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implementation of these political party quotas". Germany's sixteen state legislatures, the Länder, feature a variety of party systems and varied numbers of potential female candidates. Germany is rated highly in its gender gap, but is an example of a developed country with a low percentage of female leadership in politics. Davidson-Schmich's study shows that there are many factors that influence how effective a political quota for women will be. Because
Germany's quotas cover culturally diverse areas, Davidson-Schmich was able to see which cities best responded to the increase in women running for office. In her bivariate study, the quota was more successful when the city had a PR electoral system, when more women held inner-party and local political offices, and when there were more women in state-level executive offices. The quota was less successful in rural areas, areas with a large number of Catholic voters, electoral systems with a preferential system, in extremely competitive party systems, and with greater rates of legislative turnover. In her multivariate study of these regions, however, Davidson-Schmich narrowed these factors down even further to the most significant variables of: Catholicism and agricultural economics (Davidson-Schmich, 2006, p. 228). This is very intriguing, and as she explains, "the success of voluntary gender quotas in the German states hinged not on the political structure of these Lander, but rather the willingness of within the system to act on the opportunities inherent in these structures" (Davidson-Schmich, 2006, p. 228). Social factors and inherent gender discrimination are more important in the success of a female political quota than the structure of the quota itself.
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result of women being talked about in sexist terms in can greatly affect her reputation and credibility. The journal claims the media uses terms that indicative of women not being valued as individuals. "This is especially true when women are described using metaphors that draw on animals, children, or food. Animal terms focus on the appearance and sexuality of young women (foxy), and as women grow older, or are seen as too aggressive, they may be called barracuda, old bat, shrew, or cow." Females tend to have less issue coverage than males (due to fewer female politicians), but tend to have more coverage on things such as their appearance than male politicians. Male candidates don't get coverage on what kind of suit they are wearing or who designed it. This is due to innate purpose of the media to appeal to demands of their audiences for sales – in this case, the popular female focus on fashion that dominates the media. Studies done on women candidates have shown that women receive more attention in the media for factors such as appearance, clothes, size, and emotional state". In 2015 Rachel
Silbermann conducted a study that time spent traveling to and from work is particularly burdensome for those who spend time caring for children, and as women do a majority of the child care and housework, commuting is particularly burdensome to them. Silbermann also found that female students weigh proximity to home twice as heavily as male students do in a hypothetical decision of whether to run for higher office. She suggests that to achieve equal representation of women in government men and women will need to share household responsibilities more equally.
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implement a women-only election. In these cities, parties are forced to either give a ticket to a woman candidate or choose to not run in those locations. Due to the randomized selection of cities who must enforce the reservation for women each election year, some cities have implemented the quota multiple times, once or never. This addresses the political discrimination of women at various levels: parties are forced to give women the opportunity to run, the women candidates are not disadvantaged by a male incumbent or general biases for male over female leadership, and the pool of women candidates is increased because of the guaranteed opportunity for female participation. The effects of the quota system in India have been studied by various researchers. In Mumbai, it was found that the probability of a woman winning office conditional on the constituency being reserved for women in the previous election is approximately five times the probability of a woman winning office if the constituency had not been reserved for women". Furthermore, even when the mandates are withdrawn, women were still able to keep their positions of leadership. Given the opportunity to get a party ticket, create a platform and obtain the experience to run for a political position, women are much more likely to be able to overcome these hurdles in the future, even without the quota system in place. The quota system has also affected policy choices. Research in
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which affect party structure or electoral candidate lists, the
Finnish law addresses indirectly elected bodies (nominated by official authorities)—the law does not address popularly elected bodies. The Finnish law heavily emphasizes local municipal boards and other subnational institutions. From 1993 (pre-quota law) to 1997 (post-quota law), the proportion of women on municipal executive boards increased from 25% to 45%. The quota law also affected gender segregation in local governance: before the passage of the law, there had been a gender imbalance in terms of female overrepresentation in "soft-sector" boards (those concerned with health, education, etc.) and female "underrepresentation" in "hard-sector" boards (those concerned with economics and technology). In 1997, the boards were balanced horizontally. However, areas not subject to quota laws continue to be imbalanced. In 2003, it was determined that only 16% of the chairs of municipal executive boards are female—chair positions in this area are not quota-regulated. Presidential elections were held in Finland on 16 January 2000, with a second round on 6 February; the result was a victory for
4187:, which lead men already in power to favour other males to work with them. Furthermore, in the case of Argentina, which is currently mandated for a 30% female party at each level of government, saw the introduction of the 'quota women'; females that were less experienced, and only elected due to the legal requirement of quotas. The introduction of the 'quota women' has triggered what political scientists refer to as a 'mandate effect,' where quota women feel obligated to represent solely the interests of the female public. Moreover, in order to preserve male political survival, "domination techniques" have been utilized to both exclude and delegitimize female representation in politics, and this can be depicted in the case of Argentina, where it took several elections to gain 35% of female representatives. With the increase of female representation in Argentina, issues that were rarely discussed before became paramount in debates, such as "penal laws, sexual assault laws, and laws on maternity leave and pregnancy... sexual education, emergency contraceptive."
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associated with traditional notions of masculinity (such as finance and the military). Typically, the more powerful the institution, the less likely it is that women's interests will be represented. Additionally, in more autocratic nations, women are less likely to have their interests represented. Many women attain political standing due to kinship ties, as they have male family members who are involved in politics. These women tend to be from higher income, higher status families and thus may not be as focused on the issues faced by lower income families. In The United States, the lower end of the professional ladder contains a higher proportion of women while the upper level contains a higher proportion of men. Research shows that women are underrepresented in head positions in state agencies making up only 18% of
Congress and 15% of corporate board positions. When women do gain any level of representation it is in the fields of health, welfare, and labor. They are seen to be addressing issues labeled as feminine.
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political interference with male power and domination. Moreover, the implementation of gender quotas has caused the male candidate population to decrease in order for their female counterparts to participate, and this is commonly referred to as the "negative sum," and this can result in a more qualified male being rejected to allow a female politician to participate. Nevertheless, this notion of "more qualified" remains unclear and is too often used as an oppressive tool to maintain the status quo, namely, excluding women. Indeed, we can only use proxies to predict future performances. For example, research has since long proven that the use of SAT scores in the U.S. for university admission favours privileged classes which can receive extra training before the test, while less favoured classes could have succeeded as much or even more once in college. The problem of proxies is even worse in the case of women, as this is added to the cognitive bias of
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3730:, there are not many women in positions of leadership. Only seven of the 109 senators and 22 of the 360 members of the House of Representatives are women at the moment.There are several explanations for why women's political party participation is so low. For instance, women are discouraged from running for office due to the expensive expense of politics. The requisite nomination and declaration of interest forms that political parties require candidates to submit in order to run for seats on their platform frequently out of the reach of women. Also, the price of an election campaign is outrageous. And limited access to education also means limited access to jobs that pay well. Women are also less likely to be able to afford to continue the process of obtaining leadership positions due to unpaid labor responsibilities, unequal inheritance rights, and open discrimination.
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negative stereotypes and gender role expectations. This makes women more election averse then men due to being less likely to take risks. These factors prevent many women from attempting to enter the political field. More demographics often bring different experiences, attitudes and resources that greatly affect legislation, party agendas, and constituency service. A study by
Bonneau and Kanthak focused on responses to Hillary Clinton campaign videos found that women supporters who witness her run for presidency were more likely to want to run themselves. This is not true for all women, as non-supporters were less likely to say they would run for office after witnessing the videos. Feelings about a candidate have a massive effect on whether or not a person will run themselves after seeing another campaign.
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favor the former while men favor the latter in the countries included in the study. However, while a numerical boost in women legislators may nudge policy in the direction of women's interests, women legislators can be pigeon-holed into specializing in legislation on women's issues, as a study finds for legislators in
Argentina, Colombia, and Costa Rica. In Argentina, another study finds that the introduction of gender quotas increased the total frequency of bills introduced regarding women's issues, while lowering the frequency men introduced bills in this legislative area – this evidence leads the authors to conclude that the introduction of female legislators may decrease the incentive of men legislators to introduce policies in line with women's interests.
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of 50–55) would be beneficial to their overall family functioning. This discriminatory policy mirrors the cause in the previous part, in which the working capacity of women is restricted by the society's stereotype on their gender role and corresponding gender responsibilities. In addition, the average age of
Chinese chief in Central Committee is 56.1 years old; Top leaders in Politburo were appointed at an average age of 61.1 years old; Whereas Standing Committee of Politburo has the highest average age of 63.4 for its office. All figures being examined, the aggregated average age of appointed leaders exceeds the legal retirement age of women in the nation, meaning that women are least likely to become the center of power before their career comes to an end.
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transformative policies, and this has the potential to place pressure on quota women to act on behalf of all women. Reaching a critical mass eliminates the pressure of maintaining the status quo, to which minorities are forced to conform to avoid being labeled as outsiders by the majority. One paramount criticism of critical mass theory is its attention to numbers, and the understanding that quota women are to represent women collectively. Furthermore, the representation of women as a collective group remains controversial, as " she is a white straight, middle-class mother, she cannot speak for
African-American women, or poor women, or lesbian women on the basis of her own experience anymore than men can speak for women merely on the basis of theirs."
4843:'s saying that 'Women hold up half of the sky', Confucians principles' deeply ingrained advocacy "nan zhu wai, nu zhu nei" (men working on the outside, women's place remains on the inside) has shaped gender division of labor. Being assigned highly gender-biased responsibilities within the spectrum of 'women affairs', such as family planning that are reproduction-oriented or with connection to social construction, women's public role and scope of duty are framed under constraints. Women are, at the same time, missing the opportunities to keep a foothold in strategic national affairs, including but not limited to economic development, military planning and diplomatic involvement. The mentioned dilemma is reflected by an actual example in
3827:: In Kenya, a woman's rights activist named Asha Ali was threatened and beaten by three men for standing as a candidate in front of her kids and elderly mother. A 2010 survey of eight hundred likely U.S. voters found that even very mild sexist language had an impact on their likelihood of voting for a woman (Krook, 2017). Even in early 2016, a 14-year-old girl was kidnapped from her bed late at night and raped as revenge for her mother's victory in local elections in India, which is an example of sexual violence. All of this evidence suggests that women face many challenges in a political environment where men try to suppress women whenever they try to raise their voices in politics for making positive change for women's empowerment.
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the
Chinese Communist Party also outlined an official requirement of "appropriate number of women deputies", combined with the State's obligations to "gradually increase the proportion of the women deputies" and "actively train and select female cadres" in fundamental national institutions and political organizations. In the following decades, the Chinese Communist Party has revised its constitutional laws and State announcements to give recognition to women's role in the domain of governance. For example, the proclamation issued on the 5th meeting session of the 10th National People's Congress (NPC) stated that "the proportion of women delegates to be elected to the 11th People's Congress should be no less than 20%".
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women have a different relationship with government institutions and public policy than that of men, and therefore merit equal representation on this facet alone. This feature is based on the historical reality that women, regardless of background, have largely been excluded from influential legislative and leadership positions. As Sylvia
Bashevkin notes, "representative democracy seems impaired, partial, and unjust when women, as a majority of citizens, fail to see themselves reflected in the leadership of their polity." In fact, the issue of participation of women in politics is of such importance that the United Nations has identified gender equality in representation (i.e. mirror representation) as a goal in the
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3429:. The major English-speaking democracies are placed mostly in the top 40% of the ranked countries. New Zealand ranks at number 5 with women comprising 48.3% of its parliament. The United Kingdom (32.0% in the lower house, 26.4% in the upper house) ranks at number 39, while Australia (30.5% in the lower house, 48.7% in the upper house) ranks at number 47 out of 189 countries. Canada is ranked at 60 (29.6% lower house, 46.7% upper house), while the United States ranks 78 (23.6% in the lower house, 25.0% in the upper house). Not all of these lower and/or upper houses in national parliaments are directly elected; for example, in Canada, members of the upper house (the Senate) are appointed.
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actively holding office. In one study which focused on the treatment of Afro-Brazilian women, researchers found that institutionalizing parties increases the chance that parties will elect women, however the effect is more muted for Afro-Brazilians. In Brazil, African-Americans already face a significant resource gap like lower average income, lower levels or legislation and higher illiteracy rates. In conjunction with these barriers, Afro-Brazilian women also face barriers to access to power. Researchers found that Afro-descendant women consistently raised less money and won fewer voters even when they possesses traditional characteristics of an adequate political candidate.
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3711:", that many Quebecers do not support a female politician: "I believe that one of her serious handicaps is the fact she's a woman I sincerely believe that a good segment of the population won't support her because she's a woman". A 2000 study that analyzed 1993 election results in Canada found that among "similarly situated women and men candidates", women actually had a small vote advantage. The study showed that neither voter turnout nor urban/rural constituencies were factors that help or hurt a female candidate, but "office-holding experience in non-political organizations made a modest contribution to women's electoral advantage".
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women, means that not all citizens (men) are given an equal chance to attain a political career". Dahlerup and Freidenvall claim that even though quotas create theoretical imbalance in opportunity for men and that they necessarily break the concept of "classical liberal notion of equality", quotas are almost required to bring the relation of women in politics to a higher state, whether that is through equal opportunity or just equal results. "According to this understanding of women's under-representation, mandated quotas for the recruitment and election of female candidates, possibly also including time-limit provisions, are needed".
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the prior term, there is little presence of women in the central power structure of major government organs and their political influence is vastly diminished as they climb up the political ladder. Only 33 women (9%) are recorded to have a seat at the table of the Central Committee for the election of members into the Politburo, a key cornerstone for the approval of all national affairs. In fact, except for the two consecutive offices in 1973 and 1977, the Central Committee has never witnessed over 10% of women engagement in the organization. Additionally, there was a decline in the number of women in the 25-member
4556:). As of 2015, there were 21 women in the 125-seat parliament. The percentage of female members of parliament increased from 11 to 17 percent between 2005 and 2015. Traditional social norms and lagging economic development in the country's rural regions continued to restrict the role of women in the economy, and there were reports that women had difficulty exercising their legal rights due to gender discrimination. As of May 2009, women held the positions of Deputy Chairman of the Constitutional Court, Deputy Chairman of the Nakhchivan AR Cabinet of Ministers, four Deputy Ministers, an Ambassador, and Ombudsmen of
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recruit candidates who are similar to them. Since most party leaders are men, they usually see men as prime candidates because they share more similarities than most woman do. The same concept applies when discussing the second factor. Recruitment works through networks such as lower level office holders or affiliated businesses. Since women are underrepresented in these networks, according to statistics, they are less likely to be recruited than men. Due to these challenges, women have to spend time and conscious effort building a financial support system, unlike men.
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policy outcomes." A 2012 study finds mixed evidence that the share of female councilors in Sweden affected conditions for women citizens, such as women's income, unemployment, health, and parental leave. A 2015 study in Sweden said that: "The findings show that female legislators defend feminist interests more than their male colleagues but that they only marginally respond to women's electoral preferences." A 2016 study looking at African politicians finds "gender differences in policy priorities quite small on average, vary across policy domains and countries".
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4351:, though it can become a very complex system. When it comes to local government issues, political standings for women are not necessarily looked upon as a major issue. "Even civil society organizations left women's issues off the agenda. At this level, traditional leaders also have a vested interest that generally opposes women's interests". Theorists believe that having a setback in government policies would be seen as catastrophic to the overall progress of women in government. Amanda Gouws says that "The instability of democratic or nominally democratic
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4851:. Women commonly maintain highest authority as Head in women-related bodies, administering concerns on women's unfair treatments and suggesting for children's health development. By the same token, the gendered portfolio gives rise to empowerment of men in the political hierarchy. Consequently, with the lack of exposure to the exemplary official posts and the exclusive offering of key national assignments for men, women's upward mobility is aggravated, resulting in the substantially dwindling likelihood of taking residence in key leading positions.
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differently. Researchers stated that "Attributing women’s lack of parity to demand factors allows white and Asian women to “discount” the possibility that failure rests on their own abilities, thus increasing women's political ambition. Alternatively, framing women's underrepresentation as due to supply factors depresses white and Asian women's political ambition possibly because of stereotype threat. Black women respond in an opposite manner, with depressed political ambition in demand scenarios, while Latinas are unaffected by these narratives."
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which are led by women across all the 194 nations. They even find that testing rates per hundred thousand people are significantly higher in countries led by women, and still report fewer cases than countries led by men. Women were noted to have reacted quicker to enacting lockdowns and ensuring proper communication to the public once the pandemic hit. In the conclusion of the study, it was found that overall women-led countries handled the COVID-19 outbreak better, especially in countries with more affordable healthcare such as Germany.
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elected office requires masculine traits. Sex stereotyping is far from being a historical narrative. The pressure is on female candidates (and not male ones) to enhance their masculine traits in order to garner support from voters who identify with socially constructed gender roles. Apart from this, studies by American University in 2011 reveal that women are 60% less likely than men to believe that they are not qualified to take politics responsibility. So, the patriarchy in politics is responsible for less participation of women.
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reconstruction and the 2003 Rwandan Constitution included a mandated quota of 30% reserved seats for all women in the legislature. Of the 24 women who gained seats directly after the quota implementation in 2003, many joined political parties and chose to run again. Though it took almost 10 years, after implementing the gender quotas, Rwanda reached levels of female representation which are amongst the highest in the world. Once again we can see the quota working as an "incubator" for driving women's participation in leadership.
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bias and institutional sexism. Women face numerous obstacles in achieving representation in governance. The biggest challenges a woman in government can face occur during the pursuit of her position in government office, as opposed to when she is upholding said position. Studies show that one of the big challenges is financing a campaign. Studies also show that women running for political office raise a similar amount of money in comparison to their male counterparts, however they feel they need to work harder to do so.
3448:, such as used in the United States, United Kingdom, and India, has only allows single candidate elections, and thus allows political parties to entirely dictate regions' representatives even if they only control a small majority of the vote. Last, there is the ideological disposition of a country; the concept that the cultural aspects of women's roles or positions in the places they live dictate where they stand in that society, ultimately either helping or handicapping those women from entering political positions.
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was actually strengthened in villages that had experienced a quota. However, while reservation did not make male villagers more sympathetic to the idea of female leaders, it caused them to recognize that women could lead. Moreover, the reservation policy significantly improved women's prospects in elections open to both sexes, but only after two rounds of reservation within the same village. Political reservation for women has also impacted the aspirations and educational attainment for teenage girls in India.
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5123:, the electoral system for the House of Representatives was based on a single non-transferable vote in multi-member districts. That system was not conducive to women's advancement in public office because it promoted contestation between competing parties and rival candidates within the same party, but overall, the new electoral system was introduced to reduce the excessive role of money and corruption in elections, which ultimately helped women who were running for public office. In Japanese politics, the
4461:(2009) writes, "It could be argued that in both countries women's representation provided a kind of alibi for the progressive, 'democratic' nature of new governments that at their core nevertheless remained authoritarian, and increasingly so". Rwanda shows that increased participation by women in democracy is conducive to progress in gender equal legislature and reform, but research must be careful not to immediately relate increased gender equality in politics to increased gender equality in policies.
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the creation of bills. Likewise, this process also includes the networking between women in government and female organizations. Substantive representation by outcome relates to the success of passing legislation that enables gender equality to both public and private issues. Moreover, substantive representation as process does not always result in substantive representation by outcome; the implementation of gender quotas and female representation does not directly instigate an influx in legislation.
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House Council of Women and Girls, another United States governmental organization. Offices for representation will usually have a target demographic to protect the representation of. There are other offices dedicated to certain issues regarding those demographics, like the protection of women against sexual assault. It should be mentioned that intersectionality is common, as gender, race and sexuality can overlap. These characteristics often reinforce each other or cause strife within a community.
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after quotas were introduced. Similar effects can be seen in Argentina, Iraq, Burundi, Mozambique, and South Africa, for example. Of the top-ranked 20 countries in terms of female representation in government, 17 of these countries utilize some sort of quota system to ensure female inclusion. Though such inclusion is mainly instituted at the national level, there have been efforts in India to addresses female inclusion at the subnational level, through quotas for parliamentary positions.
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countries into consideration. This approach helps identify research beforehand that could be helpful in figuring out commodities within countries and bringing about those important factors when considering the overall representation of women. "At the same time, we include information about the inclusion of women in the political parties of each country". Research within gender and politics has taken a major step towards a better understanding of what needs to be better studied.
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5662:, "Citizens of one or the other sex are eligible for public offices and for elective positions under equal conditions, according to the rules established by law. To this end, the Republic adopts specific measures in order to promote equal chances for men and women." Nevertheless, only 21 women were elected, among the 556 members of the Constituent Assembly. In the years that followed, the percentage of women inside both chambers of the Parliament remained quite low.
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participation in the labor force encourages representation. The second is the political factor; representation of women in office being based on a proportionality system. Some voting systems are built so that a party that gains 25% of the votes gains 25% of the seats. In these processes, a political party feels obligated to balance the representation within their votes between genders, increasing women's activity in political standing. A
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can spend on their campaign. The Chilean government instituted multiple policies to try and increase gender representation. They placed a 40% quota on political seats and reimbursed political parties when they chose female political candidates in an effort to incentivize them. Even in this "least-likely" case, researchers found that in candidates with no prior experience running for office, men would out fundraise women.
4122:". The statistics surrounding quota systems have been examined thoroughly by academia. The European Court of Human Rights decided its first female quota case in 2019, and as of December 2019, one male quota case is pending with the court. In Zevnik and Others v Slovenia, the court expressed its strong support for gender quotas as a tool to increase women participation in politics. Gender quotas are popular form of
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since they tend to be portrayed as vexatious vixens" who are more interested in their private romantic lives than in their public responsibilities. If they are in a monogamous, married relationship but have children, then their fitness for office becomes a question of how they manage being a politician while taking care of their children, something that a male politician would rarely, if ever, be asked about.
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Bruce et al. show that women as mayors in Brazilian municipalities had a negative, sizable and significant impact on the number of COVID-19 deaths and hospitalizations per one hundred thousand inhabitants. It is interesting to note that the effect of women in power in Brazil was stronger in pro-Bolsonaro strongholds, who became infamous for his beliefs of not wearing a mask and being skeptical of vaccines.
