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examination degree in 1778, he never held high office. Zhang's ideas about the historical process were revolutionary in many ways and he became one of the most enlightened historical theorists of the Qing dynasty, but he spent much of his life in near poverty without the support of a patron and, in
128:). This means that the canonical texts of Confucianism are not to be understood as repositories of timeless wisdom, but as records of the actions and words of the sages in response to specific historical contexts.
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that
Confucianism is the expression of timeless "principles" or "patterns" that are inherent in the human heart. Zhang's most famous quotation is that "the six classics are all history" (
67:; 1738–1801) was a Chinese historian and philosopher during the Qing dynasty. His father and his grandfather had been government officials, but, although Zhang achieved the highest
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1801, he died, poor and with few friends. It was not until the late 19th century that
Chinese scholars began to accept the validity of Zhang's ideas.
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developed over time in response to the concrete needs of the people for social organization. This developmental view contrasts with the view of the
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188:(Stanford, Calif.,: Stanford University Press, Stanford Studies in the Civilization of Eastern Asia, 1966).
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On Ethics and
History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng
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The Life and
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