: 5762: 5700: 5690: 5641: 5592: 5551: 5541: 5483: 5473: 5426: 5416: 5367: 5357: 5304: 5296: 5249: 5239: 5225:: 28. 5194: 5166:Nature 5141: 5131: 5123: 5084: 5042: 5019: 4918: 4888: 4846: 4795: 4691: 4666: 4659:396315 4656: 4617: 4574: 4552: 4542: 4494: 4484: 4429: 4371: 4326: 4271: 4263: 4221: 4185: 4175: 4126: 4116: 4077: 4067: 4025: 4015: 3975: 3965: 3916: 3908: 3813: 3764: 3758:XXXIII 3728: 3702: 3655: 3593: 3583: 3527: 3517: 3462: 3454: 3393: 3355: 3347: 3257: 3247: 3206: 3179: 3152: 3122: 3112: 3009: 2999: 2972: 2914: 2904: 2877: 2777: 2769: 2714:(1959) 2514:Hawaii 2510:cattle 2459:, and 2274:Bangia 2270:Canada 2150:realDB 2085:δ 2068:δ 1954:cell." 1922:zonate 1853:isopod 1834:motile 1794:order 1455:Class 1396:Class 1289:Class 1244:Class 1211:Class 1191:Bangia 1159:Class 1134:Class 1077:Class 1050:Class 993:Class 944:Class 901:Class 871:Class 817:Class 778:Class 711:RedToL 671:et al. 652:lentic 600:, and 405:marine 393:genera 374:phutón 357:rhódon 176:, 1922 9959:WoRMS 9928:54808 9866:57774 9840:1RHDP 9801:48327 9788:97240 9442:Plant 9394:Fungi 9314:CRuMs 7913:& 7723:Fungi 7515:CRuMs 6577:Fungi 6424:Fungi 5973:S2CID 5829:S2CID 5813:JSTOR 5302:S2CID 5082:JSTOR 5017:JSTOR 4886:JSTOR 4793:S2CID 4615:S2CID 4335:(PDF) 4324:S2CID 4294:(PDF) 4269:S2CID 3914:S2CID 3773:(PDF) 3750:(PDF) 3497:eLife 3460:S2CID 3391:S2CID 3353:S2CID 2775:S2CID 2553:sp. ( 2525:Other 2404:laver 2394:zicai 2367:dulse 2260:taxon 1989:with 1837:sperm 696:order 499:laver 389:algae 385:phyla 367:φυτόν 350:ῥόδον 345: 258:, or 153:Clade 140:Clade 127:Clade 106:J.Ag. 9892:2763 9887:NCBI 9874:ITIS 9848:GBIF 9835:EPPO 9796:BOLD 9480:Moss 8972:life 8912:† = 7904:s.s. 7618:s.l. 7567:bold 6772:TSAR 6193:PMID 6185:ISSN 6117:ISBN 6072:ISBN 6012:PMID 5965:PMID 5900:PMID 5821:PMID 5770:PMID 5698:PMID 5639:PMID 5590:PMID 5549:PMID 5481:PMID 5424:PMID 5388:PNAS 5365:PMID 5294:PMID 5247:PMID 5192:PMID 5162:10D" 5139:PMID 5121:ISSN 5109:2018 5040:ISBN 4916:ISBN 4844:ISBN 4721:help 4689:ISBN 4664:PMID 4572:ISBN 4550:PMID 4492:OCLC 4482:ISBN 4427:PMID 4382:2011 4369:ISBN 4261:PMID 4219:PMID 4183:PMID 4124:PMID 4075:PMID 4023:PMID 3973:PMID 3906:PMID 3811:ISBN 3762:ISSN 3726:ISBN 3700:ISSN 3653:PMID 3591:PMID 3525:PMID 3452:PMID 3345:PMID 3255:PMID 3204:ISBN 3177:ISBN 3150:ISBN 3120:PMID 3033:link 3029:link 3025:link 3007:OCLC 2997:ISBN 2970:ISBN 2947:2016 2912:OCLC 2902:ISBN 2875:ISBN 2767:ISSN 2488:nori 2478:agar 2415:and 2382:nori 2328:and 2114:and 2065:The 1868:The 1731:and 1696:agar 1548:and 1520:Yes 1517:Yes 1433:Yes 1430:Yes 1376:Yes 1373:Yes 1350:Yes 1347:Yes 1269:Yes 1266:Yes 1186:Yes 1183:Yes 1107:Yes 970:Yes 717:and 642:and 634:and 519:agar 513:and 503:nori 422:and 