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party members themselves while presidents are elected by the public. In 2013, women accounted for 8 percent of all national leaders and 2 percent of all presidential posts. Furthermore, 75 percent of all female prime ministers and presidents have taken office in the past two decades. Since 1960 to 2015, 108 women have become national leaders in 70 countries, with more being prime ministers than presidents.
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they would have to create a new word, stateswoman, to describe her. Bandaranaike served three terms as prime minister and was the longest-serving Prime Minister in Sri Lankan history, serving a total of 18 years in office. Bandaranaike also played a formative role in the modern state of Sri Lanka, it was under her tenure that Sri Lanka became a republic, removing the British monarch as its head of state.
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in need of support and empowerment. Though women's movements have a very successful outcome with the emphasis on gaining equality towards women, other movements are taking different approaches to the issue. Women in certain countries, instead of approaching the demands as representation of women as "a particular interest group", have approached the issue on the basis of the "
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older. Also, a woman's desire for a career in politics along with the extent that the respondent feels her family duties might inhibit her ability to be an elected official. Research has shown that new female politicians in Canada and the U.S. are older than their male counterparts. Conversely, a woman may be pushed to remain childless in order to seek political office.
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misconduct were levied against an executive administration, public approval rating was lowered by a greater amount against the female executive rather than males on average. Thus, the author of this study contends that women are expected to more closely adhere to ethical standards than men, which certainly implies gender bias in the voting population.
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remains relatively low. As for the future of women in politics in Japan, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced in his speech at the Japan National Press Club on April 19, 2013, that a major goal of his national growth strategy is "having no less than 30 per cent of leadership positions in all areas of society filled by women by 2020."
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education. The electorate's perception that female candidates have more proficiency with traditional women's spheres such as education and health care presents a possibility that gender stereotypes can work in a female candidate's favor, at least among the electorate. In politics, however, Hicks points out that sexism is nothing new:
4009:, a well-known South African activist, was one of these rural women. She noted that she felt overwhelmed and completely disempowered. In the beginning, she did not think she could finish her term of office because of her lack of education. Manisha Desai explains that: "There is an inequality simply around the fact that the
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concepts we understand when comparing political fields. They continue by explaining that comparative politics has not established sex equality as a major topic of discussion among countries. This research challenges the current standings as to what needs to be the major focus in order to understand gender in politics.
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of violence, and 2) respond to past violence effectively. Gender-based violence, such as the use of rape as a tool of warfare, was addressed in Resolution 1325 of the UN Security Council in 2000. It calls for "all parties of armed conflict to take special measures to protect women and girls from gender-based violence."
3719:(Marois' issue) does reflect what has been going on for some time now: women in positions of authority have problems in terms of the way they manage authority The problem isn't them, it's the men under them who resent taking direction from strong women. And the backroom dirty dialogue can come into the public eye.
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elected. Though the percentage of national legislature seats occupied by women dropped in the initial years following the passage of the quota law, the percentage has since risen (from 6.2% pre-quota, to 5.7% in 1998, to 8.9% in 2006). However, Brazil has struggled with the quota law in several respects:
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No political gender quotas exist in Romania; however, the Equality Act of 2002 provides that public authorities and institutions, political parties, employers' organizations and trade unions must provide an equitable and balanced representation of men and women at all decisional levels. Following the
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Women remain a small minority of political office-holders in Ireland. The main factors are the role of traditional Catholicism in Irish political culture and the role of localism in party politics. Ann Marie O'Brien has studied the women in the Irish Department of External Affairs associated with the
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in an era where the Sri Lankan government was headed by the Prime Minister. Sworn in as prime minister, Bandaranaike went on to hold two of the most prominent ministries, Defence and Foreign Affairs. Bandaranaike's election drew international media coverage to Ceylon, with newspapers speculating that
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Lebanese women are considered to have more rights and freedom compared to other women in the Gulf and Middle East. Lebanese women enjoy almost equal civil rights as men. However, due to the large number of officially recognized religions in Lebanon, Lebanese family matters are governed by at least 15
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members were elected from a single-seat district, which indicates that few female candidates have enough political support to win a single-seat election. While changes in the electoral process have made positions of public office more accessible to women, the actual participation of women in the Diet
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By 1996, Japan had implemented its 1994 electoral system for the House of Representatives that combined single-seat districts with proportional representation. Out of 480 seats, 300 are contested in single seat constituencies. The other 180 members are elected through allocations to an electoral list
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is a major factor for a successful outcome of an election. The kōenkai, or "local support groups", serve as pipelines through which funds and other support are conveyed to legislators and through which the legislators can distribute favors to constituents in return. Because gaining support from these
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Japan ranks 127 in the world for the number of women in national parliamentary worldwide as of March 2014, which is lower than their ranking of 122 in 2013. As of February 28, 2013, there are a total of 39 women in the House of Representatives out of 479 incumbents. Since the enactment of the modern
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has indicated that reservation affected policy choices in ways that seem to better reflect women's preferences. In terms of voter's perception of female leaders, reservation did not improve the implicit or explicit distaste for female leaders—in fact, the relative explicit preference for male leaders
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In China, there is an apparent discrepancy in the mandatory retirement age between men and women, in which men are entitled to enjoy 10 more years of work. This policy was established on the ground that women are primary and central support for domestic subjects and their early retirement (at the age
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It is argued that the increase in female leadership in Rwanda also led to an increase in gender equality. World Focus (2009) writes, "Rwandan voters have elected women in numbers well beyond the mandates dictated by the post-genocide constitution. And though women in Rwanda still face discrimination,
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Affirmative action both corrects existing unfair treatment and gives women equal opportunity in the future. Moreover, the impact that gender representation can have on politics cannot be emphasized enough. In their noteworthy paper on examining the effects of female leadership in the times of crisis,
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There are many branches of the government and organizations dedicated to improving representation for women, such as the Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs, a United States government office specifically focused on representation in the White House. Another example is the White
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states: "These kinds of studies help establish that generalizing countries together is far too limiting to the overall case that we see across countries and that we can take the information we gain from these studies that look at countries separately and pose new theories as to why countries have the
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With quotas drastically changing the number of female representatives in political power, a bigger picture unravels. Though countries are entitled to regulate their own laws, the quota system helps explain social and cultural institutions and their understandings and overall view of women in general.
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at will, yet not mandated by electoral law or by a country's constitution. If a country's leading or majority political party engages in a voluntary party quota system, the effect may "trickle down" to minority political parties in the country (as in the case of the African National Congress in South
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states: "historical experience often leads to gender advancement, and political liberalization enables women to mobilize within the public sphere". He argues that we will see a larger number of women in higher office positions in established democracy than in democracies that are developing, and "the
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Women with formal education (at any level) are more likely to delay marriage and subsequent childbirth, be better informed about infant and child nutrition, and ensure childhood immunization. Children of mothers with formal education are better nourished and have higher survival rates. Education is a
3840:
Political socialization is the idea that, during childhood, people are indoctrinated into socially constructed norms of politics. In the case of women's representation in government, it says that sex stereotyping begins at an early age and affects the public's disposition on which genders are fit for
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Sex stereotyping assumes that masculine and feminine traits are intertwined with leadership. Hence, the bias leveled against women stems from the perception that femininity inherently produces weak leadership. Due to the aggressive and competitive nature of politics, many insist that participation in
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also notes that their romantic lives are often subject of much interest to the general population, perhaps more so than their political agenda or stances on issues. She points out that those who "appear to be sexually active outside a monogamous heterosexual marriage run into particular difficulties,
3590:
In the US, many voters assume men and women possess traits that reflect the stereotypes they believe. Many assume women candidates are too emotional, more willing to give-in or compromise, under-qualified, and more gentle. These notions often affect women negatively, as people often believe that many
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There has been an increasing focus on women's representation at a local level. Most of this research is focused on developing countries. Governmental decentralization often results in local government structures that are more open to the participation of women, both as elected local councilors and as
3494:
A 2003 survey conducted by United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), a global network supporting inclusive local governments, found that the average proportion of women in local council was 15%. In leadership positions, the proportion of women was lower: for instance, 5% of mayors of Latin American
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and Winfrey focuses on the portrayal of female politicians in the media. According to the journal, the way media perceives women and men is very distinct in the language they chose to use. The language chosen to talk or describe other people can either hurt or help them in a political campaign. As a
6431:
Although the number of women in government in the US has grown, they still hold less than 25% of government positions nationwide. Steinhauer notes that in Congress, both in the Senate and the House of Representatives, women historically and currently are under represented. No political gender quotas
5777:
In business, the number of women in top jobs is behind in the political sector. In 2013, the listed companies inserted a 'one in three' rule, which meant that of every three top jobs, one must be exerted by a woman. Not long after, it turned out companies did not put much effort in to achieving this
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In spite of these declarations, the political system in China remains overwhelmingly male-dominated which, in turn, drives the low engagement rate of female delegates. Despite the new 13th NPC lineup including 742 women out of 2,980 representatives, about 24.9% of the total with a 1.5% increase from
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stated that men and women enjoy equal rights in the aspects of political, economic, cultural, social, and family dimensions, especially highlighting a legitimate voting right and the right to be elected. In the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Woman,
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Women's informal collectives are crucial to improving the standard of living for women worldwide. Collectives can address such issues as nutrition, education, shelter, food distribution, and generally improved standard of living. Empowering such collectives can increase their reach to the women most
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Researching politics on a global scale does not just reinvent ideas of politics, especially towards women, but brings about numerous concepts. Sheri Kunovich and Pamela Paxton's research method, for example, took a different path by studying "cross-national" implications to politics, taking numerous
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In the last decades several countries have tied state funding of political parties to compliance with gender quotas, known as gender-targeted public funding. The idea is to use state funding to incentivize political parties to increase gender diversity on their ballot by either giving a fine or give
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There have been numerous occasions where equal legislation has benefited the overall progression of women equality on a global scale. Though women have entered legislation, the overall representation within higher ranks of government is not being established. "Looking at ministerial positions broken
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In an article about the exclusion of Women from politics in southern Africa, Amanda Gouws said "The biggest hurdles to overcome for women are still on the local level where both men and women are often recruited from the communities and have limited political skills". The level of education in these
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Institutional barriers may also pose as a hindrance for balancing a political career and family. For instance, in Canada, Members of Parliament do not contribute to Employment Insurance; therefore, they are not entitled to paternity benefits. Such lack of parental leave would undoubtedly be a reason
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Women running for U.S. senate are often underrepresented in news coverage. The way male and female candidates are depicted in media has an effect on how female candidates gets elected in to public office. Female candidates get treated differently in the media than their male counterparts in the U.S.
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Mirror representation stems from the barriers female political candidates often face. These include sex stereotyping, political socialization, lack of preparation for political activity, and balancing work and family. In the media, women are often asked how they would balance the responsibilities of
3760:
Women's participation in formal politics is lower than men's throughout the world. The argument put forth by scholars Jacquetta Newman and Linda White is that women's participation in the realm of high politics is crucial if the goal is to affect the quality of public policy. As such, the concept of
3723:
Within Quebec itself, Don McPherson pointed out that Pinard himself has enjoyed greater electoral success with Pauline Marois as party leader than under a previous male party leader, when Pinard failed to be elected in his riding. Demographically, Pinard's electoral riding is rural, with "relatively
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Additionally, women running for public office typically gain additional, unnecessary scrutiny on their private lives. For instance, fashion choices of politically active women are often picked apart by the media. In these "analyses" women rarely gain approval from those in the media, who usually say
3647:
A 2015 study by Kristin Kanthak and Jonathan Woon explored why women's involvement in government is not at the level it should be. While there are multiple factors that are discussed throughout this page, the authors contend that women tend to be more election averse as opposed to men. It seems that
3552:
According to a survey conducted on a sample of 3,640 elected municipal officeholders, women face adversities with things such as financing a campaign because they are not as heavily recruited as men by party leaders. There are two factors that contribute to this trend. Firstly, party leaders tend to
2921:
The number of women leaders around the world has grown, but they still represent a small group. At the executive levels of government, women become prime ministers more often than they become presidents. Part of the differences in these roads to power is that prime ministers are elected by political
1474:
Women may face a number of challenges that affect their ability to participate in political life and become political leaders. Several countries are exploring measures that may increase women's participation in government at all levels, from the local to the national and international. However, more
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Local and regional NGOs have helped to increase awareness of violence against women in Lebanon. Government policies regarding this are poor however, and attempts to improve this area have been met with resistance. Lebanon's laws do not recognize the concept of spousal rape, and attempts to add this
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that killed 800,000 Tutsis in 100 days, the percentage of women in the legislature went from 18% before the conflict to 56% in 2008. Two pieces of legislature enabled and supported women into leadership positions: the Security Council Resolution of 1325 urged women to take part in the post-conflict
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and Laurel Weldon also state that single comparisons of established and developed countries is simply not enough but is also surprisingly hurtful to the progress of this research, they argue that focusing on a specific country "tends to duplicate rather than interrogate" the overall accusations and
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Reducing domestic and gender-based violence. The Convention on the Rights of the Child, published by the United Nations in 1989, addressed home violence and its effects on children. The Convention stipulates that children are holders of human rights, and authorizes the State to 1) prevent all forms
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Substantive representation contains two distinct parts: both the process and outcome of having female politicians. Substantive representation based on the process is concerned with the gendered perspective, themes that female representatives discuss in political debates, and the impact they have on
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Quota usage can have marked effects on female representation in governance. Stronger quotas are estimated to increase the number of women elected to parliament by about three times as compared to weaker quotas. In 1995, Rwanda ranked 24th in terms of female representation, and jumped to 1st in 2003
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system and its locations say a lot about the current focus of those systems, such positions being in the US and Western Europe allow easier access to those women in the area. It is also important to note that institutions affect the cultural propensity to elect women candidates in different ways in
3909:
is a term coined by political scientists who studied why women do not hold political positions at the same rates men do. The political recruitment model categorizes the steps between a citizen and politician, and many political scientists use this to study where women are losing the opportunity and
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In 2017, a study was done using a sample of countries around the world. From this, of the 77 women executives from the countries studied, 22 were provisional Of these types, however Political family accounted for over a quarter of female executives. This was mostly found to be the case in Asia and
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The work life balance is invariably more difficult for women, because they are generally expected by society to act as the primary caregivers for children and maintainers of the home. Due to these demands, it is assumed that women would choose to delay political aspirations until their children are
3544:
Political scientists separate the causes behind the underrepresentation of women in governmental positions into two categories: supply and demand. Supply refers to women's general ambition to run for office and access to resources like education and time, while demand refers to elite support, voter
3033:
The proportion of women in national parliaments around the world is growing, but they are still underrepresented. As of April 1, 2019, the global average of women in national assemblies is 24.3 percent. At the same time, large differences exist between countries, e.g. Sri Lanka has quite low female
6978:
In Brazil, the Secretariat of Policies for Women, was until recently the main Brazilian state-feminism agency at the federal level. Under Workers' Party governments (2003–2016), Brazil carried out women-focused policies in three dimensions of its foreign policy: diplomacy, development cooperation,
6504:
According to a survey administered to 1,039 U.S. citizens, the number of women who hold a position in government office could be due to a baseline preference of one sex over another. The results show that 60% of respondents have a baseline gender preference for a male candidate, while 40% prefer a
5485:
The gender quotas implemented across parties in Germany in the 1990s serve as a natural experiment for the effect of sub-national party political gender quotas on women participation. Davidson-Schmich (2006) notes, "the German case provides the variance needed to explain the successful (or failed)
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While in foreign countries, women's socio-economic status is uplifted and gender division of labor is largely wiped out by feminist movements to open up the availability and variety of work for women, the conservative and politically sensitive Chinese government's censorship on feminism within the
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efforts to gather more accurate and comprehensive data, 62 countries had no recent national data available regarding maternal mortality rates. Only 38 countries have sex-disaggregated statistics available to report frequency of violence against women. 41 countries collect sex-disaggregated data on
4198:
One cross-national study found that the implementation of electoral gender quotas, which substantially increased women's representation in parliament, led to increased government expenditures toward public health and relative decreases in military spending, consistent with a presumption that women
3855:
An aftereffect of political socialization is that it determines how inclined women are to pursue careers that may be compatible with formal politics. Careers in law, business, education, and government, professions in which women happen to be minorities, are common occupations for those that later
3774:
A key critique is that mirror representation assumes that all members of a particular sex operate under the rubric of a shared identity, without taking into consideration other factors such as age, education, culture, or socioeconomic status. However, proponents of mirror representation argue that
3738:
In one study that looked at campaign funding in Chile, researchers found a significant gender bias against women in campaign funding. In Chile, parties are given money directly from the government to allocate to their various candidates, and candidates are limited to a certain amount of money they
3651:
Also, women's desire to run is heavily bolstered by relational encouragement. While men's ambition is derived from personal ambition, education, marriage, etc., women receive overwhelming encouragement from close confidants supporting their efforts in the political sphere. This can be a challenge,
3586:
One major challenge female candidates must overcome to obtain political positions is voter bias. According to one study, women were more likely to state that it was easier for men to get elected to higher office. The study found that 58% of men and 73% of women claimed it was easier for men to get
3556:
Some have argued that politics is a "matrix of domination" designed by race, class, gender and sexuality. Intersectionality plays a large role in treatment women face when running for political office and their time serving in a political position. One study in Brazil found racial disparities that
3464:
In Brazil, the Secretariat of Policies for Women, was until recently the main Brazilian state-feminism agency at the federal level. Under Workers' Party governments (2003–2016), Brazil carried out women-focused policies in three dimensions of its foreign policy: diplomacy, development cooperation,
2925:
Individual female executives usually have high levels of education and may have close relationships with politically prominent or upper-class families. The general status of women in a country does not predict if a woman will reach an executive position since, paradoxically, female executives have
6497:
Nevertheless, the year 2018 saw the largest increase in female representation in state governments following a decade of stagnation: 1,834 women won office at the state and federal level during the mid-term elections, 2,112 women got seats in state legislative offices, and six women have launched
4385:
In addition to the points raised above, Supriya Garikipati and Uma Kambhampati conduct an analysis to determine if there is any significant difference between COVID-19 pandemic being handled by women as compared to men. Their findings show that COVID-death related outcomes are better in countries
4242:
Sex-responsive budgets address the needs and interests of different individuals and social groups, maintaining awareness of sexual equality issues within the formation of policies and budgets. Such budgets are not necessarily a 50–50 male-female split, but accurately reflect the needs of each sex
3833:
The qualitative and quantitative study reveals that media reflects and strengthens a male-overwhelmed society. Women in the news is usually for bad news and just for all the vulgar or wrong reasons such as about their looks, personal life and their clothes and characters. Media likes to give more
3765:
aims to achieve gender parity in public office. In other words, mirror representation says that the proportion of women in leadership should match the proportion of women in the population that they govern. Mirror representation is premised on the assumption that elected officials of a particular
3714:
Bruce M. Hicks, an electoral studies researcher at Université de Montréal, states that evidence shows that female candidates begin with a head start in voters' eyes of as much as 10 per cent, and that female candidates are often more favorably associated by voters with issues like health care and
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was the founding mother of the Brazilian woman suffrage movement. In 1919 she founded the League for Intellectual Emancipation of Women. Lutz also created the Brazilian Federation for Women's Progress (1922), a political group which advocated for Brazilian women's rights, most importantly, their
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did not find evidence that American voters were outright hostile to women in politics or that they held double standards. The study did however find that American voters preferred candidates who were married and had children. Since the burdens of child-rearing disproportionately fall on women in
5851:
The Finnish national quota law, introduced in 1995, mandates that among all indirectly elected public bodies (at both a national and a local level), neither sex in the governing body can be under 40%. The 1995 laws was a reformed version of a similar 1986 law. Unlike other countries' quota laws,
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and Lenita Freidenvall argue this in their article "Quotas as a 'Fast Track' to Equal Representation for Women" by stating: "From a liberal perspective, quotas as a specific group right conflict with the principle of equal opportunity for all. Explicitly favoring certain groups of citizens, i.e.
3926:
The United Nations has identified six avenues by which female participation in politics and government may be strengthened. These avenues are: equalization of educational opportunities, quotas for female participation in governing bodies, legislative reform to increase focus on issues concerning
3502:
According to a comparative study of women in local governments in East Asia and the Pacific, women have been more successful in reaching decision-making position in local governments than at the national level. Local governments tend to be more accessible and have more available positions. Also,
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A 2016 study found no evidence that the low share of women in the U.S. House of Representative was due to gender discrimination by voters. According to the author of the study, "these results suggest that the deficit of female representation in the House is more likely the result of barriers to
5913:
In 2007, Spain passed the Equality Law, requiring a "principle of balanced presence" by mandating political parties to include 40–60% of each sex among electoral candidates. This law is unique in that surpasses the 40% parity figure established by the European Commission in 1998; a figure which
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One study found that about 9% more federal spending is brought to districts who are represented by a woman as opposed to a man. The study found that the type of women who tend to get elected are often "better" politicians because of the way they have to outperform men to be elected into office.
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Since women have been marginalized in politics throughout history, the symbolic effect of women entering politics has a significant impact on whether women feel represented and heard in political issues. Studies find that the more women in state legislature, the more likely women are to run for
4364:
Women are largely underrepresented in government bodies for a variety of reasons, with the leading theory being a gap in political ambition between men and women. In addition, women are encouraged to run for office less than men and will usually be at a disadvantage if they choose to run due to
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Quotas are explicit requirements on the number of women in political positions. "Gender quotas for the election of legislators have been used since the late 1970s by a few political parties (via the party charter) in a small number of advanced industrial democracies; such examples would be like
3786:
There have been differing results between studies that looked at the significance of women's representation on actual policy outcomes. Though women in the United States are more likely to identify as feminists, a 2014 study looking at the United States finds "no effect of gender of the mayor on
3747:
Many of the challenged women face that leads to their underrepresentation in political office is amplified through other institutional factors. Race, specifically, plays an increasingly large role in the challenges faced by women when deciding to run for office, actively running for office, and
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Even once elected, women tend to hold lesser valued cabinet ministries or similar positions. These are sometimes described as "soft industries" and include health, education, and welfare. Far less often do women hold executive decision-making authority in more powerful domains or those that are
3535:
Democracies on average have twice the share of women in cabinet compared to autocracies. In authoritarian systems of government, rulers have relatively weak incentives to appoint women to cabinet positions. Rather, authoritarian rulers have greater incentives to appoint loyal individuals to the
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A 1995 Brazilian gender quota was extended first to city councilor positions in 1996, then extended to candidates of all political legislative positions by 1998. By 1998, 30% of political candidates had to be women, with varied results in terms of the gender balance of the officials ultimately
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since 2024. In the devolved legislatures of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the proportion of women members is 47% in Wales and 36% in Scotland and Northern Ireland. In local councils the proportion of women councillors is 36% in England, 29% in Scotland, 28% in Wales and 26% in Northern
4953:
In an effort to increase women's participation in politics in India, a 1993 constitutional amendment mandated a randomly selected third of leadership positions at every level of local government to be reserved for women. These political reservation quotas randomly choose one third of cities to
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The evidence that women in power have a positive influence is also highlighted by Iyer at al. through their paper on how political representation of women led to higher rates of crime reporting. They also find that women are willing to report crime in villages with female representation in the
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rights. National legislation can supersede traditionally male-dominated inheritance models. Such legislation has been proven effective in countries like Colombia, where 60% of land is held in joint titles between men and women (compared to 18% before the passage of joint titling legislation in
3844:
Generally, girls tend to see politics as a "male domain". Newman and White suggest that women who run for political office have been "socialized toward an interest in and life in politics" and that "many female politicians report being born into political families with weak gender-role norms."
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further subjugate women and serve to limit their representation in public life. Also, the political underrepresentation of women in post-Soviet democracy that tend to be characterized by high levels of political corruption is often expect to be a results of patriarchal gender norms and voter's
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joined the Foreign Service in 1927, becoming only the third American woman to do so. She served in Chile, Sweden, Belgium, Spain, Britain, and Finland as well as the State Department. In 1953, she became the first female US ambassador to Switzerland and later served as ambassador to Norway and
1470:
As of October 2019, the global participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is 24.5%. In 2013, women accounted for 8% of all national leaders and 2% of all presidential posts. Furthermore, 75% of all female prime ministers and presidents have taken office in the past two decades.
5035:
The local panchayat system in India provides an example of women's representation at the local governmental level. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992 mandated panchayat elections throughout the country. The reforms reserved 33% of the seats for women and for castes and tribes
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Current research which uses sex-aggregated statistics may underplay or minimize the quantitative presentation of issues such as maternal mortality, violence against women, and girls' school attendance. Sex-disaggregated statistics are lacking in the assessment of maternal mortality rates, for
4182:
The introduction of gender quotas in the electoral process has spurred controversy from politicians, resulting in resistance to the acceptance of quotas in the political realm. The mobilization of women in politics has been hindered by means of preserving male political survival, and to avoid
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Women are shown to face more consequences when facing scandals. A study done in 2019 by Catherine Reyes-Housholder uses former Chilean president Michelle Bachelet as a case study on the effect of approval rating as determined by gender during controversy. The study found that male presidents'
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While women's representation as ministers grew through the 20th century, women holding the most senior cabinet posts was relatively rare until the 21st century. In recent years, women have increasingly held the top profile portfolios for their governments in non-traditional areas for women in
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senate elections. Women receive less news coverage and the coverage they do receive concentrates more on their viability and less on their issue positions, which causes female candidates to be overlooked and underrated during elections, which is an obstacle for women running for U.S. senate.
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Additionally, women are held to higher expectations than men in the electoral sphere. One particular study found that women are held to a higher ethical and moral standard than men. In this study, data from eighteen Latin American countries showed that when certain scandals or accusations of
2983:
In 2021, Estonia became the first country to have both a female elected head of state and elected head of government. (If you only consider countries where the head of state is directly elected, then the first country to have both an elected female head of state and an elected female head of
4500:, and Shukria Barekzai. There were hundreds of women working running private companies, non-profit organizations, and civil society organizations in Afghanistan. There were several women running as vice-presidential candidates in the presidential elections of Afghanistan in 2014. Since the
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Critical mass theory has correlations with both substantive representation as process and substantive representation as outcome. Critical mass theory suggests that once a certain percentage of women representatives has been reached, that female legislators will be able to create and enable
3443:
Pamela Paxton describes three factors that are reasons why national-level representation has become much larger over the past several decades. The first is the changing structural and economic conditions of nations, which says that educational advancements along with an increase in women's
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saw a record number of women become lawmakers in Singapore's Parliament. 27 out of 93 seats (29%) for elected Members of Parliament went to women, compared to 21 out of 89 (24%) seats in the 2015 general election. One of the two Non-constituency MP seats has also been taken up by a woman.
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One study found that intersectionality plays a significant role in the ambition of women and their decision to run for political office. They found that when women were told the different reasons for underrepresentation of women in political office, women of different races responded very
12436:
6761:, the ALP exceeds their 40% quota and is made up of 44% women and the LNP 21%. On 1 January 2017, Australia was ranked 52 out of 175 countries in terms of women in ministerial positions and 50th out of 190 countries in terms of women in the lower house of Parliament. The report issued by
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goal, as in practice even less than one in every ten top jobs was occupied by women. The goal for women in top jobs was postponed to 2023. The government and business sector agreed that if every one in five top jobs is not exerted by women, after 2018 the 30% rule will become mandatory.
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elected into higher office. In the US, according to one survey, 15% of Americans still believe men make better political candidates than women. Another survey found that 13% of American women either strongly agree or agree that men tend to make better political candidates than women do.
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for women to delay seeking electoral office. Furthermore, mobility plays a crucial role in the work-family dynamic. Elected officials are usually required to commute long distances to and from their respective capital cities, which can be a deterrent for women seeking political office.
5287:, becoming the nation's first female head of state. Kumaratunga also appointed her mother Sirimavo Bandaranaike as prime minister, marking the first time a woman succeeded a woman as prime minister, and the first time any nation in the world had a female president and prime minister.
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makes women's political gains very vulnerable because these gains can be easily rolled back when regimes change. The failure to make the private sphere part of political contestation diminishes the power of formal democratic rights and limits solutions to gender inequality".
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of Montana became the first woman to serve in Congress, to the 115th congress, a total of 329 women have served as U.S. Representatives, Delegates, or Senators. Between 1917 and 2018, the United States has had 277 women serve in the House of Representatives. From 1922—when
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El Poder Ejecutivo está constituido por el Presidente, quien desarrolla las funciones de Jefe de Estado. El simboliza y representa los intereses permanentes del país. A su vez, como Jefe de Gobierno, es quien dirige la política gubernamental, respaldado por la mayoría
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women's willingness and ability to be involved in government is similar to the level of ambition in men, but when there is an election involved, their interest drops dramatically. Elections tend to be messy, damaging, and costly, driving many women away from running.
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in China. The activists suffered from interrogation, detention and month-long imprisonment due to the distribution of stickers on Beijing subways for drawing the wider community's awareness to sexual harassment against women. Followed by the forced suspension of the
4022:
more illiberal a state is, the fewer women will be in positions of power". As countries open education systems to women, and more women participate in historically male dominated fields, it is possible to see a shift in political views regarding women in government.
5921:, the leader of the Spanish Socialist Party, presented his cabinet which included eleven women and six men, making it the cabinet with the highest proportion of women in the world at the time. This proportion was increased after a cabinet reshuffle on 12 July 2021.
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averages 35.5% across 141 countries. Notably, three countries have achieved gender parity, and 22 others report more than 40% female representation in these bodies. Despite these advances, substantial regional variations exist: representation is as high as 41% in
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Ceylon. Willis's rise in the Foreign Service was due to her competence, hard work, and self-confidence. Also helpful in her career was the support of influential mentors. While not a militant feminist, Willis blazed a trail for other female diplomats to follow.
2995:. The societal status of women does not necessarily correlate with their likelihood of achieving high executive positions, as evidenced by the emergence of many female leaders in nations where women generally have lower social standing. Notable examples include
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abstentionist policy she did not take her seat there).She was appointed Minister for Labour in 1919, the first woman Cabinet minister in Western Europe. Six decades with all-male Cabinets would elapse before the appointment of the next woman minister in 1979,
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was elected in 2018. While Sri Lanka has a long and varied history of woman leaders, female representation in Parliament is still lower than hoped for. In 2016, the government passed legislation mandating that 25% of Parliamentary seats be reserved for women.
6451:
The United States is one of the shrinking number of industrialized democracies to not have yet had a woman as its leader. Although a country which promotes the rights of women and girls around the world, it is conspicuous for having had only male presidents.
4171:"At first glance, these shifts seem to coincide with the adoption of candidate gender quotas around the globe as quotas have appeared in countries in all major world regions with a broad range of institutional, social, economic and cultural characteristics".
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women and children, financing gender-responsive budgets to equally take into account the needs of men and women, increasing the presence of sex-disaggregated statistics in national research/data, and furthering the presence and agency of grassroots women's
3910:
chances to hold elected office. The political recruitment model has four parts; eligible, aspirants, candidates, and elected. When studying pathways to political involvement, political scientists focus on where in this pipeline women tend to "leak out of".
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en route to school. A "safe school environment" is one in which the school is located to minimize such violence, in addition to providing girls with educational opportunities (as opposed to using female students to perform janitorial work or other menial
3635:. "In these systems of high proportionality between seats won and votes cast, small parties are able to gain representation and parties have an incentive to broaden their overall electoral appeal by making their candidate lists as diverse as possible".
4838:
often struggle to obtain promotion to high-ranked positions, such as party secretary or principal governor. The reason contributing to the captioned phenomenon is gender division of labor across all levels of political structures. Contrary to Chairman
3982:, states that: "Unlike other factors that have been identified as influencing the level of women's legislative representation, such as a country's political culture and level of economic development, institutional rules are relatively easy to change".
3041:
Out of 192 countries listed in descending order by the percentage of women in the lower or single house, the top 20 countries with the greatest representation of women in national parliaments are (figures reflect information as of January 1, 2020; a
6812:
of the Northern Territory became the first Aboriginal woman minister in any Australian government in 2002 and became the highest-ranked Indigenous woman in government with her service as Deputy Chief Minister of the Northern Territory from 2007 to
3896:
It was found that women often lead or participate in revolutionary or democratization movements, however this rarely leads to political ascension. Familial ties are found to be a larger determinant of political ascension than any sort of merit.
2929:
Women have long struggled in more developed countries to become president or prime minister. Israel elected its first female prime minister in 1969 but has never done so again. The United States, on the other hand, has had no female presidents.
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of sex differences and the relation to the nation". Htun and Weldon also bring up the point of democracy and its effects on the level of equality it brings. In their article, they explain that a democratic country is more likely to listen to
5914:(according to the EC) indicates "parity democracy." Though there is anecdotal evidence of increasing female representation on a local and national level, there has not yet been national-level data to quantitatively bolster this assertion.
4320:
found that for German local elections "female council candidates advance more from their initial list rank when the mayor is female. This effect spreads to neighboring municipalities and leads to a rising share of female council members."
3675:
ruled that federal candidates can use campaign funds to pay for child care costs that result from time spent running for office. Grechen Shirley became the first woman in history to receive approval to spend campaign funds on child care.
8419:
4492:. The proportion of seats held by women in the Parliament of Afghanistan has increased from 4 percent in 1995 to 28 percent in 2018. There were four female cabinet ministers, and there are many Afghan women who were ambassadors, such as
4421:
A study also finds that the percentage of women in global legislatures promotes the substantive representation of women as it pertains to the provision of public goods and infrastructure development that women perceive to be important.
14950:
Artículo 118°.- Atribuciones del Presidente de la República Corresponde al Presidente de la República: 1. Cumplir y hacer cumplir la Constitución y los tratados, leyes y demás disposiciones legales. 3. Dirigir la política general del
3951:
abolishment of educational fees which would require parents to consider financial issues when deciding which of their children to educate. Poor children in rural areas are particularly affected by inequality resulting from educational
3652:
because if certain women do not grow in an environment where their participation in the political arena is encouraged, this severely dampens any desire in them to be involved. Overall, this hurts female representation in government.
5114:
in 1947, Japanese women have been given the right to vote, and the new version of the constitution also allows for a more democratic form of government that guarantees women equality under the law. The first female cabinet member,
4440:
Since the election of 2008, Rwanda is the first country to have a majority of women in legislature. Rwanda is an example of a developing country that radically increased its female leadership because of national conflict. After the
6091:, replacing male-preference primogeniture with absolute primogeniture for those born in the line of succession after 28 October 2011, which meant the eldest child, regardless of sex, would precede his or her brothers and sisters.
6447:
In the 115th Congress, 107 (78D, 29R) women hold seats in the United States Congress, comprising 20.0% of the 535 members; 23 women (23%) serve in the U.S. Senate, and 84 women (19.3%) serve in the U.S. House of Representatives.
15993:
5301:
was the first LGBT person and transgender woman to hold the office of Governor in Sri Lanka. She is widely considered to be the first openly transgender head of a government in the world. The first woman mayor of the capital,
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public office. Socialization agents can include family, school, higher education, mass media, and religion. Each of these agents plays a pivotal role in either fostering a desire to enter politics, or dissuading one to do so.
14658:
11280:
3468:
In Ireland, Ann Marie O'Brien has studied the women in the Irish Department of External Affairs associated with the League of Nations and United Nations, 1923–1976. She finds that women had greater opportunities at the UN.
11160:
6423:
Women secured officeholding rights in the United States in a piecemeal fashion. Some women were even able to achieve positions in offices like mayor, notary public, state librarian, and others before the passage of the
4815:, has sparked controversy on the unbroken record of no-women Politburo Standing Committee and the absence of female top leaders in any legislature in China's political history, apart from the exceptions of Vice Premier
4212:
ministerial positions rather than in the harder and politically more prestigious positions of economic planning, national security, and foreign affairs, which are often seen as stepping-stones to national leadership".
2523:
military leader, held the People's Secretary of Internal Affairs position in the Ukraine People's Republic of the Soviets of Workers and Peasants from 1917 to 1918, which was responsible for executive functions of the
4286:
Though the representation has become a much larger picture, it is important to notice the inclination of political activity emphasizing women over the years in different countries. "Although women's representation in
3694:
In Canada, there is evidence that female politicians face gender stigma from male members of the political parties to which they belong which can undermine the ability of women to reach or maintain leadership roles.
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set a goal of 30% female representation. The current annual growth rate of women in national parliaments is about 0.5% worldwide. At this rate, gender parity in national legislatures will not be achieved until 2068.
15343:
11113:
15988:
3485:
In the U.S., on December 18, 2018, Nevada became the first state to have a female majority in its legislature. Women hold nine of the 21 seats in the Nevada Senate, and 23 of the 42 seats in the Nevada Assembly.
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Although 86% of countries have reached at least 10% women in their national legislature, far fewer have crossed the 20% and 30% barriers. As of July 2019, only 23% of sovereign nations had more than 30% women in
4412:
One study found that in Argentina, bills involving women's rights regarding violence against women, sexual harassment, reproduction, and gender quotas were more introduced more when more women were in chambers.
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and the changing attitudes of some party leaders resulted in women gaining more opportunities to become MPs and by 2001 an unprecedented number of women held leadership positions in the New Zealand Parliament.
4488:, Afghan women's political participation significantly improved. Before the fall of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban, Afghan women worked in various layers of decision-making positions in the
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cabinet in order to increase their chance of survival and decrease the risk of coups and revolutions. In democracies, leaders are incentivized to appoint cabinet positions that will help them win re-election.
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in 1962. It wasn't until 1983 that Indigenous people had voting rights entirely equal to white Australians when another amendment made enrollment to vote compulsory, rather than voluntary. 19 years after the
9641:
Gottlieb, Jessica; Grossman, Guy; Robinson, Amanda Lea (April 2016). "Do men and women have different policy preferences in Africa? Determinants and implications of gender gaps in policy prioritization".
2961:(2009–2013), was the world's first openly lesbian world leader, first female world leader to wed a same-sex partner while in office. Barbados was the first nation to possess a female inaugural president,
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7166:
Although the Peruvian constitution and the government itself state that the President is the Head of Government, other sources name the President of the Council of Ministers as the head of government.
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15306:
8350:
Price, Michelle L. (December 18, 2018). "Nevada becomes 1st US state with female-majority Legislature". Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
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program which financially reward families who educate their daughters (thus removing the financial barrier that results from girls substituting school attendance for work in the family labor force).
15983:
15567:
10969:, and Jennifer M. Piscopo. "Gender Quotas and Women's Substantive Representation: Lessons from Argentina." Politics & Gender, vol. 4, no. 3, 2008, pp. 393–425., doi:10.1017/S1743923X08000342.
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In 2021, a quarter of all members in Congress were women, the highest percentage in US history. 27% of the House of Representatives are women, while women hold 24 out of 100 seats in the Senate.
5256:
became the first female parliamentarian when she was elected in 1931. Molamure went onto serve as the Deputy President of the Ceylonese Senate. The first woman minister in Sri Lankan history was
4879:
account 'Feminist Voices' due to the government's tightened censorship, feminists encountered escalated obstacles in promoting gender equality. Feminist movements are yet to achieve their goals.
4369:
office than in a male dominated government system. The increased representation in government roles also incentivizes political engagement and activity, whether that means voting or campaigning.
2618:
6974:
The quota law also allowed political parties to increase the number of candidates, further increasing electoral competition and having a negligible impact on the actual number of women elected.
7398:
15151:
Ladam, Christina, Harden, Jeffery J., and Windett, Jason H. (April 2018). "Prominent Role Models: High-Profile Female Politicians and the Emergence of Women as Candidates for Public Office."
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As of 1 March 2022, Cuba has the highest percentage for countries without a quota. In South Asia, Nepal is highest in the rank of women participation in politics with (33%). Among
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2593:
3947:
vital tool for any person in society to better themselves in their career path, and equalization of educational opportunities for boys and girls may take the form of several initiatives:
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Party or political insider – women in this path start at the bottom of a party or political ladder and work their way up over time filling in necessary roles to show loyalty to the party.
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fall even heavier on women candidates during candidate recruitment and selection processes. Afro-descendant Brazilian women were the most disadvantaged when running for political office.
12226:
14927:
10641:
5027:
has the highest ever representation of women at 14.3%, which includes 78 women MPs out of 543, higher than 62 in 2014. But only 6 women became cabinet ministers, lower than 10 in 2014.
4718:
4133:
Sex quota systems: institute a "critical value" below which a government is deemed imbalanced. Examples of such a critical value could include a goal that 30% of legislators are female.
3783:. Besides seeking equality, the goal of mirror representation is also to recognize the significance of women's involvement in politics, which subsequently legitimizes said involvement.
15251:
7766:
5831:. Between 2007 and 2011 the Finnish cabinet was 60% female, with a female prime minister from 2010 to 2011. Between 2014 and 2015 the Finnish cabinet was 59% female. On June 22, 2010
2027:
1541:
157:
14669:
7047:
5881:). These figures are up from the 4.9% of women in the Romanian Parliament in 1990. On the other hand, women are well represented in the central public administration, including the
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creation of "girl-friendly" schools to minimize bias and create a safe school environment for girls and young women. Currently, a barrier to female school attendance is the risk of
3888:
Political outsider – women in this path usually lack political experience but they run on a platform emphasizing new political changes and serve as an alternative to the status quo.
3665:
11284:
6799:
in 1901, there have been 40 Indigenous Australians involved in any Parliament (sixteen women) and eight in the Federal Parliament (four women). Following are some notable figures:
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found that this type of state-driven gendered electoral financing is likely to lead to success when combined with either proportional representation of a 15% minimum of women MPs.
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15311:
15301:
13747:
13687:
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says there is "an increasing practice in legislatures for the state, or the parties themselves, to utilize formal or informal quota mechanisms to promote women as candidates and
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15261:
13237:"IRIN Middle East | Lebanon: Tussle over gender violence law | Lebanon | Early Warning | Gender Issues | Governance | Human Rights | Security"
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submitted by each party. Candidates who lack a strong support system are listed on a party's proportional representation section. In the 2009 election, only two of eight female
2941:) simultaneously. This also marked the first time that a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) directly succeeded another female prime minister (Chandrika Kumaratunga).
2270:) simultaneously. This also marked the first time that a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) directly succeeded another female prime minister (Chandrika Kumaratunga).
9265:
15857:
5839:. The present Danish government is a coalition between the Social Democrats, the Social-Liberal Party and the Socialist People's Party. All three parties have female leaders.
5797:(2005–2013) was more than 50% women. In 2003, Finland had a historical moment when all top leaders of the country were women and also represented different political parties:
1551:
4454:(FFRP) has also "led a successful effort to pass ground-breaking legislation on gender-based violence in part by involving and garnering support from their male colleagues".
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Latin America. In Latin America, 75% of non-provisional executives had blood ties to a former president or political figure. 78% of Asian female executives share this trait.
1532:
Women have been notably in fewer numbers in the executive branch of government. The gender gap has been closing, however, albeit slowly, and they are still underrepresented.
3034:
participation rates in parliament compared with Rwanda, Cuba, and Bolivia, where female representation rates are the highest. Three of the top ten countries in 2019 were in
4152:
Quotas may be utilized during different stages of the political nomination/selection process to address different junctures at which women may be inherently disadvantaged:
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15852:
15502:
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Meanwhile, women's quota received a fair share of criticism. It has been argued that women should be employed based on their own qualities, not because of their gender.
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AR. Women constituted 4 of the 16 members of the Central Election Commission and chaired 3 of the 125 district election commissions. Some notable female politicians in
4308:
concepts they do; this helps open new reasons and thus confirms that studies need to be performed over a much larger group of factors." Authors and researchers such as
15318:
15256:
12913:
8217:
Ann Marie O'Brien, "Locating women within the Irish Department of External Affairs: a case study of Irish women at the League of Nations and United Nations, 1923–76."
5886:
2505:
15333:
13094:
Krauss, Ellis S.; Pekkanen, Robert J. (2011), "The kōenkai: origin and development of a vote-mobilization machine", in Krauss, Ellis S.; Pekkanen, Robert J. (eds.),
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In the early twentieth century, party leaders—all of them men—were reluctant to allow women rights beyond basic suffrage, but wartime sped up change. By 1972, the
5774:
In 2016, the Dutch government achieved their goal for women in top jobs within the government. A 30% female share was achieved two years earlier than anticipated.
12039:
Tusalem, Rollin F. (2022). "Gendered Governance: Examining the Relationship between Women Legislators and Effective Public Goods Provision from a Global Sample."