68:Had. 47:Pha. 9964:852 9853:106 9822:EoL 9814:RH2 9809:CoL 8201:or 7899:or 7613:or 7046:CAM 6802:SAR 6177:doi 6097:doi 6004:doi 5955:doi 5926:doi 5892:doi 5864:doi 5805:doi 5760:PMC 5750:doi 5721:doi 5688:PMC 5678:doi 5629:doi 5580:doi 5576:110 5539:PMC 5529:doi 5517:114 5471:PMC 5463:doi 5414:PMC 5404:doi 5392:110 5355:PMC 5345:doi 5286:doi 5274:339 5237:PMC 5227:doi 5182:doi 5170:428 5129:PMC 5113:doi 5074:doi 5009:doi 4878:doi 4836:doi 4811:doi 4785:doi 4748:doi 4744:133 4654:PMC 4646:doi 4607:doi 4540:PMC 4530:doi 4454:doi 4417:doi 4365:107 4316:doi 4253:doi 4211:doi 4173:PMC 4163:doi 4114:PMC 4106:doi 4065:PMC 4057:doi 4013:PMC 4005:doi 3963:PMC 3953:doi 3896:doi 3863:doi 3692:doi 3645:doi 3581:PMC 3571:doi 3559:114 3515:PMC 3505:doi 3444:doi 3383:doi 3337:doi 3245:PMC 3237:doi 3233:268 3110:PMC 3100:doi 2819:doi 2759:doi 2388:gim 2078:HCO 2017:HCO 1847:'s 1194:, " 1110:No 1020:No 1017:No 973:No 924:No 921:No 840:No 837:No 507:gim 442:as 387:of 146:CAM 9983:: 9961:: 9938:: 9925:: 9912:: 9889:: 9876:: 9863:: 9850:: 9837:: 9824:: 9811:: 9798:: 9785:: 9770:: 9755:: 8501:, 6231:. 6219:^ 6191:. 6183:. 6173:20 6171:. 6167:. 6148:. 6066:. 6010:. 6000:25 5998:. 5994:. 5971:. 5963:. 5951:65 5949:. 5945:. 5912:^ 5898:. 5886:. 5862:. 5852:25 5850:. 5827:. 5819:. 5811:. 5803:. 5793:65 5791:. 5768:. 5758:. 5746:15 5744:. 5740:. 5696:. 5686:. 5676:. 5664:. 5660:. 5637:. 5627:. 5617:23 5615:. 5611:. 5588:. 5574:. 5570:. 5547:. 5537:. 5527:. 5515:. 5509:. 5479:. 5469:. 5461:. 5449:. 5445:. 5422:. 5412:. 5402:. 5390:. 5386:. 5363:. 5353:. 5343:. 5331:. 5327:. 5325:)" 5300:. 5292:. 5284:. 5272:. 5268:. 5245:. 5235:. 5221:. 5217:. 5190:. 5180:. 5168:. 5164:. 5137:. 5127:. 5119:. 5111:. 5107:. 5103:. 5080:. 5070:91 5068:. 5054:^ 5015:. 5005:25 5003:. 4989:^ 4973:. 4898:^ 4884:. 4874:48 4872:. 4842:, 4830:, 4791:. 4783:. 4773:39 4771:. 4742:. 4738:. 4713:: 4711:}} 4707:{{ 4662:. 4652:. 4642:44 4640:. 4636:. 4613:. 4605:. 4595:16 4593:. 4548:. 4538:. 4528:. 4516:. 4512:. 4490:, 4466:^ 4450:73 4448:. 4425:. 4415:. 4405:27 4403:. 4399:. 4367:. 4322:. 4314:. 4304:42 4302:. 4296:. 4281:^ 4267:. 4259:. 4249:91 4247:. 4231:^ 4217:. 4207:53 4205:. 4181:. 4171:. 4161:. 4149:. 4145:. 4122:. 4112:. 4100:. 4096:. 4073:. 4063:. 4051:. 4047:. 4021:. 4011:. 3999:. 3995:. 3971:. 3961:. 3951:. 3939:. 3935:. 3912:. 3904:. 3892:52 3890:. 3886:. 3859:83 3857:. 3853:. 3834:. 3792:25 3790:. 3756:. 3752:. 3698:. 3690:. 3680:30 3678:. 3651:. 3643:. 3633:44 3631:. 3627:. 3589:. 3579:. 3569:. 3557:. 3553:. 3523:. 3513:. 3499:. 3495:. 3458:. 3450:. 3442:. 3432:13 3430:. 3411:. 3389:. 3379:37 3377:. 3365:^ 3351:. 3343:. 3333:59 3331:. 3301:. 3253:. 3243:. 3231:. 3227:. 