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15792:
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groups is usually based on personal connections, women's historically disadvantaged position in networking circles hurts their ability to run for public office.
2110:
4174:
Quotas have been quite useful in allowing women to gain support and opportunities when attempting to achieve seats of power, but many see this as a wrongdoing.
4159:
Nomination: legal or voluntary quotas are enforced upon this stage, during which a certain portion of nominated candidates on the party's ballot must be female.
13215:
6474:
In popular media in the United States, female politicians see some focus on their appearance; more so than their male counterparts. A 2011 feminist journal by
6425:
4791:
101:
9705:
8372:
5199:
of Myanmar since 2016. She remained under house arrest for almost 15 years from 1989 to 2010, becoming one of the world's most prominent political prisoners.
11551:
10869:
Dahlerup, Drude; Freidenvall, Lenita (2005). "Quotas as a "fast track" to equal political representation for women: why Scandinavia is no longer the model".
7355:
17:
10065:
Kahn, Kim Fridkin; Goldenberg, Edie N. (1991-01-01). "Women Candidates in the News: An Examination of Gender Differences in U.S. Senate Campaign Coverage".
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Crowder-Meyer, Melody. 2020. “Baker, Bus Driver, Babysitter, Candidate? Revealing the Gendered Development of Political Ambition Among Ordinary Americans.”
15557:
15547:
15323:
11452:
Htun, Mala; Weldon, S. Laurel (March 2010). "When do governments promote women's rights? A framework for the comparative analysis of sex equality policy".
2511:
2037:
9563:
Wängnerud, Lena; Sundell, Anders (March 2012). "Do politics matter? Women in Swedish local elected assemblies 1970–2010 and gender equality in outcomes".
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6016:
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1464:
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5715:
was the first Italian government in which the number of female ministers was equal to the number of male ministers, excluding the prime minister. After
15720:
15587:
11557:
6743:
1446:
9208:
6971:
Though the quota law mandates a certain percentage of candidate spots be reserved for women, it is not compulsory that those spots be filled by women.
15328:
7395:
5576:
and a re-shuffle in 2014, four women were appointed cabinet ministers (the highest number of women in senior ministerial positions ever in Ireland):
3527:. This disparity underscores the diverse challenges and varying degrees of progress in promoting women's participation in local governance globally.
3578:
often have local power structures that make it difficult for women to combat. Thus, their interests are often not represented or under-represented.
15445:
15388:
9047:
6987:
5330:
In the various kinds of elections, quotas of successful candidates shall be assigned to women; methods of implementation shall be prescribed by law
4812:
4505:
15033:
Hicks, Daniel L.; Hicks, Joan Hamory; Maldonado, Beatriz (January 2016). "Women as policy makers and donors: female legislators and foreign aid".
13911:
6806:
of Western Australia was the first Indigenous woman elected to any Australian Parliament in 2001 and was subsequently re-elected in 2005 and 2008.
3682:
A 2020 study found that being promoted to the position of mayor or parliamentarian doubles the probability of divorce for women, but not for men.
15894:
15398:
14693:
11309:
5728:
2976:, having served for a combined total of 20 years, 297 days. As of 21 September 2024, she is the world's longest serving elected female
14875:
12952:
12540:
Jinghan, Zeng (2014). "Institutionalization of the authoritarian leadership in China: a power succession system with Chinese characteristics?".
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A 2017 study found that over the prior decade, public opposition to electing a woman as president declined from approximately 26% to 13%.
15472:
15415:
14487:
12269:
12234:
9884:
Lachover, Einat (2016-06-23). "Signs of change in media representation of women in Israeli politics: Leading and peripheral women contenders".
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became the first female mayor in the British Empire in 1893. However, it was not until 1919 that women were allowed to run for Parliament, and
6857:
In 1893, New Zealand became the first self-governing country in the world to allow women to vote. This included both European and Māori women.
4640:
3780:
2423:
14934:
13567:
Bakker, F. S., & Kartner, F. (2013). Excuustruus of echte topvrouw? Over de wenselijkheid van vrouwenquota in het bedrijfsleven. Elsevier.
7627:
5536:. Between 1919 and 2019, 19 women served as Cabinet ministers in Ireland, comprising 10% of those who have held senior ministerial positions.
4823:. This contrasts with Hong Kong and Taiwan where female presidents – Carrie Lam and Tsai Ing-wen – took office in 2018 and 2016 respectively.
3882:
Surrogate – women in this path have assumed office, often temporarily, as a surrogate for a father, husband, or brother who has recently died.
15878:
15837:
15787:
15644:
15225:
15010:
Bauer, Nichole M. (December 2015). "Emotional, sensitive, and unfit for office? Gender stereotype activation and support female candidates".
13448:
McNamara, Maedhbh. A Women's Place is in the Cabinet: Women Ministers in Irish Government 1919 – 2019.Drogheda (Ireland),Sea Dog Books,2020.
8887:
Smith, Amy E.; Monaghan, Karen R. (2013-01-01). "Some Ceilings Have More Cracks: Representative Bureaucracy in Federal Regulatory Agencies".
6410:
4395:
council. Moreover, the police force is more responsive to crimes against women in areas which have gender-based affirmative action policies.
913:
6757:
As of May 2018, women comprise approximately 38% of senators and occupy 44 of the 150 seats in the House of Representatives. In the current
16013:
15751:
15410:
7713:
7122:
5705:
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5379:
in 2011, was the youngest prime minister in over 60 years. She was removed from office on May 7, 2014, by a constitutional court decision.
2364:
2144:(now Sri Lanka) in 1960–1965. She served again 1970–77 and 1994–2000; a total of 17 years. Other early elected female prime ministers were
12333:
11162:
Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children – UN A/61/150 and Corr. 1 (provisional version)
4826:
Men's domination of politics in China despite written protections for women's rights can be explained by the following underlying causes:
15847:
15577:
15492:
15452:
12378:
5683:
as the Minister for Labour and Social Security. This made her the first woman to hold a ministerial position in the Italian government.
5592:
4888:
2406:
was Minister of Labour in the United Kingdom from 1929 to 1931; she was the first female cabinet minister and first female member of the
948:
15497:
13755:
13695:
13399:
Davidson-Schmich, Louise K. (March 2006). "Implementation of political party gender quotas: evidence from the German Länder 1990–2000".
12582:
11392:
6056:
ministers (23%). The highest proportion of women in Cabinet was 36% between 2006 and 2007. The UK has had three female prime ministers,
6048:, are women as of March 2021, which ranks 38th in the world for the proportion of women in the lower (or only) house of parliament. The
15782:
15572:
14818:
13607:
13540:
13342:
12637:
Bhavnani, Rikhil R. (February 2009). "Do electoral quotas work after they are withdrawn? Evidence from a natural experiment in India".
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right to vote. She later played a central role as a member of the small group of feminists at the 1945 founding of the United Nations.
5434:
5272:
4347:
organizing" within the government. Women's movements would benefit from this the most or has had great influence and impact because of
3611:
There have been many arguments saying the plurality-majority voting system is a disadvantage to the chance that women get into office.
314:
152:
12878:
12208:
10143:
Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (2012), "Women's participation in formal politics", in Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (eds.),
10040:
Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (2012), "Women's participation in formal politics", in Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (eds.),
9968:
Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (2012), "Women's participation in formal politics", in Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (eds.),
9733:
Kittilson, Miki C.; Fridkin, Kim (September 2008). "Gender, candidate portrayals and election campaigns: a comparative perspective".
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progressed slowly until 1995, in the most recent decade, these regions show substantial growth, doubling their previous percentage".
4216:
Legislative agendas, some pushed by female political figures, may focus on several key issues to address ongoing gender disparities:
2290:(2009–2013), was the world's first openly lesbian world leader, first female world leader to wed a same-sex partner while in office.
14559:
12301:
7457:
4977:, the first prime minister of India. She served as prime minister from January 1966 to March 1977 and again from January 1980 until
3503:
women's role in local governments may be more accepted because they are seen as an extension of their involvement in the community.
2488:
is the first woman to serve as Vice President of the United States, making her the highest ranking female politician in US history.
16044:
15420:
14964:
12127:
10315:
6940:
5072:, and fewer still have served in the leading ministerial offices. While Israel is one of a small number of countries where a woman—
4804:
4644:
4630:
4610:
2973:
2597:
15097:
Silverberg, Helene (1998), "A government of men: gender, the city, and the new science of politics", in Silverberg, Helene (ed.),
11325:
Muriaas, Wang and Murray (2019) Gendered Electoral Financing: Money Power and Representation in Comparative Perspective, Routledge
11296:
10680:
10421:
Jones, Mark P. (February 1998). "Gender quotas, electoral laws, and the election of women: lessons from the Argentine provinces".
10350:
9275:
7981:
5638:. She is the first woman to occupy that position and the first to come from a party other than Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael since the
4136:
Legal quota systems regulate the governance of political parties and bodies. Such quotas may be mandated by electoral law (as the
3615:
brings forth one of these arguments by stating: "Plurality-majority single-member-district systems, whether of the Anglo-American
486:
15942:
15467:
13999:
13475:
13381:
10381:
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5206:
due to a clause in the constitution – her late husband and children are foreign citizens – she assumed the newly created role of
305:
14769:
Margaret Hayward, "The influence of party leaders on women's representation in parliament, 1935–1975: the case of New Zealand."
13162:
6991:
A collage of Muslim women voters in the 2010s from different countries such as Algeria, Syria, Pakistan, Jordan, Egypt and Iran.
5905:
4834:
While the implied prerequisite of national appointment is years of experience serving at middle-to-top management, women in the
4156:
Potential candidacy: sex quota systems can mandate that from the pool of aspirants, a certain percentage of them must be female.
2430:, Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, was the first woman to hold a cabinet position in the United States federal government.
15962:
15957:
15713:
15376:
15129:
14307:
13803:
11418:
10002:
6041:
5524:
4475:
3805:, the increased presence of women cabinet ministers is associated with a rise in public health spending across many countries.
3421:
New figures are available for up to February 2014 from International IDEA, Stockholm University and Inter-Parliamentary Union.
3119:
3028:
1439:
1373:
409:
162:
13283:
11573:
4450:
female legislators have influenced major reforms in banking and property laws." A parliamentary women's caucus in Rwanda, the
15729:
15430:
15087:
15035:
13453:
12616:
12606:
9818:
8847:
8576:
8121:
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5553:
As yet, the highest office attained by women is Tánaiste, that is, deputy prime minister. Four women have served as Tánaiste—
5321:
5284:
5009:
4485:
4115:
4018:
3628:
3612:
3391:
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in the government and different institutions. This historical tendency still persists, although women are increasingly being
566:
125:
13186:
6153:
where women made up 30.5% of the Canadian House of Commons, higher than the global average of 25.7% and surpassing the 1995
15952:
15808:
12747:
10681:"Gender Quotas in South Africa: Addressing women's descriptive political representation through an intersectional analysis"
9644:
9469:
Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (2012), "The women's movement in Canada", in Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (eds.),
9388:
Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (2012), "The women's movement in Canada", in Newman, Jacquetta; White, Linda A. (eds.),
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from 29 January 2018 to 4 November 2019. She was the first woman in Romanian history to hold the office of prime minister.
5813:
5479:
5343:
5065:
2668:, and third most in the world (after Chancellor Angela Merkel of Germany, and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina of Bangladesh).
2294:
598:
5658:
in 1946, women's right to vote and participate in public institutions has been recognized. According to article 51 of the
3664:
Family duties and family forming cause significant delays in aspiring women's political careers. While campaigning in the
16039:
13883:
11908:
11906:
11507:
11491:
5817:
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4017:
The study of the history of women's representation has been a major contribution in helping scholars view such concepts.
2407:
2232:
665:
13257:
13126:
12100:
7846:
6876:
In recent times New Zealand has had many women in top leadership and government roles, including three prime ministers;
5719:
35% of lawmakers of both chambers of the parliament were women, reaching the highest level in Italian history. In 2018,
15609:
15597:
15350:
12974:
12283:
12061:
10203:
9606:
9235:
Black, J.H.; Erickson, Lynda (March 2003). "Women candidates and voter bias: do women politicians need to be better?".
8698:
6734:
was the first woman elected to the Australian Senate in 1946, a seat she held for twenty-five years. In the same year,
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households, the bias in favor of married candidates with children may explain women's underrepresentation in politics.
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5857:
5798:
5635:
5547:
5452:
5247:
3879:
Political family – women in this path come from families that have a long history of involvement in electoral politics.
3679:
A 2017 study found that female Republican candidates fare worse in elections than Republican men and Democratic women.
3668:, Democratic primary candidate Liuba Grechen Shirley used campaign funds to pay a caregiver for her two young children.
3295:
3135:
2651:
2322:
became a republic on the last day of November 2021, it became the first nation to have a woman as its first president,
2183:, whose term lasted from 1980 to 1996. She is the longest-serving elected female head of state of any country to date.
14378:
Burden, Barry C.; Ono, Yoshikuni; Yamada, Masahiro (2017-05-04). "Reassessing Public Support for a Female President".
13648:
Paper presented at the European Consortium on Political Research Joint Sessions of Workshops, Copenhagen, 14–19 April.
11903:
15772:
15706:
15639:
15537:
15457:
15383:
15286:
15218:
15106:
15068:
14755:
14264:
13670:
13109:
13031:
12639:
12446:
12173:
11260:
10360:
10169:
10152:
10049:
9977:
9785:
9565:
9478:
9453:
9422:
9397:
9317:
9030:
9005:
8974:
8335:
8139:
8093:
7586:
7561:
7369:
7324:
7242:
7145:
6686:
6406:
5980:
has been continually on the rise. Female representation rate did not fall below 10 percent after the 2007 elections.
5977:
5643:
5325:
5234:
5211:
4073:
2890:
2347:
2312:
1432:
1368:
13496:
Vicki Randall, and Ailbhe Smyth, "Bishops and bailiwicks: obstacles to women's political participation in Ireland."
11247:
Engendering development through gender equality in rights, resources, and voice: A World Bank policy research report
7510:
7233:
Carmichael, Sarah; Dilli, Selin; Rijpma, Auke (2016), "Women in the global economic history", in Baten, Jörg (ed.),
6776:
MP became deputy prime minister. Three years later, Gillard was elected as Australia's first female prime minister.
5965:(DYP). On June 13, 1993, she was elected the party's leader, and on 25 June the same year, Çiller was appointed the
5036:
proportional to their population. Over 700,000 women were elected after the reforms were implemented in April 1993.
4261:
extra resources to parties depending on whether they satisfy a fixed gender balance goal. A 2021 study published in
2987:
As of May 2024, 28 women serve as heads of state and/or government across 28 countries. Of these, 15 are serving as
15291:
15281:
15276:
15271:
8322:
McCarthy, Helen; Southern, James (January 11, 2019). "Woman, gender and diplomacy". In Cassidy, Jennifer A. (ed.).
7528:
6820:
6709:
became the first country to give some women the vote and allow them to stand for Parliament. This did not apply to
6084:
6049:
5283:, held the post of prime minister, as deputy head of government for two months, before successfully contesting the
5133:
4451:
4250:
Strengthened government position by advocating for needs of all, including the poor and the underrepresented rights
3989:
One example of the hurdles women face in receiving good education comes from Beijing. "Most women who attended the
3656:
they either they show too much skin or too little, or perhaps that they either look too feminine or too masculine.
3632:
2455:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2098:
1977:
115:
65:
14711:
14180:
8820:
Reyes-Housholder, Catherine. 2020. “A Theory of Gender’s Role on Presidential Approval Ratings in Corrupt Times.”
2592:(1967–1969), was the first female premier of a non-sovereign European constituent state. She held the position of
15947:
15937:
13717:
13501:
12763:
12691:
8389:
7375:
6902:
6719:
6714:
5581:
5566:
5297:
Sri Lanka has also seen glass ceilings shattered in local government. The 10th Governor of the Central Province,
4748:
4738:
4040:
2074:
The socialist revolutions taking place during World War I saw the first few women become members of governments.
918:
838:
660:
455:
11237:
10616:
6444:
became the first woman to serve in the Senate—to the present, 58 women have served in the United States Senate.
5885:, with more than half of decision-making positions held by women, according to a 2011 study commissioned by the
1483:
15682:
15672:
15514:
15393:
15012:
13236:
13084:
1st International Conference Women and Politics in Asia. Conference Paper. Halmstad: Halmstad University, 2003.
12768:
10339:
School Fee Abolition Initiative Workshop, organized by UNICEF and the World Bank, Nairobi, 5–7 April 2006, p. 3
9343:"Gender, race, and political ambition: how intersectionality and frames influence interest in political office"
7899:
7057:
7037:
7017:, which is the right to stand for election. The combination of active and passive suffrage is sometimes called
6508:
Other notable female politicians in the United States include former U.S. Senator and incumbent Vice President
6150:
6076:
5766:. Giorgia Meloni was sworn in on October 22, 2022, becoming the first-ever female head of government in Italy.
5747:
5120:
5045:
4978:
4561:
4541:
4243:(such as increased allocation for women's reproductive health). Benefits of gender-responsive budgets include:
3407:
3359:
3038:(Bolivia, Cuba, and Mexico), and the Americans have seen the greatest aggregate change over the past 20 years.
2525:
2496:
having previously been chair of the Federal Reserve and chair of the White House Council of Economic Advisers.
2419:
2175:
of Argentina (appointed head of state and government, 1974–76). The world's first elected female president was
2118:
2087:
375:
211:
15198:
14586:
14511:
Dolan, Kathleen (2009-05-22). "The Impact of Gender Stereotyped Evaluations on Support for Women Candidates".
12811:
9071:
Bucchianeri, Peter (2018). "Is Running Enough? Reconsidering the Conventional Wisdom about Women Candidates".
5973:, becoming Turkey's first and only female prime minister to date. She served at this post until 6 March 1996.
5218:
3997:
conferences, which are for government delegations (though increasingly many governments include activists and
2999:, which was the first country to have both a female president and a female prime minister simultaneously, and
2954:
2283:
2058:
2033:
13859:
10423:
8850:(July 1999). "Women in the legislatures and executives of the world: knocking at the highest glass ceiling".
7986:
7180:
6781:
6310:
6053:
5874:
5743:
5736:
5716:
5523:
in 1918. (Directly prior to this, in the general election of 1918, she became the first woman elected to the
5475:
5222:
4935:
3199:
2589:
2414:
was the world's first female Minister of Health in Mongolia in 1930. The first woman to hold the position of
2240:
2126:
1118:
685:
14339:"Estimating the gender penalty in House of Representative elections using a regression discontinuity design"
13541:"Rijksoverheid haalt streefcijfer vrouwen in topfuncties – Politiek – Voor nieuws, achtergronden en columns"
12490:
Feng, Xianghong (2013-07-01). "Women's Work, Men's Work: Gender and Tourism among the Miao in Rural China".
7602:
5080:, it is behind most Western countries in the representation of women in both the parliament and government.
15829:
15211:
13956:
11074:
8469:
6996:
6758:
6301:
6292:
5669:
5603:
League of Nations and United Nations, 1923–1976. She finds that women had greater opportunities at the UN.
4698:
2913:
2647:
2168:
2042:
1353:
588:
506:
481:
414:
13142:
12466:
9495:
8643:"(How) Do Voters Discriminate Against Women Candidates? Experimental and Qualitative Evidence From Malawi"
7414:
Second longest when considering non-consecutive terms, after the Sri Lankan leader, Sirimavo Bandaranaike.
5976:
The office of prime minister was abolished in Turkey in 2018. However, since 1995, the number of women in
5961:, a career professor of economics since 1983, entered politics in November 1990, joining the conservative
3574:
preferences for placing men in leadership positions (Moser and Scheiner, 2012). Societies that are highly
2968:
The longest serving female non-royal head of government and longest serving female leader of a country is
2585:
15624:
12828:"Female leadership raises aspirations and educational attainment for girls: a policy experiment in India"
12762:
Beaman, Lori; Chattopadhyay, Raghabendra; Duflo, Esther; Pande, Rohini; Topalova, Petia (November 2009).
10588:
9528:
7062:
6328:
6020:
5673:
5666:
5573:
5291:
5207:
5180:
5001:
4990:
3906:
3704:
3672:
3602:
Kamala Harris, example of a woman who overcame systemic challenges, now in a high position of government.
3327:
2768:
2359:
was the world's first Deputy Minister of State Welfare and Vice Minister of Education in Russia in 1917.
2094:
on 25 January 1918). She is sometimes considered the first modern woman leader of a national government.
2008:
583:
221:
14610:
14230:
13919:
11222:
Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000), para. 10, adopted by the Security Council at its 4213th meeting
11192:
Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children – UN A/61/299
8231:
Nash, Philip (2002). "A Woman's Touch in Foreign Affairs'? The Career of Ambassador Frances E. Willis".
6149:
has been slowly but steadily increasing since the 1980s and has reached its highest point following the
5820:
5672:
in 1951. She served as Secretary of State to the Minister of Industry and Commerce until 1953. In 1976,
2363:
became the first female to hold a ministerial position, as the People's Commissar for Social Welfare in
16034:
15435:
15405:
15338:
15169:
9710:
7940:
7025:
6751:
6464:
6456:
6098:
5794:
5558:
5376:
5362:
3727:
3263:
2786:
2198:
2176:
2106:
1378:
968:
10790:
6795:
Indigenous people, women in particular, are grossly under-represented in Australian Parliament. Since
5160:
personal statute codes. Lebanese women have legal protection that varies depending on their religion.
2905:
15698:
15604:
15527:
15522:
15175:
14879:
14422:
13801:
Verge, Tània (2010). "Gendering representation in Spain: opportunities and limits of gender quotas".
12610:
11872:
11760:
11758:
10802:
10781:
10702:
10467:
9994:
8929:
Kanthak, Kristin, and Jonathan Woon. 2015. “Women Don’t Run? Election Aversion and Candidate Entry.”
7824:
7794:
7767:"The share of women in legislatures around the world is growing, but they are still underrepresented"
7291:
6803:
6346:
6007:
in 1995. After these years, the number of female governors and district governors increased rapidly.
5934:
5894:
5836:
5828:
5790:
5686:
5146:
4945:
4545:
4489:
4339:
3960:
3247:
2958:
2791:
2759:
2728:
2561:
2493:
2287:
2202:
1774:
756:
86:
14996:
14265:"Have you come a long way, baby? Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and sexism in 2008 campaign coverage"
13777:
13415:
11566:
10549:
10531:
9602:"Women's substantive representation: defending feminist interests or women's electoral preferences?"
4870:
country has spread fear among feminism advocates. An illustrative case of which is the backlash of '
2949:(1997–2011) was the first time that a female president directly succeeded another female president,
2278:(1997–2011) was the first time that a female president directly succeeded another female president,
1694:
14750:
13937:
13514:
11454:
7689:"Estonia to become the only country in the world with a female president and female prime minister"
6641:
6467:
became the first state legislature upper house to possess an elected female majority. In 2019, the
6391:
6088:
5966:
5947:
5809:
5077:
5058:
4702:
4534:
4257:
A sex-responsive budget may also work to address issues of unpaid care work and caring labor gaps.
3167:
2777:
2607:
2557:
2218:
2141:
1678:
1460:
1208:
902:
231:
196:
13644:
Representations of women in Finnish local government: effects of the 1995 gender quota legislation
11755:
10825:(September 2006). "Reforming representation: the diffusion of candidate gender quotas worldwide".
8768:"Gender Stereotypes, Candidate Evaluations, and Voting for Women Candidates: What Really Matters?"
8131:
The state of the world's children 2007: women and children: the double dividend of gender equality
8085:
The state of the world's children 2007: women and children: the double dividend of gender equality
6788:
is the only woman to have been head of a major political party when she was elected leader of the
6004:
5533:
5354:
1556:
The following women leaders are currently head of state or the head of their nation's government:
15687:
15115:
Towns, Ann, and Birgitta Niklasson. "Gender, International Status, and Ambassador Appointments."
12899:
Impact of Female Leadership on Aspirations and Educational Attainment for Teenage Girls in India.
12156:(2010), "Perverse consequences? The impact of quotas for women on democratization in Africa", in
10465:
Gouws, Amanda (2008). "Changing women's exclusion from politics: examples from Southern Africa".
9995:"Her mother's daughter? The influence of childhood socialization on women's political engagement"
7067:
6858:
6796:
6746:
and held the position for over three years. Of the two major political parties in Australia, the
6114:
5763:
5698:
5691:
5268:
4970:
4926:
4795:
4588:
3955:
encouragement of parents and communities to institute gender-equal educational agenda. Perceived
3627:(TRS), are deemed to be particularly unfavorable to women's chances of being elected to office".
3445:
2795:
2750:
2611:
2529:
2376:
2091:
2083:
44:
14901:
14732:
13955:
Watson, Christopher; Uberoi, Elise; Mutebi, Natasha; Bolton, Paul; Danechi, Shadi (2019-09-25).
13936:
Watson, Christopher; Uberoi, Elise; Mutebi, Natasha; Bolton, Paul; Danechi, Shadi (2021-03-18).
13097:
The rise and fall of Japan's LDP : political party organizations as historical institutions
11252:
11245:
9777:
9771:
8602:"Explaining women's political underrepresentation in democracies with high levels of corruption"
7913:
5999:. Meanwhile, Turkey's first female district governor is Özlem Bozkurt Gevrek. She served in the
4981:
in October 1984, making her the second longest-serving Indian prime minister, after her father.
3986:
local governments or, for that matter, the people in those positions of power, are substandard.
3686:
approval ratings do not change with perceived corruption in government, but women's ratings do.
2664:. She is the head of the most populous governmental jurisdiction administered by a woman in the
2114:
15355:
14425:(2018). "The Ties That Double Bind: Social Roles and Women's Underrepresentation in Politics".
13599:
13410:
12059:; Haerpfer, Christian; Wallace, Claire (Winter 2008). "Women in Rwandan politics and society".
11561:
11027:
9445:
9439:
8997:
8991:
8966:
8960:
8176:"Exploring Brazilian foreign policy towards women: dimensions, outcomes, actors and influences"
7982:"Pathways to power: the role of political parties in women's national political representation"
7424:
6949:
6747:
6710:
6649:
6645:
6441:
6364:
6360:
6306:
6246:
6188:
6072:
became the first female elected Speaker of the House of Commons and held that post until 2000.
5840:
5824:
5639:
5196:
5005:
4501:
4333:
The lady in the case, an example of how some have interpreted women's involvement in government
4044:
3546:
3507:
3151:
2575:
1856:
561:
246:
236:
172:
14120:
12676:
12386:
3834:
updates about all these above examples instead of their actual politics role and achievements
2482:
government, such as foreign relations, defense and national security, and finance or revenue.
14135:
13583:
13101:
13095:
12542:
9706:"Five ways the media hurts female politicians — and how journalists everywhere can do better"
9413:
Pitkin, Hannah F. (1967), "Formalistic views of representation", in Pitkin, Hannah F. (ed.),
7212:
7118:
6835:
was elected to the Northern Territory's legislature in 2005 and gained a Senate seat in 2016.
6669:
5882:
5659:
5619:
5467:
5280:
5264:
5190:
is a Burmese politician, diplomat, author, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate (1991). She is the
5111:
4658:
4582:
4549:
3922:
Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin with Estonian Prime Minister Kaja Kallas in Helsinki, 2021
3620:
3343:
3279:
3231:
3183:
2938:
2934:
2881:
2872:
2764:
2699:
2471:
2267:
2263:
2252:
2137:
2102:
1990:
1710:
1521:
1398:
1343:
1273:
1253:
1238:
1108:
630:
593:
501:
365:
201:
11220:
10406:
8007:
7938:
Paxton, Pamela; Hughes, Melanie M.; Kunovich, Sheri L. (August 2007). "Gender in politics".
6691:
6483:
entering politics as opposed to overt gender discrimination by voters and campaign donors."
6032:, first woman prime minister of the United Kingdom and first female head of government of a
4724:
3669:
3011:
14305:
Silbermann, Rachel (June 2015). "Gender roles, work-life balance, and running for office".
14024:
12844:
12044:
10827:
10806:
8641:
Clayton, Amanda; Robinson, Amanda Lea; Johnson, Martha C.; Muriaas, Ragnhild (2020-03-01).
7820:
7127:
6869:
6852:
6832:
6597:
6561:
6520:; former First Lady, U.S. Senator, Secretary of State, and Democratic presidential nominee
6373:
6355:
6146:
5970:
5890:
5793:(1986–1989) was historical in that 8 out of 18 cabinet members were women, and in 2007 the
5789:
The Nordic countries have been forerunners in including women in the executive branch. The
5720:
5520:
5505:
5471:
5252:
While women have served in every Sri Lankan parliament to date, proportions have been low.
5203:
4760:
4253:
Increased information flow surrounding needs of those who are usually discriminated against
4119:
3875:
Globally, there have been four general pathways that have led women into political office:
3766:
gender would likely support policies that seek to benefit constituents of the same gender.
3700:
3103:
2946:
2380:
2372:
2298:
2275:
2248:
2079:
1646:
1517:
1283:
1278:
1223:
1173:
1158:
1043:
933:
883:
763:
324:
285:
120:
110:
96:
14634:
13363:
12355:"Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women"
8420:"Consolidating Progress: The Selection of Female Ministers in Autocracies and Democracies"
7895:
7474:
4247:
Improved budget efficiency by ensuring that funds are allocated where they are needed most
4055:
2926:
routinely ascended to power in countries where women's social standing lags behind men's.
2394:
The world's first female cabinet minister in an internationally recognized government was
1906:
8:
15667:
13143:"Speech on growth strategy by Prime Minister Shinzō Abe at the Japan National Press Club"
12311:
11398:(Report). New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. p. 26.
9770:
MacIvor, Heather (1996), "Women's participation in politics", in MacIvor, Heather (ed.),
9735:
9500:
9115:
8705:
7953:
7770:
6699:
6653:
6637:
6613:
6593:
5724:
5462:
5372:
5358:
5290:
Sri Lanka has seen a multitude of female Cabinet ministers. The current health minister,
4835:
4688:
4517:
4208:
down by portfolio allocation, one sees a worldwide tendency to place women in the softer
4137:
3616:
2868:
2819:
2360:
1742:
1582:
1388:
1318:
1248:
1123:
1098:
1078:
1058:
938:
813:
803:
680:
511:
433:
426:
421:
336:
241:
226:
186:
14816:
Sacchet, Teresa (2008). "Beyond numbers: the impact of gender quotas in Latin America".
14109:"Sex, Suffrage, and State Constitutional Law: Women's Legal Right to Hold Public Office"
12848:
12354:
11628:"Stronger together: political ambition and the presentation of women running for office"
11337:"Payments and Penalties for Democracy: Gendered Electoral Financing in Action Worldwide"
10324:
5731:, becoming the first women to serve in the second highest office of the state. In 2019,
2625:
15199:
Women in the labyrinths of working life and power, Nordic Labour Journal, March 8, 2013
14991:
Aggestam, Karin, and Ann Towns. "The gender turn in diplomacy: a new research agenda."
14835:
14716:
14536:
14450:
14403:
14360:
14287:
13820:
13624:
13428:
12865:
12723:
12664:
12656:
12559:
12255:
12078:
12022:
11853:
11799:
11766:
11744:
11479:
11471:
11368:
11141:
11055:
11008:
10928:
10888:
10844:
10798:
10440:
10366:
10125:
10019:
9909:
9863:
9752:
9661:
9623:
9582:
9545:
9370:
9213:
9153:
9096:
8912:
8869:
8803:
8795:
8748:
8680:
8623:
8582:
8539:
8510:
Piscopo, Jennifer M.; Hinojosa, Magda; Thomas, Gwynn; Siavelis, Peter M. (2021-07-01).
8304:
8248:
8011:
8003:
7957:
7669:
7004:
6823:
in 2003 and the first Aboriginal woman elected to the House of Representatives in 2016.
6553:
6468:
6419:
The number of women in the U.S. Congress (both the House and Senate) from 1977 to 2006.
6382:
6139:
5257:
4993:
4986:
4708:
4678:
4527:
3598:
2992:
2977:
2852:
2739:
2547:
2535:
2403:
2399:
2384:
2308:
2224:
1938:
1403:
1298:
1258:
1128:
1023:
988:
798:
788:
713:
655:
640:
491:
471:
448:
300:
280:
59:
14853:
12189:
10642:"Do political quotas work? Gender quotas and women's political participation in Nepal"
10378:
9298:"Intersections between Race and Gender in Brazil's 2014 Chamber of Deputies Elections"
9250:
9023:
Shattered, Cracked, or Family Intact?: Women and the Executive Glass Ceiling Worldwide
8145:
8099:
7579:
Shattered, Cracked, or Family Intact?: Women and the Executive Glass Ceiling Worldwide
7554:
Shattered, Cracked, or Family Intact?: Women and the Executive Glass Ceiling Worldwide
7317:
Shattered, Cracked, or Family Intact?: Women and the Executive Glass Ceiling Worldwide
6772:
became Queensland's first female premier, a position she occupied for five years, and
4548:
and Turk-majority country ever to enfranchise women. Now, 28 women are members of the
15102:
15083:
15064:
14839:
14540:
14528:
14454:
14442:
14407:
14395:
14343:
14291:
14204:
14116:
13824:
13666:
13449:
13105:
13027:
12870:
12835:
12709:
12672:
12668:
12507:
12442:
12270:"H.E. MRS. Shukria Barakzai meets with new Indian Ambassador, H.E. Mr. Krishan Kumar"
12169:
12105:
12082:
12014:
11975:
11970:
11954:"The Jackie (and Jill) Robinson Effect: Why Do Congresswomen Outperform Congressmen?"
11953:
11934:
11892:
11857:
11845:
11804:
11786:
11748:
11736:
11647:
11608:
11532:
11483:
11431:
11372:
11256:
11199:
11133:
11094:
11090:
11059:
11047:
11012:
11000:
10996:
10966:
10892:
10740:
10722:
10661:
10657:
10444:
10356:
10199:
10194:
Henderson, Sarah L.; Jeydel, Alana S. (2014). "1. Women and International Politics".
10148:
10129:
10117:
10082:
10045:
9973:
9950:
9913:
9901:
9867:
9855:
9814:
9781:
9756:
9665:
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8485:
8447:
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8308:
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8197:
8135:
8089:
7870:
7582:
7557:
7529:"Number of women leaders around the world has grown, but they're still a small group"
7365:
7320:
7238:
6862:
6789:
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6541:
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6525:
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Additionally, Sri Lanka saw the world's first elected woman national leader when the
5187:
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was the first appointed female head of state in Africa (1996–1997). Ten years later,
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13628:
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12026:
11553:
Women's organizations during and after war: from service delivery to policy advocacy
11145:
11028:"Quota Shocks: Electoral Gender Quotas and Government Spending Priorities Worldwide"
10932:
10848:
10023:
9627:
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9157:
8807:
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12852:
12785:
12777:
12713:
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12648:
12551:
12499:
12379:"More women, fewer officials on China's top legislature – Xinhua | English.news.cn"
12070:
12006:
11965:
11926:
11915:"The Power of Political Voice: Women's Political Representation and Crime in India"
11884:
11835:
11794:
11778:
11732:
11728:
11639:
11627:
11598:
11522:
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11358:
11348:
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11086:
11075:"Still Supermadres? Gender and the Policy Priorities of Latin American Legislators"
11039:
10992:
10980:
10920:
10880:
10836:
10714:
10653:
10515:
10510:
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10109:
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9080:
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8861:
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8732:
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8564:
8563:. Cambridge Studies in Gender and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8523:
8481:
8437:
8427:
8294:
8240:
8187:
7995:
7961:
7949:
7176:
7014:
6809:
6784:, a position that is representative of the monarch, in 2008 and served until 2014.
6609:
6589:
6565:
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6319:
6235:
5680:
5439:
5406:
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5298:
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5176:
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4734:
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4442:
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The first government organization formed with the goal of women's equality was the
3657:
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2553:
2467:
2451:
2435:
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1959:
1630:
1488:
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1383:
1363:
1333:
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1148:
1143:
1088:
1008:
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833:
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319:
290:
267:
130:
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11840:
11823:
11782:
11643:
10924:
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9358:
8299:
8282:
6471:
became the first state to have a state legislature composed of a female majority.
5918:
3777:
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
15056:
14785:"Feminism, Frogs and Fascism: The Transnational Activism of Brazil's Bertha Lutz"
13190:
12947:
12781:
12555:
11765:
Bruce, Raphael; Cavgias, Alexsandros; Meloni, Luis; Remígio, Mário (2022-01-01).
11716:
10822:
10385:
10015:
9619:
9209:"PQ woes prompt debate in Quebec about whether women get a fair deal in politics"
8368:
8129:
8083:
7402:
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6826:
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2013:
1358:
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993:
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216:
15080:
A Woman's Place is in the Cabinet:women ministers in Irish governments 1919–2019
14965:"List of Heads of State, Heads of Government, and Ministers for Foreign Affairs"
14074:
13054:"Electing Women to the Japanese Lower House: The Impact of the Electoral System"
13023:
12438:
Young China: How the Restless Generation Will Change Their Country and the World
11508:"Does the Election of a Female Leader Clear the Way for More Women in Politics?"
11190:
10884:
10573:
Gender diverse boards and firm performance : the effect of gender quota law
10436:
10300:
10277:
10254:
10231:
8029:
7216:
5958:
5943:
5294:
has received accolades for her handling of the COVID-19 situation in Sri Lanka.
4553:
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school attendance, while 52 countries assess sex-disaggregated wage statistics.
4051:
2773:
2710:
2214:
2172:
1888:
14338:
13888:
13401:
13309:
13258:"Gender Equality in Lebanon | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)"
12826:
Beaman, Lori; Duflo, Esther; Pande, Rohini; Topalova, Petia (3 February 2012).
12692:"Women as policy makers: evidence from a randomized policy experiment in India"
12410:
12153:
12074:
11994:
11717:"Exploring the Effect of Four Factors on Affirmative Action Programs for Women"
11586:
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6629:
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5210:, a role akin to a Prime Minister or a head of government. Incumbent president
5024:
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4982:
4650:
4620:
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4578:
4458:
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members among their official delegates), were middle-class educated women from
3696:
3591:
women should not be running for office because of these candidate stereotypes.
3452:
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2877:
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2681:
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14161:"Women in Congress | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives"
13816:
13620:
13053:
13011:
12652:
12525:
Howell, Jude (January 2008). "The representation of women in rural politics".
12010:
11995:"Gender Quotas and Women's Substantive Representation: Lessons from Argentina"
11603:
11467:
11353:
11336:
11238:"Social norms, laws, and economic institutions: rights and laws (land rights)"
11129:
11114:"Gender Quotas and Women's Substantive Representation: Lessons from Argentina"
10840:
10703:"Making Quotas Work: The Effect of Gender Quota Laws On the Election of Women"
9748:
9657:
9578:
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9084:
8865:
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6556:; Alabama Governor, former Alabama Lieutenant Governor, and Alabama Treasurer
6415:
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11274:
11272:
11203:
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10145:
Women, politics, and public policy: the political struggles of Canadian women
10121:
10086:
10042:
Women, politics, and public policy: the political struggles of Canadian women
9970:
Women, politics, and public policy: the political struggles of Canadian women
9954:
9945:
9928:
9905:
9897:
9859:
9471:
Women, politics, and public policy: the political struggles of Canadian women
9390:
Women, politics, and public policy: the political struggles of Canadian women
9366:
9188:
9173:"A Theory of Gender's Role on Presidential Approval Ratings in Corrupt Times"
9149:
9092:
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8900:
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6750:
introduced a 35% quota in 1994 and increased this to 40% in 2002 whereas the
6695:
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6581:
6573:
6569:
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6110:
6102:
6083:. She remains the longest-serving female head of state in world history. The
6000:
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5712:
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5501:
5217:
On 1 February 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was arrested by the military during the
5116:
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4922:
4898:
4754:
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4572:
4416:
4288:
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3035:
2988:
2969:
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2859:
2848:
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2603:
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2187:, President of the Philippines (1986–1992), was the first woman president in
2164:
is the longest (continuously) serving female head of government (2005–2021).
2157:
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404:
392:
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352:
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In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to vote is called
5708:, becoming the first woman to hold one of the 5 great offices of the state.
3814:
elected office with those to their families, something men are never asked.
14260:
14108:
13974:
12874:
12696:
12567:
12190:"Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%) | Data"
12161:
11913:
Iyer, Lakshmi; Mani, Anandi; Mishra, Prachi; Topalova, Petia (2012-10-01).
11808:
11666:
8642:
7396:"Em 25 anos, dobra número de mulheres no comando de países em todo o mundo"
6816:
6633:
6544:; former South Carolina Governor and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations
6517:
6513:
6475:
6369:
6342:
6315:
6255:
6226:
6197:
6080:
5988:
5676:
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5099:
4670:
4575:– World's first communist female president (chairman) during 1 week in 1919
4530:
4497:
4493:
4092:
3976:
3794:
3570:
3524:
3512:
2962:
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191:
12914:"Here's the Full List of Israeli Lawmakers – and Only a Quarter Are Women"
11269:
10571:
10291:
Jalalzai, Farida (2017). "Global Trends in Women's Executive Leadership".
10268:
Jalalzai, Farida (2017). "Global Trends in Women's Executive Leadership".
10245:
Jalalzai, Farida (2017). "Global Trends in Women's Executive Leadership".
10222:
Jalalzai, Farida (2017). "Global Trends in Women's Executive Leadership".
10147:(2nd ed.), Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, p. 102,
10113:
10044:(2nd ed.), Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, p. 101,
9851:
9302:
Party Institutionalization and Women's Representation in Democratic Brazil
8990:
Bashevkin, Sylvia (2009), "Vexatious Vixens", in Bashevkin, Sylvia (ed.),
8959:
Bashevkin, Sylvia (2009), "Vexatious Vixens", in Bashevkin, Sylvia (ed.),
8568:
8560:
Party Institutionalization and Women's Representation in Democratic Brazil
5627:
5539:
5528:
2227:
was appointed prime minister of the Central African Republic (1975–1976).
2221:
was the first elected Muslim female prime minister in Europe (1993–1996).
15185:
15061:
The motherless state: women's political leadership and American democracy
14320:
13754:. International Models Project on Women's Rights (IMPOWR). Archived from
13694:. International Models Project on Women's Rights (IMPOWR). Archived from
13261:
12157:
11527:
11410:
11363:
11315:(Report). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance.
10352:
The state of the world's children, 2004: Girls' education And development
9972:(2nd ed.), Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, p. 99,
9473:(2nd ed.), Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, p. 89,
9441:
Women, power, politics: the hidden story of Canada's unfinished democracy
9392:(2nd ed.), Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, p. 88,
9131:
8993:
Women, Power, Politics: The Hidden Story of Canada's Unfinished Democracy
8962:
Women, Power, Politics: The Hidden Story of Canada's Unfinished Democracy
8618:
6959:
6945:
6921:
6881:
6738:
became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives. In 1986,
6723:
6661:
6625:
6549:
6545:
6529:
6387:
6333:
6324:
6297:
6273:
6217:
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6061:
6025:
5701:
5577:
5562:
5554:
5430:
5397:
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4816:
4664:
4504:, which overthrew the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and re-established
4229:
4006:
3928:
3708:
3575:
2886:
2837:
2782:
2719:
2661:
2565:
2206:
1954:
1614:
650:
620:
397:
12790:
12718:
12660:
12227:"Ms. Roya Rahmani appointed Afghanistan ambassador to the United States"
12168:, Cambridge, UK New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 211–235,
11930:
10911:
Krook, Mona (2016). "Contesting gender quotas: dynamics of resistance".
10313:
9417:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, p. 61,
9172:
9140:
8799:
8767:
8442:
5909:
Prime Minister of Spain and the four deputy prime ministers, March 2021.
5119:, was appointed as the Minister of Health and Welfare in Japan in 1960.
3067:
3051:
15025:
13335:"Singapore to see record number of women enter Parliament after GE2020"
12938:
12727:
12527:
Women's Political Participation in China: In Whose Interests Elections?