3144:. 3132:^ 3118:. 3108:. 3094:. 3090:. 3071:. 3053:. 3041:^ 3021:}} 3017:{{ 3005:. 2938:. 2924:^ 2910:. 2831:^ 2817:. 2807:46 2805:. 2799:. 2787:^ 2773:. 2765:. 2757:. 2747:26 2745:. 2739:. 2599:: 2473:. 2453:, 2447:, 2441:, 2435:, 2399:紫菜 2317:. 2262:. 2242:, 2231:, 2220:, 2193:, 2092:CO 2032:CO 1976:: 1944:: 1931:. 1798:. 1727:, 1723:, 1571:. 1544:, 1540:, 1511:, 1507:, 1503:, 1499:, 1495:, 1491:, 1487:, 1483:, 1424:, 1367:, 1341:, 1337:, 1333:, 1329:, 1325:, 1321:, 1317:, 1198:" 1101:, 1097:, 964:, 630:, 626:, 596:, 592:, 529:. 521:, 426:, 403:, 328:aɪ 313:oʊ 300:, 272:oʊ 155:: 142:: 129:: 97:, 9282:" 9278:" 9242:" 9238:" 9235:" 9231:" 9228:" 9224:" 9085:" 9081:" 8963:e 8956:t 8949:v 8905:* 8799:) 8766:† 8760:† 8754:† 8748:† 8742:† 8736:† 8730:† 8724:† 8718:† 8712:† 8706:† 8700:† 8694:† 8688:† 8673:* 8667:† 8636:† 8630:† 8624:† 8618:† 8612:* 8607:† 8581:) 8568:† 8562:† 8541:† 8535:† 8509:) 8497:( 8488:† 8482:† 8446:† 8440:† 8434:† 8426:† 8389:† 8383:† 8375:† 7909:( 7730:) 7602:e 7595:t 7588:v 7559:* 7450:† 7444:† 7436:† 7430:† 7281:* 7233:¹ 7160:) 7153:( 6864:* 6678:¹ 6615:† 6580:¹ 6431:) 6312:e 6305:t 6298:v 6241:. 6199:. 6179:: 6099:: 6080:. 6047:. 6034:" 6018:. 6006:: 5979:. 5957:: 5928:: 5906:. 5894:: 5888:5 5870:. 5866:: 5858:: 5835:. 5807:: 5799:: 5776:. 5752:: 5723:: 5704:. 5680:: 5672:: 5666:8 5645:. 5631:: 5623:: 5596:. 5582:: 5555:. 5531:: 5523:: 5487:. 5465:: 5457:: 5451:4 5430:. 5406:: 5398:: 5371:. 5347:: 5339:: 5333:8 5308:. 5288:: 5280:: 5253:. 5229:: 5223:5 5215:" 5198:. 5184:: 5176:: 5145:. 5115:: 5088:. 5076:: 5048:. 5023:. 5011:: 4983:. 4959:. 4945:. 4924:. 4892:. 4880:: 4838:: 4813:: 4799:. 4787:: 4779:: 4756:. 4750:: 4723:) 4703:. 4670:. 4648:: 4621:. 4609:: 4601:: 4578:. 4556:. 4532:: 4524:: 4518:8 4460:. 4456:: 4433:. 4419:: 4411:: 4384:. 4344:. 4318:: 4310:: 4275:. 4255:: 4225:. 4213:: 4189:. 4165:: 4157:: 4151:3 4130:. 4108:: 4102:1 4081:. 4059:: 4053:6 4029:. 4007:: 4001:1 3979:. 3955:: 3947:: 3941:2 3920:. 3898:: 3871:. 3865:: 3836:1 3819:. 3734:. 3706:. 3694:: 3686:: 3647:: 3639:: 3625:" 3597:. 3573:: 3565:: 3531:. 3507:: 3501:8 3480:. 3466:. 3446:: 3438:: 3415:. 3397:. 3385:: 3359:. 3339:: 3316:. 3286:. 3261:. 3239:: 3158:. 3126:. 3102:: 3096:3 3075:. 3055:3 3035:) 3013:. 2978:. 2949:. 2918:. 2883:. 2825:. 2821:: 2813:: 2781:. 2761:: 2753:: 2733:" 2666:) 2645:) 2624:) 2603:) 2595:( 2578:) 2557:) 2369:( 2117:d 2111:a 2103:2 2094:2 2087:C 2080:3 2070:C 2034:2 2019:3 1997:. 1719:( 505:/ 501:/ 377:) 371:( 360:) 354:( 337:/ 334:ə 331:t 325:f 322:ˈ 319:ə 316:d 310:r 307:ˌ 304:/ 296:/ 293:ə 290:t 287:ɪ 284:f 281:ɒ 278:d 275:ˈ 269:r 266:/ 262:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index