11475:
10773:
8752:
8720:
6839:
6769:
6739:
6735:
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6378:
6264:
5324:, adopted in 1947, protected female candidates in elections during the
5073:
5054:
4876:
4840:
4808:
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4596:
4565:
4557:
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15728:
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14049:
13600:"Quota trouble: talking about gender quotas in Finnish local politics"
12795:
12583:"I went to jail for handing out feminist stickers in China | Li Maizi"
12503:
9524:"Does gender matter for political leadership? The case of U.S. mayors"
9438:
Bashevkin, Sylvia (2009), "Introduction", in Bashevkin, Sylvia (ed.),
9116:"All the Single Ladies: Job Promotions and the Durability of Marriage"
8667:
8244:
7847:"Ranked and mapped: which countries have the most women in parliament"
7652:"Survey: Sheikh Hasina tops as longest serving female leader in world"
7259:
7237:, Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 244, 245 ,
6842:
in 2013 after being selected as a Northern Territory Senate candidate.
6819:, New South Wales, becomes the first Aboriginal person elected to the
6730:
and became the first woman ever elected to any Australian Parliament.
6131:
5151:
4457:
While some researchers see reform, others see dominant party tactics.
4376:
2560:. After the division of Germany following World War II, she served as
12731:
11556:. Washington, DC: Center for Development Information and Evaluation,
10962:
10217:
10215:
8699:
A Paradox in Public Attitudes: Men or Women: Who's the Better Leader?
8512:"Follow the Money: Gender, Incumbency, and Campaign Funding in Chile"
8327:
7790:
7714:"Sandu Appoints Pro-Western Ally Gavrilita as Moldova's PM-Designate"
7283:
7099:
6706:
6065:
5623:
5611:
4959:
4844:
4728:
4667:– Chairman of Information and Analysis Center of Ministry of Defence.
4508:, women's rights to political participation have contracted sharply.
4348:
4309:
4184:
3935:
3520:
2996:
2520:
2395:
14854:"Deprivation of the Right to Vote – ACE Electoral Knowledge Network"
14694:"Nova Peris elected as first Indigenous woman in Federal Parliament"
13310:"Myanmar coup: Aung San Suu Kyi detained as military seizes control"
11873:"Leading the Fight Against the Pandemic: Does Gender Really Matter?"
11824:"Leading the Fight Against the Pandemic: Does Gender Really Matter?"
10960:
10958:
10956:
10954:
10952:
10950:
10948:
10946:
10944:
10942:
8736:
6765:
found 24.1% of, or 7 out of the 29 Australian ministers were women.
6540:; former Kansas Governor and Secretary of Health and Human Services
5050:
4097:
3790:
2243:(1993) acted as head of state for 2 days and 101 days respectively.
14391:
12306:
11043:
10078:
8034:
7999:
7765:
Atske, and, Sara; Geiger, A.W.; Scheller, Alissa (March 18, 2019).
7741:"Facts and figures: Women's leadership and political participation"
7458:
Janet Yellen becomes the first woman to serve as Treasury secretary
7000:
6838:
The first Aboriginal woman to be elected to Federal Parliament was
6762:
6557:
6288:
6170:
5995:
between 1991 and 1995, was appointed to this position by President
5368:
5214:
is seen as an important ally and placeholder for Aung San Suu Kyi.
5192:
4776:
4225:
3375:
3003:, which has had a female head of state since it became a republic.
3000:
2665:
2629:
2319:
2311:
from 1952 to 2022, is the longest-serving female head of state and
1811:
135:
13598:
Holli, Anne Maria; Luhtakallio, Eeva; Raevaara, Eeva (June 2006).
13579:"Denmark's gender equality policies: no quotas and a focus on men"
11283:. Bratislava: United Nations Development Programme. Archived from
10212:
4389:
4359:
3742:
2596:(Prime Minister) of Croatia when it was a constituent republic of
2028:
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
1542:
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
1487:
Map showing countries which since independence have had (counting
15192:
13748:"Participation in policy formation and implementation in Romania"
13688:"Participation in policy formation and implementation in Romania"
11251:. Washington DC: World Bank and Oxford University Press. p.
10939:
8380:. India: Macmillan for the United Nations Development Programme.
7048:
European countries by percentage of women in national parliaments
5124:
5084:
4820:
4481:
4352:
4140:, for example) or may be constitutionally required (as in Nepal).
4107:
3666:
2018 United States House of Representatives elections in New York
3215:
2447:
2256:
2180:
2161:
2021:
690:
645:
15344:
first heads of state and government in Muslim-majority countries
14160:
12209:"In President Ghani, Afghan Women Have A Champion Like No Other"
5260:
when she served as Minister of Health, first appointed in 1956.
4765:
Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences
2090:, the predecessor of Soviet Ukraine (it proclaimed its from the
14962:
14554:
14552:
14550:
14050:"Global and regional averages of women in national parliaments"
11767:"Under pressure: Women's leadership during the COVID-19 crisis"
9838:
Krook, Mona Lena (2017). "Violence Against Women in Politics".
8470:"Entering the Arena? Gender and the Decision to Run for Office"
8125:
8117:
8079:
8071:
6524:; Democratic vice presidential nominee and U.S. Representative
5951:
4807:
from two down to one. In addition, the recent reappointment of
4522:
4292:
4279:
4275:
4111:
3437:
2637:
2633:
2475:
2101:, to hold head of state positions were in socialist countries.
1893:
206:
14136:"The hardest part of being a woman in Congress? Getting there"
13718:"The evolution of woman representation in Romanian Parliament"
13128:
Japan chair platform: among equals? Women in Japanese politics
13080:
Women's political representation and electoral system in Japan
12992:
12975:"Strength of political groups in the House of Representatives"
12128:"The top ten innovative global solutions of the decade (blog)"
11667:"The Symbolic Effects of Female Heads of State and Government"
10499:"Transnationalism: the face of feminist politics post-Beijing"
7875:
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
7628:"Sheikh Hasina longest serving female leader in world: Survey"
6459:
in the United States since the late nineteenth century and as
4757:– Director of International Dialogue for Environmental Action.
2933:
Sri Lanka was the first nation to possess a female president,
2262:
Sri Lanka was the first nation to possess a female president,
1552:
List of elected or appointed female deputy heads of government
15165:
12761:
8640:
8509:
8213:
8211:
7093:
5655:
4848:
3913:
2459:
2259:
was Africa's first elected female head of state (2006–2018).
1995:
140:
78:
14733:"Local and regional government – Local authorities multiply"
14547:
14488:"A record number of women are serving in the 117th Congress"
12690:
Chattopadhyay, Raghabendra; Duflo, Esther (September 2004).
8505:
8503:
8134:, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, pp. 68–87,
8088:, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, pp. 50–67,
7815:
7813:
7811:
7405:. Revista Fórum. (Portuguese). Retrieved September 14, 2018.
7175:
Including female representatives of heads of state, such as
6768:
2007 was a notable year for women in Australian Parliament.
4949:
Female government employees in India (Border Security force)
4855:(2) Biased retirement precondition prejudicing against women
4711:– the chair of the State Students Admission Commission 2000.
2499:
1528:) have also had a female Head of State or Head of Government
1475:
women are pursuing leadership positions in the present day.
15176:"Raising Female Leaders" J-PAL Policy Briefcase, April 2012
14231:"All the countries that had a woman leader before the U.S."
13727:. Romania Autoritatea Electorala Permanenta . February 2013
12748:
The Impact of Women Policy Makers on Public Goods in India.
11993:
Franceschet, Susan; Piscopo, Jennifer M. (September 2008).
11587:"Women's Representation and the Gendered Pipeline to Power"
11112:
Franceschet, Susan; Piscopo, Jennifer M. (September 2008).
10981:"Critical Mass Theory and Women's Political Representation"
10617:"Electoral System and Quotas in Nepal | International IDEA"
7105:
6528:; Republican vice presidential nominee and Alaska Governor
4606:
4002:
3802:
3440:
has the highest percentage of women in Parliament (38.0%).
3044:
2965:(since 2021); thus the country has had no male presidents.
14000:"Record 98 women were elected in Canada's 43rd Parliament"
13444:
13442:
13163:"A Look at Women's Rights in the Mideast and North Africa"
13149:. Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet. April 19, 2013.
10100:
Elder, Laurel (21 September 2004). "Why Women Don't Run".
9993:
Gidengil, Elisabeth; O'Neill, Brenda; Young, Lisa (2010).
9048:"Electing A Mother As VP? Vote Mama Resoundingly Says Yes"
8418:
Nyrup, Jacob; Yamagishi, Hikaru; Bramwell, Stuart (2023).
8208:
7896:
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
7261:
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
6865:
became the first women elected to the Parliament in 1933.
6118:
Ireland. 40% of members of the London Assembly are women.
5665:
The first woman to be appointed as Secretary of State was
4417:
Effect of Women's representation on Public Goods Provision
3048:
represents a unicameral legislature with no upper house):
2506:
List of female constituent and dependent territory leaders
14704:
12943:"Japan falls to 127th global ranking of female lawmakers"
12632:
12630:
12628:
12626:
11764:
10198:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 20–21.
8500:
7921:
7808:
7357:
Gender equality: striving for justice in an unequal world
7342:
7340:
7338:
7336:
7310:
7308:
7235:
A history of the global economy: from 1500 to the present
7203:
Namibia, Sister; Windhoek (1989). "Women in government".
7053:
List of the first female members of parliament by country
4398:
3998:
3990:
1548:
List of elected or appointed female deputy heads of state
14904:. Oficina Nacional de Gobierno Electrónico e Informática
13954:
13935:
13597:
12825:
12045:
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/718579
9992:
9640:
8601:
8366:
7764:
7362:
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
6829:
occupied a Senate seat for little over a year from 2015.
6548:; former Wyoming Governor and director of the U.S. Mint
2672:
Worldwide status of women's representation in government
2614:
unseated the Marcoses and forced the family into exile.
1514: Female head of state and female head of government
15099:
Gender and American social science: the formative years
13839:"Gobierno de Pedro Sánchez: El Gobierno de las mujeres"
13439:
12599:
12411:"Reality Check: Are women welcome in Chinese politics?"
11386:
11384:
11382:
10791:"Global Database of Quotas for Women: Country overview"
10550:"EJIL: Talk! – The ECHR and Gender Quotas in Elections"
10317:
Building on what we know and defining sustained support
8954:
8952:
6888:(2017–2023). New Zealand has a gender pay gap of 9.5%.
6033:
5873:, women gained only 20.7% of seats in the Lower House (
4623:– the first Azerbaijani female head of parliament 1963.
4407:
4162:
Election: "reserved seats" may be filled only by women.
4010:
3994:
2113:
state that is today part of Russia, from 1940 to 1944.
1535:
12623:
12094:
12092:
11912:
11506:
Baskaran, Thushyanthan; Hessami, Zohal (August 2018).
9304:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 173–192, 2018,
8417:
7333:
7305:
6512:; U.S. Representative and former Speaker of the House
5083:
As of 2019, women comprise 25% of Israel's 120-member
4719:
State Committee for Family, Women and Children Affairs
2201:(1988–1990), was the first female prime minister of a
103:
Gender representation on corporate boards of directors
15101:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
12164:; Wood, Elisabeth J.; Kirshner, Alexander S. (eds.),
12055:
11952:
Anzia, Sarah F.; Berry, Christopher R. (2011-04-04).
11870:
11821:
11335:
Muriaas, Ragnhild; Mazur, Amy; Hoard, Season (2021).
11328:
11236:
Mason, Andrew D.; King, Elizabeth M. (January 2001).
9341:
Holman, Mirya R.; Schneider, Monica C. (2016-07-26).
8362:
8360:
8358:
8356:
8283:"The gender turn in diplomacy: A new research agenda"
7980:
Paxton, Pamela; Kunovich, Sheri L. (September 2005).
7670:"Sheikh Hasina world's longest serving female leader"
7446:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 145.
7232:
5336:
and local councils has steadily increased above 30%.
3707:, was the subject of a claim by Claude Pinard, a PQ "
14420:
11871:
Garikipati, Supriya; Kambhampati, Uma (2021-04-03).
11822:
Garikipati, Supriya; Kambhampati, Uma (2021-04-03).
11379:
11310:
Gender-targeted Public Funding for Political Parties
9266:"Pauline Marois's troubles aren't because of sexism"
8949:
7937:
5835:
of the Centre Party was appointed the second female
3870:
2512:
List of first women governors and/or chief ministers
2086:, one of a number of competing ruling bodies in the
2038:
List of the first women holders of political offices
15032:
14963:UN Protocol and Liaison Service (August 24, 2016).
14298:
13018:, Oxford University PressOxford, pp. 380–403,
12089:
11585:THOMSEN, DANIELLE M.; KING, AARON S. (2020-07-17).
11411:"Candidate gender quotas: a framework for analysis"
10906:
10904:
10902:
10868:
9833:
9831:
9829:
8463:
8461:
8268:
Women of the World: the Rise of the Female Diplomat
7791:"Women in Parliaments: World and Regional Averages"
6536:; former Michigan Governor and Secretary of Energy
6403:
Women in the United States House of Representatives
6040:In the United Kingdom, 34% of the lower house, the
6017:
Women in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
5860:, who became the country's first female President.
4377:
Effect of Women’s Leadership in the COVID-19 Crisis
4324:
4224:Reducing in-home discrimination through equalizing
2972:. She is the longest serving prime minister in the
2917:
A third of all countries have had a woman as leader
2909:
Share of countries by gender of the chief executive
15298:Speakers of national and territorial legislatures
15004:Gendering Diplomacy and International Negotiations
14025:"Monthly ranking of women in national parliaments"
12689:
12302:"The 2014 Afghan Presidential Election – NBC News"
12101:"Looking to Rwanda for lessons on gender equality"
11992:
11665:ALEXANDER, AMY C.; JALALZAI, FARIDA (2016-09-01),
11626:Bonneau, Chris W.; Kanthak, Kristin (2018-11-08).
11281:"Gender-responsive budgeting: manual for trainers"
11244:
11243:. In Mason, Andrew D.; King, Elizabeth M. (eds.).
11111:
9776:, Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, p.
9773:Women and politics in Canada: an introductory text
9522:Ferreira, Fernando; Gyourko, Joseph (April 2014).
8353:
7028:vary by type of government system and by country.
4540:In 1918, universal suffrage was introduced by the
2148:of India (1966–1977; she served again 1980–1984),
13131:. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
13010:Reed, Steven R.; Thies, Michael F. (2003-02-06),
11664:
11334:
11025:
9431:
9336:
9334:
8983:
8600:Erlich, Aaron; Beauvais, Edana (7 October 2022).
6532:; former New Hampshire Governor and U.S. Senator
6157:goal of 30% female representation in government.
4581:– the first Azerbaijani female cabinet minister (
3619:(FPTP) variety, the Australian preference ballot
2900:
2610:in the Philippines from 1975 until 1986 when the
16026:
13398:
13284:"Lebanon's clerics attack domestic violence law"
10899:
10167:
9826:
9763:
9732:
9562:
9170:
8458:
8321:
8122:"Reaping the double dividend of gender equality"
7264:. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service
4813:General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
3569:within households, and cultural attitudes about
3480:
2326:. The country has yet to have a male president.
2171:", as opposed to a queen or prime minister, was
2136:(head of government) of a sovereign country was
1508: Female head of state/government (combined)
326:Science, technology, engineering and mathematics
14377:
13515:"Nel prossimo parlamento ci saranno meno donne"
13250:
13012:"The Consequences of Electoral Reform in Japan"
11505:
11026:Clayton, Amanda; Zetterberg, Pär (2018-05-10).
10193:
9703:
9521:
9340:
7202:
5164:to law have been attacked by Lebanese clerics.
4390:Effect of Women’s representation on Crime rates
4360:Effects of women's representation in government
3808:
3743:Intersectionality and challenges faced by women
3565:Gender inequality within families, inequitable
14336:
14263:; Winfrey, Kelly L. (September–October 2009).
13093:
11625:
11393:The World's Women 2005: Progress in Statistics
11390:
11278:
11218:
11188:
11158:
11072:
10979:Sarah, Childs; Mona, Lena Krook (2008-10-01).
10700:
10064:
9704:Beaudoux García, Virginia (January 18, 2017).
9406:
9331:
8599:
8468:Fox, Richard L.; Lawless, Jennifer L. (2004).
7979:
6713:, including women, until the amendment of the
6498:campaigns for the highest office in the land.
5202:Although she was prohibited from becoming the
4641:Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan
3959:of educating girls may be addressed through a
3900:
3549:in politics also dissuade women from running.
2546:in January 1925, followed later that month by
2022:Historic firsts as head of state or government
15788:Congressional Caucus on Black Women and Girls
15757:Presidential and vice presidential candidates
15714:
15219:
14469:"Are voters biased against women candidates?"
14259:
13884:"Kadın milletvekillerinin temsil oranı arttı"
13212:"Over 30 NGOs demonstrate for women's rights"
13100:, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, pp.
11714:
10864:
10862:
10860:
10858:
10762:
10760:
10401:
10399:
10397:
10395:
10393:
9234:
9021:Jalaza, Farida (2016-04-15). "Introduction".
8886:
8280:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8057:
8055:
8053:
7821:"Percentage of women in national parliaments"
7577:Jalaza, Farida (2016-04-15). "Introduction".
7552:Jalaza, Farida (2016-04-15). "Introduction".
7315:Jalaza, Farida (2016-04-15). "Introduction".
6411:List of female governors in the United States
4268:
4143:Voluntary party quota systems may be used by
2454:in 1947, a position she held for four years.
1478:
1440:
14229:Wills, Amanda; Smith, Jacque; Hicks, Casey.
13975:"Women in Parliaments: World Classification"
13665:. Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos. p. 606.
13657:
13151:(Speeches and Statements by Prime Minister.)
12764:"Powerful women: does exposure reduce bias?"
11919:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics
10774:"Women in Parliaments: World classification"
10741:"Women in Parliaments: World Classification"
10314:United Nations Children's Fund; World Bank.
9886:Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism
9120:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics
8889:The American Review of Public Administration
8180:Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional
7319:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2, 5.
7228:
7226:
5444:Minister-President of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
3642:
3539:
1491:as heads of state, but excluding monarchs):
15319:Constituent and dependent territory leaders
15242:Lists of female holders of political office
15166:Centre for Advancement of Women in politics
14485:
14337:Anastasopoulos, Lefteris (September 2016).
14228:
13942:House of Commons Library: Research Briefing
13853:"An Afyon University paper by D. Ali Aslan"
13364:"The Constitution of the Republic of China"
11698:, Temple University Press, pp. 147–164
11584:
10492:
10490:
10142:
10039:
9967:
9496:"What Americans think about feminism today"
9468:
9387:
9202:
9200:
9198:
9113:
9070:
8718:
7975:
7973:
7971:
3853:Lack of preparation for political activity:
3769:
2205:. She served again 1993–96. The second was
1795:Barbados (Also Governor-General 2018–2021)
1465:elected to be heads of state and government
15721:
15707:
15226:
15212:
15096:
14993:International Feminist Journal of Politics
14819:International Feminist Journal of Politics
14782:
14639:Liberal National Party of Queensland (LNP)
14304:
13608:International Feminist Journal of Politics
13476:"List of Ministers and Ministers of State"
12529:– via Journal of Contemporary China.
11951:
11692:"Representation in and by the White House"
11515:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
11451:
11168:. New York: United Nations. Archived from
10872:International Feminist Journal of Politics
10855:
10757:
10586:
10460:
10458:
10456:
10454:
10390:
8467:
8287:International Feminist Journal of Politics
8050:
8022:
6780:became the first and only woman appointed
5827:was on her way to become the first female
5435:Minister-President of Rhineland-Palatinate
5273:July 1960 Ceylonese parliamentary election
5068:, relatively few women have served in the
4318:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
4054:. Please do not remove this message until
3914:Policies to increase women's participation
3499:the clients of local government services.
2937:(1994–2000), and a female prime minister (
2307:, head of state of the United Kingdom and
2266:(1994–2000), and a female prime minister (
1447:
1433:
15367:National politics/government/legislatures
15142:
14800:
14113:33 Yale Journal of Law & Feminism 110
13997:
13414:
13368:The Constitution of the Republic of China
13160:
13009:
12864:
12789:
12717:
12434:
11969:
11839:
11798:
11673:, Temple University Press, pp. 25–43
11602:
11565:
11526:
11362:
11352:
11235:
10978:
10532:"The ECHR and Gender Quotas in Elections"
10514:
10416:
10414:
10035:
10033:
9944:
9803:Encyclopedia of Social Media and Politics
9437:
9263:
9139:
8989:
8958:
8842:
8840:
8838:
8836:
8834:
8832:
8830:
8666:
8617:
8441:
8431:
8298:
8191:
8169:
8167:
7933:
7931:
7920:. South Asian Partnership. Archived from
7481:. Worldwide Guide to Women in Leadership.
7431:. Worldwide Guide to Women in Leadership.
7223:
7146:Learn how and when to remove this message
6560:; U.S. Representatives and U.S. Senators
6516:; U.S. Senator and President Pro Tempore
5991:. Aytaman, who served as the governor of
5332:". The female representation rate in the
5147:Women in Lebanon § Women in politics
4645:Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan
4631:Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan
4611:Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan
4074:Learn how and when to remove this message
3015:Countries by share of women in parliament
2500:First women governors and chief ministers
15324:First women holders of political offices
15077:
15063:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
15055:
13576:
12636:
12341:Women's Political Participation in China
11715:Sunhee, Kim; Seoyong, Kim (2014-01-01).
11447:
11445:
11443:
11441:
10487:
10293:Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership
10290:
10270:Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership
10267:
10247:Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership
10244:
10224:Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership
10221:
9883:
9207:Banerjee, Sidhartha (November 2, 2011).
9206:
9195:
8846:
8265:
7968:
6986:
6690:
6414:
6130:
6024:
5938:
5904:
5685:
5538:
5461:
5353:
5171:
5155:Lebanese women marching for their rights
5150:
5094:
5049:
4944:
4889:Women's political participation in India
4775:
4521:
4328:
4096:
4050:Relevant discussion may be found on the
3917:
3789:
3755:
3703:(PQ) and the official opposition of the
3606:
3597:
3072:
3066:
3058:
3050:
3018:
3010:
2912:
2904:
2616:
2598:Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
2492:is the first woman to serve as the U.S.
2132:The first democratically elected female
2057:
2041:
1482:
15783:Congressional Caucus for Women's Issues
15463:Lieutenant governors and administrators
15233:
14815:
14771:Commonwealth & Comparative Politics
14581:
14579:
14133:
13804:Journal of Women, Politics & Policy
13641:
13538:
13051:
12812:Perceptions of Female Leaders in India.
12539:
12049:
11549:
11402:
10815:
10646:European Journal of Politics and Gender
10576:(phdthesis thesis). Le Mans Université.
10451:
10407:The State of the World's Children 2004.
10348:
10003:Journal of Women, Politics & Policy
9769:
9025:. Oxford University Press. p. 17.
8173:
7893:
7844:
7711:
7556:. Oxford University Press. p. 32.
7257:
6744:Speaker of the House of Representatives
6728:Western Australian Legislative Assembly
5614:in June 2020, after the formation of a
5512:, was president between 1997 and 2011.
5346:and became the first female president.
3489:
3071:United Kingdom (Lower house, pie chart)
3006:
2426:of the Soviet Union from 1930 to 1937.
1919:Chairwoman of the Council of Ministers
14:
16027:
15248:Elected or appointed national leaders
15122:
14332:
14330:
14308:Quarterly Journal of Political Science
14255:
14253:
14251:
14249:
14140:Center for American Women and Politics
14102:
14100:
14098:
14096:
13998:Griffiths, Nathan (October 25, 2019).
13931:
13929:
13912:"Mesleklerine Göre İlk Türk Kadınları"
13563:
13561:
13124:
12997:International Women's Democracy Center
12981:. Japan: The House of Representatives.
12524:
12460:
12458:
12405:
12403:
12284:"Afghan women's vice-presidency hopes"
12152:
11419:European Journal of Political Research
10587:Bonder, Gloria; Nari, Marcela (1990).
10569:
10529:
10411:
10136:
10030:
9961:
9926:
9599:
9462:
9412:
9381:
9020:
8827:
8606:Political Science Research and Methods
8413:
8411:
8409:
8164:
8116:
8070:
7928:
7845:Chalaby, Odette (September 19, 2017).
7735:
7733:
7581:. Oxford University Press. p. 3.
7576:
7551:
7517:(in Ukrainian). Government of Ukraine.
7441:
7435:
7346:
7314:
7258:Chesser, Susan G. (January 31, 2019).
7169:
6754:currently has no gender-based quotas.
6428:, which gave women the right to vote.
5525:House of Commons of the United Kingdom
5000:assumed office on 25 July 2022 as the
4476:Women in the Parliament of Afghanistan
4399:Variation in federal domestic spending
3029:List of legislatures by female members
2984:government is Moldova, also in 2021).
2636:, serving as governor of the state of
2379:from December 1917 to March 1918. The
2167:The first woman to hold the title of "
2034:List of women's firsts § Politics
15730:Women in the United States government
15702:
15207:
15153:American Journal of Political Science
15036:European Journal of Political Economy
15009:
15002:Aggestam, Karin, and Ann Towns, eds.
14928:"Constitución Política del Perú 1993"
14730:
14510:
14134:Dittmar, Kelly (September 21, 2018).
14054:Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform
14029:Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform
13800:
12937:
12605:
12580:
12467:"Why China has so few female leaders"
12206:
11958:American Journal of Political Science
11550:McNulty, Stephanie (2 October 1998).
11438:
11408:
11307:
11079:American Journal of Political Science
10910:
10821:
10639:
10496:
10464:
10420:
10099:
9879:
9877:
9837:
9114:Folke, Olle; Rickne, Johanna (2020).
8931:American Journal of Political Science
8765:
8725:American Journal of Political Science
8556:
8474:American Journal of Political Science
8076:"Equality in politics and government"
7686:
7625:
6283:Female governors in the United States
5285:1994 Sri Lankan presidential election
4486:United States invasion of Afghanistan
4005:, donors, academics, and activists".
2129:from 1968 to 1972 and again in 1981.
18:Women in the United States government
15155:. 62(2). 369–381. 10.1111/ajps.12351
14933:. Government of Peru. Archived from
14783:Roth, Cassia; Dubois, Ellen (2020).
14576:
14106:
14017:
13957:"Women in Parliament and Government"
13663:Elections in Europe: a data handbook
12489:
12098:
11689:
10503:International Social Science Journal
10196:Women and Politics in a Global World
9645:British Journal of Political Science
9171:Reyes-Housholder, Catherine (2019).
8965:, Oxford University Press, pp.
8721:"Gender Stereotypes and Vote Choice"
8367:Basu, Amriyta; Jayal, Naraja Gopal;
8281:Aggestam, Karin; Towns, Ann (2019).
8230:
7954:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131651
7394:Targino, Rafael (February 7, 2015).
7117:, as they are easily broken. Please
7077:
6742:becomes the first female elected to
5480:President of the European Commission
5031:Indian panchayats (local government)
4605:– was first non-Russian diplomat of
4408:Legislation regarding women's rights
4024:
3689:
2329:
2295:President of the European Commission
1536:Current heads of state or government
599:Gender representation in video games
27:Participation of women in government
15874:Speakers and upper house presidents
15329:first governors and chief ministers
15130:European Journal of Women's Studies
14751:"Women and the vote: Brief history"
14421:Teele, Dawn Langan; Kalla, Joshua;
14327:
14246:
14093:
13938:"Women in Politics and Public Life"
13926:
13651:
13558:
13077:
13052:Kubo, Miyuki; Lee, Aie-Rie (2017).
12455:
12400:
12331:
10678:
9933:European Journal of Women's Studies
9493:
9444:, Oxford University Press, p.
9264:McPherson, Don (November 3, 2011).
8996:, Oxford University Press, p.
8406:
7894:Chesser, Susan G. (April 6, 2022).
7730:
7456:Chabeli Carrazana. Jan. 25, 2021. "
7160:
6982:
6077:head of state of the United Kingdom
5784:
5735:became the first woman to serve as
5508:. The second female head of state,
5496:Feminism in the Republic of Ireland
5004:. Sixteen women have served as the
4544:, thus making Azerbaijan the first
3724:older, less-well educated voters".
3631:believes that the best systems are
3023:Share of women in parliament (2022)
2621:United States Governors (Pie chart)
2556:was the first female member of the
2466:from 1959 to 1960. The position of
2408:Privy Council of the United Kingdom
2156:of the United Kingdom (1979–1990).
1459:In many countries, women have been
24:
15123:Zarkov, Dubravka (February 2017).
14985:
14737:Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
14611:"Voluntary Political Party Quotas"
14181:"U.S. Senate: Women in the Senate"
14075:"Women politicians 'making gains'"
13281:
12256:"Geneva Conference on Afghanistan"
12062:International Journal of Sociology
11219:United Nations (31 October 2000).
11073:Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A. (2006).
10701:Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A. (2009).
10530:Toplak, Jurij (19 December 2019).
9874:
9607:The Journal of Legislative Studies
9045:
8030:"Women politicians 'making gains'"
7417:
6107:First Minister of Northern Ireland
6044:, and 28% of the upper house, the
5721:Maria Elisabetta Alberti Casellati
5548:Leader of the Opposition (Ireland)
5453:Minister-President of the Saarland
5248:Women in the Sri Lankan Parliament
5023:Following the 2019 elections, the
4830:(1) Deprivation of upward mobility
2652:Chief Secretary for Administration
25:
16056:
15159:
14756:Ministry for Culture and Heritage
14486:Blazina, Carrie; DeSilver, Drew.
14427:American Political Science Review
14205:"Women in the U.S. Congress 2018"
14107:Katz, Elizabeth D. (2021-07-30).
13577:Preisler, Marie (March 8, 2013).
13260:. Genderindex.org. Archived from
12640:American Political Science Review
11591:American Political Science Review
11341:American Political Science Review
11189:United Nations (29 August 2006).
11159:United Nations (23 August 2005).
9805:, SAGE Publications, Inc., 2014,
9566:European Political Science Review
8424:American Political Science Review
7444:Citizenship in Britain: A History
7388:
7181:French Representatives of Andorra
6687:Women and government in Australia
6491:American Political Science Review
6407:Women in the United States Senate
6052:at that date included five women
6010:
4263:American Political Science Review
3938:, in Soviet Russia in the 1920s.
3871:Pathways to political involvement
2891:President of the Marshall Islands
2594:Chairman of the Executive Council
2348:List of female interior ministers
14956:
14920:
14894:
14868:
14846:
14809:
14776:
14763:
14743:
14724:
14686:
14651:
14627:
14603:
14587:"Electoral Milestones for Women"
14504:
14479:
14461:
14414:
14371:
14222:
14197:
14173:
14153:
14127:
14067:
14042:
13991:
13967:
13948:
13904:
13876:
13845:
13831:
13794:
13770:
13739:
13710:
13679:
13635:
13591:
13570:
13532:
13507:
13490:
13468:
13459:
13392:
13374:
13356:
13327:
13302:
13275:
13229:
13214:. The Daily Star. Archived from
13204:
13179:
13161:Mohnblatt, Debbie (2022-03-07).
13154:
13135:
13118:
13087:
13071:
13045:
13003:
12985:
12967:
12931:
12906:
12819:
12755:
12710:10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00539.x
12683:
12574:
12533:
12518:
12483:
12428:
12371:
12347:
12334:"The rise of affirmative action"
12325:
12294:
12276:
12262:
12248:
12219:
12200:
12182:
12146:
12120:
12033:
11986:
11971:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00512.x
11945:
11864:
11815:
11771:Journal of Development Economics
11721:Asian Journal of Women's Studies
11708:
11683:
11658:
11632:Politics, Groups, and Identities
11619:
11578:
11543:
11499:
11432:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2007.00704.x
11319:
11301:
11229:
11212:
11152:
11105:
11091:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00202.x
11066:
11019:
10997:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2007.00712.x
10972:
10913:Politics, Groups, and Identities
10733:
10694:
10672:
10658:10.1332/251510821X16746560835644
10633:
10609:
10580:
10563:
10542:
10523:
10405:United Nations Children's Fund,
10342:
10307:
10284:
9347:Politics, Groups, and Identities
8486:10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00069.x
7082:
6920:
6911:
6891:
6821:New South Wales State Parliament
6272:
6263:
6254:
6245:
6234:
6225:
6216:
6207:
6196:
6187:
6178:
6169:
6160:
6121:
6085:Succession to the Crown Act 2013
6050:government of the United Kingdom
5877:) and 14.7% in the Upper House (
5690:Giorgia Meloni, the first woman
5679:was appointed by Prime Minister
5504:was elected as the first female
5414:
5405:
5396:
5012:. Currently, one is in office —
4906:
4897:
4452:Rwanda Women Parliamentary Forum
4325:Grassroots empowerment movements
4029:
3733:
3506:Women's representation in local
2836:
2827:
2818:
2809:
2727:
2718:
2709:
2698:
2689:
2680:
2540:woman to be sworn in as governor
2352:List of female justice ministers
2344:List of female finance ministers
2340:List of female defence ministers
2336:List of female foreign ministers
2293:The first woman to be appointed
116:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
43:
16045:Female political office-holders
14731:Derby, Mark (1 February 2015).
14591:Australian Electoral Commission
14357:10.1016/j.electstud.2016.04.008
13661:; Stöver, Philip, eds. (2010).
13539:Giebels, Robert (18 May 2016).
12993:"Timeline of Women in Politics"
12464:
12134:. Worldfocus. December 30, 2009
11558:US Agency for International Aid
10261:
10238:
10187:
10161:
10093:
10058:
9986:
9927:Zarkov, Dubravka (2017-01-25).
9920:
9794:
9726:
9697:
9673:
9634:
9593:
9556:
9515:
9494:Cai, Weiyi (January 27, 2016).
9487:
9290:
9257:
9228:
9164:
9107:
9064:
9039:
9014:
8936:
8923:
8880:
8814:
8759:
8712:
8691:
8634:
8593:
8550:
8374:Essays on gender and governance
8344:
8315:
8274:
8259:
8224:
7906:
7887:
7863:
7838:
7783:
7758:
7712:Necșuțu, Mădălin (2021-07-30).
7705:
7680:
7662:
7644:
7626:Zaman, Mir Afroz (2019-09-09).
7619:
7595:
7570:
7545:
7521:
7503:
7485:
7467:
7450:
7408:
7284:"Women in National Parliaments"
7043:Critical mass (gender politics)
6941:Governor of Rio Grande do Norte
6903:Women in the Brazilian Congress
6435:From 1917, when Representative
6432:exist, mandatory or voluntary.
6079:from 1952 until 2022 was Queen
5818:parliamentary elections of 2003
5515:The first woman elected to the
5371:'s first female prime minister
5235:2020 Singapore general election
5221:after it declared the November
5066:founding of the State of Israel
4749:National Assembly of Azerbaijan
4739:National Assembly of Azerbaijan
4425:
4014:different parts of the world."
3975:Mark P. Jones, in reference to
3856:decide to enter public office.
2377:People's Secretariat of Ukraine
2084:People's Secretariat of Ukraine
1516:Three former sovereign states (
1496: Female head of government
15683:Muslim women political leaders
15673:Council of Women World Leaders
15125:"Women, feminism and politics"
15049:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2015.10.007
14635:"Liberal National Party Women"
13782:Council of Women World Leaders
13125:Nakano, Yūko (July 11, 2013).
13016:Mixed-Member Electoral Systems
12769:Quarterly Journal of Economics
11733:10.1080/12259276.2014.11666172
10516:10.1111/j.1468-2451.2005.553.x
10170:"40th Parliament, 3rd Session"
9929:"Women, feminism and politics"
8174:Salomón, Mónica (2020-03-09).
7900:Congressional Research Service
7276:
7251:
7196:
7058:Muslim women political leaders
7038:Council of Women World Leaders
7026:selecting government ministers
6846:
6151:2021 Canadian federal election
5769:
5737:Constitutional Court president
5706:Chambers of Deputies president
5476:Minister of Defence of Germany
5425:Minister-Presidents in Germany
5046:Women in governments of Israel
4542:Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
4469:
4202:
4101:Example of a TRS ballot papers
3530:
2901:Presidents and prime ministers
2582:government from 1963 to 1967.
2424:People's Commissar for Finance
2313:longest-reigning queen regnant
13:
1:
15483:Islamic Consultative Assembly
15252:heads of state and government
14560:"No. 3 – Women in the Senate"
13478:. Department of the Taoiseach
12435:Dychtwald, Zak (2018-02-13).
12332:Guo, Xiajuan (January 2008).
12207:Mohib, Lael (April 4, 2016).
11889:10.1080/13545701.2021.1874614
11841:10.1080/13545701.2021.1874614
11783:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2021.102761
11690:HULT, KAREN M. (2016-09-01),
11644:10.1080/21565503.2018.1528159
11409:Krook, Mona Lena (May 2007).
10925:10.1080/21565503.2016.1151797
10707:Legislative Studies Quarterly
10570:Akhtar, Nargis (2022-05-06).
10424:Comparative Political Studies
9542:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.01.006
9415:The concept of representation
9359:10.1080/21565503.2016.1208105
9251:10.1016/S0261-3794(01)00028-2
8647:Comparative Political Studies
8516:Comparative Political Studies
8300:10.1080/14616742.2018.1483206
7987:American Journal of Sociology
7464:. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
7189:
7131:), or an abbreviated title.
6648:; and Supreme Court Justices
5946:is the first and only female
5744:2022 Italian general election
5717:2018 Italian general election
5654:Since the institution of the
5223:2020 Myanmar general election
4936:chief minister of West Bengal
4583:People's Commissar of Justice
4511:
3581:
3481:State/province representation
2660:is the first female mayor of
2590:Socialist Republic of Croatia
2578:, serving as the head of the
2054:of the United Kingdom in 1979
13858:(in Turkish). Archived from
13189:. Lnf.org.lb. Archived from
12782:10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1497
12556:10.1080/13569775.2014.911502
12233:. 2019-04-22. Archived from
11198:. New York: United Nations.
10497:Desai, Manisha (June 2005).
10016:10.1080/1554477X.2010.533590
9681:"Women in Government – OECD"
9620:10.1080/13572334.2014.966643
9177:Political Research Quarterly
8822:Political Research Quarterly
8772:Political Research Quarterly
8008:10.1086/ajs.2005.111.issue-2
7687:Liive, Ronald (2021-01-24).
7511:"Yevgenia Bosch (1879–1925)"
6752:Liberal National Party (LNP)
6748:Australian Labor Party (ALP)
6680:
5875:Romanian Chamber of Deputies
5670:Angela Maria Guidi Cingolani
5241:
5228:
4484:were toppled in 2001 by the
4237:
3941:
3825:Sexual and physical violence
3809:Social and cultural barriers
3459:
2650:in 2017 and before that was
2648:Chief Executive of Hong Kong
2450:was the first woman to be a
2097:The first women, other than
567:Portrayal in American comics
158:Heads of state or government
7:
15334:first members of parliament
15082:. Drogheda: Sea Dog Books.
15006:(Palgrave MacMillan, 2018).
14902:"Portal del Estado Peruano"
14876:"Women's Suffrage Movement"
13024:10.1093/019925768x.003.0018
12492:Anthropology of Work Review
11225:. New York: United Nations.
10885:10.1080/1461674042000324673
10640:Yadav, Punam (2023-02-22).
10437:10.1177/0010414098031001001
10301:10.1057/978-1-137-48240-2_3
10278:10.1057/978-1-137-48240-2_3
10255:10.1057/978-1-137-48240-2_3
10232:10.1057/978-1-137-48240-2_3
9529:Journal of Public Economics
7063:Women in positions of power
7031:
6145:The number of women in the
6109:(2016–2017 and 2020–2021).
6021:Women in the House of Lords
5591:Between 1918 and 2021, 131
5574:2011 Irish general election
5466:Angela Merkel, first woman
5349:
5292:Pavithra Devi Wanniarachchi
5181:State Counsellor of Myanmar
4655:Minister of Social Security
4593:Minister of Social Security
4506:Taliban rule of Afghanistan
4056:conditions to do so are met
3907:political recruitment model
3901:Political recruitment model
3781:Beijing Platform for Action
3705:National Assembly of Quebec
3519:, but falls to just 20% in
3063:United States (Upper house)
3055:United States (lower house)
2769:Prime Minister of Lithuania
2526:Ukrainian People's Republic
2470:was first held by a woman,
2434:appointed the first female
2125:was acting co-chair of the
2119:Mongolian People's Republic
2088:Ukrainian People's Republic
2066:and South Korean president
2009:Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova
10:
16061:
16040:Women government officials
15922:Generals and flag officers
15822:State and local government
15268:Ministers and secretaries
15262:deputy heads of government
15170:Queens University, Belfast
15078:McNamara, Maedhbh (2020).
14712:"Māori women and the vote"
13498:Economic and Social Review
13239:. Irinnews.org. 2012-03-08
12075:10.2753/IJS0020-7659380406
11572:Document ref: PN-ACD-336.
10719:10.3162/036298009787500330
10589:"The 30 Percent Quota Law"
9811:10.4135/9781452244723.n260
9046:Carter, Christine Michel.
8719:Sanbonmatsu, Kira (2002).
8557:Wylie, Kristin N. (2018).
8371:; Tambiah, Yasmin (2003).
8193:10.1590/0034-7329202000101
7941:Annual Review of Sociology
6994:
6931:Female governors in Brazil
6900:
6850:
6720:Commonwealth Franchise Act
6684:
6675:
6465:New Hampshire State Senate
6400:
6099:First Minister of Scotland
6014:
5928:
5863:
5846:
5795:second cabinet Stoltenberg
5493:
5489:
5387:
5377:prime minister of Thailand
5375:, who was elected as 28th
5363:Prime Minister of Thailand
5314:
5245:
5167:
5144:
5140:
5043:
4886:
4819:and Vice Foreign Minister
4526:Azerbaijan's first female
4515:
4473:
4269:Research/data improvements
4090:
3860:Balancing work and family:
3560:
3495:municipalities are women.
3026:
2787:Prime Minister of Barbados
2509:
2503:
2333:
2152:of Israel (1969–1974) and
2127:People's Republic of China
2031:
2025:
1545:
1539:
1502: Female head of state
1479:Women in government office
16006:
15971:
15930:
15914:
15907:
15887:
15866:
15828:
15821:
15801:
15793:List of most senior women
15765:
15744:
15737:
15660:
15588:Heads of federal subjects
15366:
15241:
14832:10.1080/14616740802185700
14659:"Women in Politics: 2017"
14525:10.1007/s11109-009-9090-4
14439:10.1017/S0003055418000217
14284:10.1080/10510970903109904
13817:10.1080/15544771003697247
13685:Current legal framework:
13621:10.1080/14616740600612822
12653:10.1017/S0003055409090029
12011:10.1017/s1743923x08000342
11604:10.1017/s0003055420000404
11468:10.1017/S1537592709992787
11354:10.1017/S0003055421000976
11130:10.1017/S1743923X08000342
10841:10.1017/S1743923X06060107
10803:Inter-Parliamentary Union
10782:Inter-Parliamentary Union
10468:African and Asian Studies
9749:10.1017/S1743923X08000330
9670:(Published online first.)
9658:10.1017/S0007123416000053
9579:10.1017/S1755773911000087
9310:10.1017/9781108612722.007
9085:10.1007/s11109-017-9407-7
8866:10.1017/S0043887100009254
8528:10.1177/00104140211024300
8433:10.1017/S000305542300062X
7825:Inter-Parliamentary Union
7795:Inter-Parliamentary Union
7292:Inter-Parliamentary Union
6997:Women's suffrage movement
6896:
6463:since 1925. In 2008, the
6347:Governor of Massachusetts
6126:
5935:Women in Turkish politics
5924:
5895:prime minister of Romania
5837:prime minister of Finland
5829:Prime Minister of Finland
5814:Speaker of the Parliament
5791:second cabinet Brundtland
5382:
5310:
5279:Bandaranaike's daughter,
5039:
4973:. She is the daughter of
4763:– is the director of the
4677:politician, first female
4595:in 1952 and first female
4490:Government of Afghanistan
4435:
4430:
4129:Types of quotas include:
4086:
3961:conditional cash transfer
3643:Personal life and choices
3633:list-proportional systems
3540:Challenges faced by women
3446:plurality-majority system
2945:election as president of
2760:Prime Minister of Denmark
2494:Secretary of the Treasury
2375:and Acting Leader of the
2274:election as president of
2117:was acting leader of the
2082:and Acting Leader of the
1853:Member of the Presidency
15144:10.1177/1350506816681124
13961:House of Commons Library
13521:(in Italian). 2022-09-30
13425:10.1177/1354068806061338
13187:"Women's Rights Monitor"
12581:Maizi, Li (2017-03-08).
12166:Political representation
11455:Perspectives on Politics
10481:10.1163/156921008X359650
10067:Public Opinion Quarterly
9946:10.1177/1350506816681124
9898:10.1177/1464884915610991
9274:. Canada. Archived from
9189:10.1177/1065912919838626
8901:10.1177/0275074011420997
8784:10.1177/1065912913487949
8766:Dolan, Kathleen (2014).
8659:10.1177/0010414019858960
8266:McCarthy, Helen (2014).
8233:Diplomacy and Statecraft
8219:Irish Historical Studies
7871:"Gender Quotas Database"
7425:"First female ministers"
7073:
6642:Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez
6552:; former Texas Governor
6392:Governor of South Dakota
6089:Royal Marriages Act 1772
5900:
5810:National Coalition Party
5649:
5636:Leader of the Opposition
5219:2021 Myanmar coup d'état
5134:Liberal Democratic Party
5090:
5059:prime minister of Israel
4882:
4771:
4703:Heydar Aliyev Foundation
4535:Azerbaijan Liberal Party
3993:Forums accompanying the
3838:Political socialization:
3770:Effects on public policy
2778:Prime Minister of Latvia
2646:became the first female
2608:Governor of Metro Manila
2574:was India's first woman
2558:Weimar National Assembly
2099:female hereditary rulers
1679:Katerina Sakellaropoulou
15830:Constitutional officers
15688:Women Political Leaders
15191:by Sutherland Menzies (
15117:Foreign Policy Analysis
14878:. glbtq. Archived from
14802:10.1111/1468-0424.12461
14380:The Journal of Politics
12857:10.1126/science.1212382
11391:United Nations (2006).
11279:United Nations (2005).
11032:The Journal of Politics
10349:Bellamy, Carol (2003).
7745:UN Women – Headquarters
7475:"Woman Prime Ministers"
7360:, Geneva, Switzerland:
7350:(2006), "Overview", in
7121:by replacing them with
7113:Knowledge's style guide
7068:Women Political Leaders
6870:Second Wave of Feminism
6612:; U.S. Representatives
6115:First Minister of Wales
5858:Social Democratic Party
5764:Prime Minister of Italy
5746:and the victory of the
5692:prime minister of Italy
5593:women have been elected
5588:and Heather Humphries.
5344:2016 president election
5328:. Article 134 states: "
5269:Sri Lanka Freedom Party
5002:15th President of India
4971:prime minister of India
4927:Prime Minister of India
4917:Female leaders in India
4796:Chinese Communist Party
4717:– is chairwoman of the
4589:Zuleykha Seyidmammadova
4546:Muslim-majority country
4464:
3980:Legislative Recruitment
3797:at the Dutch Parliament
2796:Prime Minister of Samoa
2751:Prime Minister of Italy
2612:People Power Revolution
2530:Russian Soviet Republic
2203:Muslim-majority country
2107:Tuvan People's Republic
2092:Russian Soviet Republic
1927:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1861:Bosnia and Herzegovina
153:Conservatives in the US
126:Explorers and travelers
15848:Supreme court justices
15473:Deputy chief ministers
15307:unicameral parliaments
15181:Current female leaders
13642:Pikkala, Sari (2000).
12617:J-PAL Policy Briefcase
12612:Raising female leaders
12441:. St. Martin's Press.
11696:The Gendered Executive
11671:The Gendered Executive
11490:Modified version also
11308:Ohman, Magnus (2018).
10168:Parliament of Canada.
9714:. Melbourne, Australia
9600:Lloren, Anouk (2015).
8221:43.163 (2019): 94–110.
7479:guide2womenleaders.com
7442:Heater, Derek (2006).
7429:guide2womenleaders.com
6992:
6950:Governor of Pernambuco
6711:Aboriginal Australians
6702:
6646:Marjorie Taylor Greene
6442:Rebecca Latimer Felton
6420:
6365:Governor of New Mexico
6361:Michelle Lujan Grisham
6307:Sarah Huckabee Sanders
6142:
6101:from 2014 until 2023.
6037:
5983:Turkey's first female
5955:
5910:
5841:Helle Thorning-Schmidt
5748:centre-right coalition
5694:
5550:
5482:
5365:
5197:head of the government
5184:
5156:
5106:
5061:
4950:
4787:
4785:Chinese Vice-president
4747:– Diplomat, Member of
4681:between 1993 and 1994.
4537:
4502:2021 Taliban offensive
4334:
4102:
3923:
3831:Lack of media support:
3798:
3721:
3603:
3547:Violence against women
3472:In the United States,
3095:Upper House or Senate
3080:
3078:
3064:
3056:
3024:
3016:
2955:Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir
2918:
2910:
2622:
2284:Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir
2071:
2055:
1695:Victoire Tomegah Dogbé
1529:
456:In Shakespeare's works
15257:deputy heads of state
14940:on September 10, 2016
14773:52.2 (2014): 254–270.
14475:. September 11, 2019.
14272:Communication Studies
13584:Nordic Labour Journal
13500:18.3 (1987): 189–214
12543:Contemporary Politics
11999:Politics & Gender
11118:Politics & Gender
10828:Politics & Gender
10114:10.1300/J014v26n02_02
9852:10.1353/jod.2017.0007
8569:10.1017/9781108612722
8270:. London: Bloomsbury.
7676:. September 10, 2019.
6990:
6694:
6670:Ketanji Brown Jackson
6418:
6134:
6028:
5942:
5908:
5689:
5542:
5534:Máire Geoghegan-Quinn
5494:Further information:
5478:, later, first woman
5468:Chancellor of Germany
5465:
5357:
5281:Chandrika Kumaratunga
5265:Sirimavo Bandaranaike
5175:
5154:
5112:Japanese Constitution
5098:
5053:
4948:
4887:Further information:
4779:
4737:– is a Member of the
4659:Minister of Education
4550:Azerbaijan Parliament
4525:
4332:
4100:
3921:
3793:
3763:mirror representation
3756:Mirror representation
3717:
3607:Systematic challenges
3601:
3092:Lower or Single House
3076:
3070:
3062:
3054:
3022:
3014:
2974:history of Bangladesh
2939:Sirimavo Bandaranaike
2935:Chandrika Kumaratunga
2916:
2908:
2882:President of Honduras
2873:President of Tanzania
2628:was the first female
2620:
2504:Further information:
2478:, from 1960 to 1965.
2472:Sirimavo Bandaranaike
2462:was the first female
2400:Minister of Education
2371:held the position of
2334:Further information:
2268:Sirimavo Bandaranaike
2264:Chandrika Kumaratunga
2253:Ellen Johnson Sirleaf
2177:Vigdís Finnbogadóttir
2138:Sirimavo Bandaranaike
2103:Khertek Anchimaa-Toka
2078:held the position of
2061:
2045:
2026:Further information:
1991:Myriam Spiteli Debono
1540:Further information:
1486:
212:Nobel Prize laureates
15858:Secretaries of state
15843:Lieutenant governors
15650:Lieutenant governors
15013:Political Psychology
14789:Gender & History
14321:10.1561/100.00014087
13922:on January 19, 2020.
13916:KPSS Güncel Bilgiler
13745:Role of traditions:
12955:on November 23, 2022
12389:on February 24, 2018
11528:10.1257/pol.20170045
10807:Stockholm University
10355:. New York: UNICEF.
10102:Women & Politics
9840:Journal of Democracy
9132:10.1257/app.20180435
8619:10.1017/psrm.2022.46
8324:Gender and Diplomacy
7924:on December 9, 2007.
7658:. 11 September 2019.
7119:improve this article
6853:Women in New Zealand
6833:Malarndirri McCarthy
6598:Kay Bailey Hutchison
6562:Margaret Chase Smith
6489:A 2018 study in the
6426:Nineteenth Amendment
6374:Governor of New York
6356:Governor of Michigan
6311:Governor of Arkansas
5971:coalition government
5660:Italian Constitution
5521:Constance Markievicz
5506:President of Ireland
5472:Ursula von der Leyen
5225:results fraudulent.
4989:. She served as the
4985:is the first female
4969:is the first female
4761:Govhar Bakhshaliyeva
4316:A 2018 study in the
3623:(AV), or the French
3490:Local representation
3168:United Arab Emirates
3077:France (Lower House)
3007:National parliaments
2957:, prime minister of
2792:Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa
2586:Savka Dabčević-Kučar
2373:Minister of Interior
2299:Ursula von der Leyen
2286:, prime minister of
2197:, prime minister of
2115:Sükhbaataryn Yanjmaa
2080:Minister of Interior
2062:Brazilian president
1943:Trinidad and Tobago
1775:Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa
1647:Salome Zourabichvili
1579:Queen regent/mother
1369:United Arab Emirates
306:in the United States
121:Economic development
111:Diversity (politics)
97:Female entrepreneurs
15668:All-women shortlist
15351:Hereditary monarchs
15235:Women in government
14915:político-electoral.
14492:Pew Research Center
14423:Rosenbluth, Frances
14081:. February 28, 2006
13382:"從婦女保障名額談女性參與政治之進展"
12849:2012Sci...335..582B
12258:. 27 November 2018.
11931:10.1257/app.4.4.165
9801:"Huffington Post",
9736:Politics and Gender
9501:The Washington Post
8706:Pew Research Center
7771:Pew Research Center
7632:United New of India
7533:Pew Research Center
7091:Constructs such as
7013:, as distinct from
6726:was elected to the
6700:Premier of Victoria
6654:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
6650:Sandra Day O'Connor
6638:Ileana Ros-Lehtinen
6594:Carol Moseley Braun
6302:Governor of Arizona
6293:Governor of Alabama
6147:Canadian Parliament
5843:is prime minister.
5821:Anneli Jäätteenmäki
5373:Yingluck Shinawatra
5359:Yingluck Shinawatra
5183:(from 2016 to 2021)
4996:from 2007 to 2012.
4689:Minister of Justice
4518:Women in Azerbaijan
4138:Argentine quota law
4043:of this article is
3617:first-past-the-post
3508:deliberative bodies
2869:Samia Suluhu Hassan
2740:heads of government
2640:from 1979 to 1985.
2568:from 1948 to 1951.
2402:from 1924 to 1926.
2391:from 1919 to 1922.
2381:Countess Markievicz
2361:Alexandra Kollontai
2309:Commonwealth realms
1743:Samia Suluhu Hassan
1583:Ntfombi of Eswatini
1354:Trinidad and Tobago
589:Speculative fiction
482:Theological figures
427:Feminist philosophy
227:Reproductive rights
33:Part of a series on
15895:First women mayors
15738:Federal government
15119:(2017) 13: 521–540
15026:10.1111/pops.12186
14995:21.1 (2019): 9–28
14720:. August 23, 2012.
14717:Ministry for Women
14615:International IDEA
14513:Political Behavior
13758:on 21 January 2015
13698:on 21 January 2015
12941:(March 12, 2014).
12884:on 9 November 2016
12194:data.worldbank.org
12099:Friedman, Andrea.
11877:Feminist Economics
11828:Feminist Economics
10967:Franceschet, Susan
10799:International IDEA
10552:. 19 December 2019
10384:2017-03-04 at the
9278:on January 7, 2012
9214:The Canadian Press
9073:Political Behavior
8944:Political Behavior
8708:. August 25, 2008.
8038:. 28 February 2006
7499:. World Statesmen.
7497:worldstatesmen.org
7401:2015-10-19 at the
7005:Universal suffrage
6993:
6778:Dame Quentin Bryce
6703:
6554:Miriam A. Ferguson
6505:female candidate.
6469:Nevada Legislature
6421:
6383:Governor of Oregon
6329:Governor of Kansas
6143:
6140:Premier of Alberta
6038:
5956:
5911:
5725:Forza Italia party
5695:
5674:Christian Democrat
5667:Christian Democrat
5610:'s appointment as
5582:Frances Fitzgerald
5567:Frances Fitzgerald
5551:
5483:
5366:
5258:Vimala Wijewardene
5185:
5157:
5107:
5070:Israeli government
5062:
5057:, the first woman
4994:president of India
4987:president of India
4951:
4788:
4725:Elmira Süleymanova
4709:Maleyka Abbaszadeh
4701:2017, the head of
4679:Secretary of State
4538:
4528:Secretary of State
4335:
4274:example. Prior to
4103:
3924:
3799:
3604:
3081:
3079:
3065:
3057:
3025:
3017:
2993:head of government
2978:head of government
2919:
2911:
2738:Current executive
2623:
2548:Miriam A. Ferguson
2404:Margaret Bondfield
2385:Minister of Labour
2315:in world history.
2225:Elisabeth Domitien
2072:
2056:
1939:Christine Kangaloo
1882:27 September 2023
1688:28 September 2020
1530:
919:Dominican Republic
686:Mixed martial arts
656:Fastpitch softball
237:Violence and abuse
222:Positions of power
16035:Women in politics
16022:
16021:
16002:
16001:
15903:
15902:
15879:State legislators
15853:Attorneys-general
15817:
15816:
15696:
15695:
15554:Papua New Guinea
15503:Cabinet ministers
15089:978-1-913275-06-8
14344:Electoral Studies
14115:. Rochester, NY.
13778:"Viorica Dăncilă"
13454:978-1-913275-06-8
13282:Miller, David E.
13078:Iwanaga, Kazuki.
12843:(6068): 582–586.
12504:10.1111/awr.12002
12383:www.xinhuanet.com
10985:Political Studies
10679:Tiainen, Reetta.
9820:978-1-4522-4471-6
9238:Electoral Studies
8578:978-1-108-42979-5
8245:10.1080/714000319
7693:Invest in Estonia
7177:Governors-General
7156:
7155:
7148:
6863:Elizabeth McCombs
6790:Australian Greens
6666:Amy Coney Barrett
6542:Kathleen Sebelius
6538:Jennifer Granholm
6526:Geraldine Ferraro
6338:Governor of Maine
6058:Margaret Thatcher
6030:Margaret Thatcher
5917:On June 6, 2018,
5887:Ministry of Labor
5879:Senate of Romania
5806:Riitta Uosukainen
5756:Brothers of Italy
5752:Sergio Matterella
5699:Italian Communist
5632:Mary Lou McDonald
5544:Mary Lou McDonald
5188:Aung Sang Suu Kyi
5104:Governor of Tokyo
4979:her assassination
4845:Ning Xiang County
4792:1954 Constitution
4533:at the office of
4145:political parties
4084:
4083:
4076:
3818:Sex stereotyping:
3801:According to the
3690:Political parties
3567:division of labor
3474:Frances E. Willis
3419:
3418:
2864:President of Peru
2756:Mette Frederiksen
2658:Claudia Sheinbaum
2572:Sucheta Kripalani
2464:interior minister
2420:Varvara Yakovleva
2367:in October 1917.
2330:Cabinet ministers
2154:Margaret Thatcher
2111:little recognized
2052:Margaret Thatcher
2019:
2018:
1907:Nataša Pirc Musar
1900:23 December 2022
1857:Željka Cvijanović
1850:16 November 2022
1784:30 November 2021
1720:24 December 2020
1704:25 November 2020
1663:Mette Frederiksen
1640:16 December 2018
1599:Saara Kuugongelwa
1489:Governors-General
1457:
1456:
661:Football / soccer
584:Fictional pirates
376:Art history field
252:Exchange of women
16:(Redirected from
16052:
15912:
15911:
15826:
15825:
15745:Executive branch
15742:
15741:
15723:
15716:
15709:
15700:
15699:
15678:Gender power gap
15508:Junior ministers
15228:
15221:
15214:
15205:
15204:
15148:
15146:
15112:
15093:
15074:
15057:McDonagh, Eileen
15052:
15029:
14979:
14978:
14976:
14974:
14969:
14960:
14954:
14953:
14947:
14945:
14939:
14932:
14924:
14918:
14917:
14911:
14909:
14898:
14892:
14891:
14889:
14887:
14872:
14866:
14865:
14863:
14861:
14856:. Aceproject.org
14850:
14844:
14843:
14813:
14807:
14806:
14804:
14780:
14774:
14767:
14761:
14760:
14747:
14741:
14740:
14728:
14722:
14721:
14708:
14702:
14701:
14690:
14684:
14683:
14681:
14680:
14674:
14668:. Archived from
14663:
14655:
14649:
14648:
14646:
14645:
14631:
14625:
14624:
14622:
14621:
14607:
14601:
14600:
14598:
14597:
14583:
14574:
14573:
14571:
14570:
14556:
14545:
14544:
14508:
14502:
14501:
14499:
14498:
14483:
14477:
14476:
14465:
14459:
14458:
14418:
14412:
14411:
14386:(3): 1073–1078.
14375:
14369:
14368:
14334:
14325:
14324:
14302:
14296:
14295:
14269:
14261:Carlin, Diana B.
14257:
14244:
14243:
14241:
14240:
14226:
14220:
14219:
14217:
14216:
14201:
14195:
14194:
14192:
14191:
14177:
14171:
14170:
14168:
14167:
14157:
14151:
14150:
14148:
14146:
14131:
14125:
14124:
14104:
14091:
14090:
14088:
14086:
14071:
14065:
14064:
14062:
14060:
14046:
14040:
14039:
14037:
14035:
14021:
14015:
14014:
14012:
14010:
13995:
13989:
13988:
13986:
13985:
13971:
13965:
13964:
13952:
13946:
13945:
13933:
13924:
13923:
13918:. Archived from
13908:
13902:
13901:
13899:
13897:
13880:
13874:
13873:
13871:
13870:
13864:
13857:
13849:
13843:
13842:
13835:
13829:
13828:
13798:
13792:
13791:
13789:
13788:
13774:
13768:
13767:
13765:
13763:
13743:
13737:
13736:
13734:
13732:
13722:
13714:
13708:
13707:
13705:
13703:
13683:
13677:
13676:
13655:
13649:
13647:
13639:
13633:
13632:
13604:
13595:
13589:
13588:
13574:
13568:
13565:
13556:
13555:
13553:
13552:
13536:
13530:
13529:
13527:
13526:
13511:
13505:
13494:
13488:
13487:
13485:
13483:
13472:
13466:
13463:
13457:
13446:
13437:
13436:
13418:
13396:
13390:
13389:
13378:
13372:
13371:
13360:
13354:
13353:
13351:
13350:
13341:. Archived from
13331:
13325:
13324:
13322:
13321:
13306:
13300:
13299:
13297:
13295:
13290:on June 30, 2011
13286:. Archived from
13279:
13273:
13272:
13270:
13269:
13254:
13248:
13247:
13245:
13244:
13233:
13227:
13226:
13224:
13223:
13208:
13202:
13201:
13199:
13198:
13183:
13177:
13176:
13174:
13173:
13158:
13152:
13150:
13139:
13133:
13132:
13122:
13116:
13115:
13091:
13085:
13083:
13075:
13069:
13068:
13058:
13049:
13043:
13042:
13041:
13040:
13007:
13001:
13000:
12989:
12983:
12982:
12971:
12965:
12964:
12962:
12960:
12951:. Archived from
12935:
12929:
12928:
12926:
12925:
12910:
12904:
12893:
12891:
12889:
12883:
12877:. Archived from
12868:
12832:
12823:
12817:
12806:
12804:
12803:
12794:. Archived from
12793:
12776:(4): 1497–1540.
12759:
12753:
12742:
12740:
12739:
12730:. Archived from
12721:
12704:(5): 1409–1443.
12687:
12681:
12680:
12634:
12621:
12620:
12603:
12597:
12596:
12594:
12593:
12578:
12572:
12571:
12537:
12531:
12530:
12522:
12516:
12515:
12487:
12481:
12480:
12478:
12477:
12462:
12453:
12452:
12432:
12426:
12425:
12423:
12422:
12407:
12398:
12397:
12395:
12394:
12385:. Archived from
12375:
12369:
12368:
12366:
12365:
12359:www.china.org.cn
12351:
12345:
12344:
12338:
12329:
12323:
12322:
12320:
12319:
12310:. Archived from
12298:
12292:
12291:
12280:
12274:
12273:
12266:
12260:
12259:
12252:
12246:
12245:
12243:
12242:
12223:
12217:
12216:
12204:
12198:
12197:
12186:
12180:
12179:
12162:Stokes, Susan C.
12150:
12144:
12143:
12141:
12139:
12124:
12118:
12117:
12115:
12113:
12096:
12087:
12086:
12053:
12047:
12037:
12031:
12030:
11990:
11984:
11983:
11973:
11949:
11943:
11942:
11910:
11901:
11900:
11883:(1–2): 401–418.
11868:
11862:
11861:
11843:
11834:(1–2): 401–418.
11819:
11813:
11812:
11802:
11762:
11753:
11752:
11712:
11706:
11705:
11704:
11703:
11687:
11681:
11680:
11679:
11678:
11662:
11656:
11655:
11623:
11617:
11616:
11606:
11582:
11576:
11571:
11569:
11547:
11541:
11540:
11530:
11512:
11503:
11497:
11492:available online
11487:
11449:
11436:
11435:
11415:
11406:
11400:
11399:
11397:
11388:
11377:
11376:
11366:
11356:
11332:
11326:
11323:
11317:
11316:
11314:
11305:
11299:
11295:
11293:
11292:
11276:
11267:
11266:
11250:
11242:
11233:
11227:
11226:
11216:
11210:
11207:
11197:
11184:
11182:
11180:
11174:
11167:
11156:
11150:
11149:
11109:
11103:
11102:
11070:
11064:
11063:
11023:
11017:
11016:
10976:
10970:
10964:
10937:
10936:
10908:
10897:
10896:
10866:
10853:
10852:
10823:Krook, Mona Lena
10819:
10813:
10810:
10795:quotaproject.org
10785:
10764:
10755:
10754:
10752:
10751:
10737:
10731:
10730:
10698:
10692:
10691:
10689:
10687:
10676:
10670:
10669:
10637:
10631:
10630:
10628:
10627:
10613:
10607:
10606:
10604:
10602:
10593:
10584:
10578:
10577:
10567:
10561:
10560:
10558:
10557:
10546:
10540:
10539:
10527:
10521:
10520:
10518:
10509:(184): 319–330.
10494:
10485:
10484:
10462:
10449:
10448:
10418:
10409:
10403:
10388:
10377:
10375:
10374:
10365:. Archived from
10346:
10340:
10338:
10336:
10335:
10329:
10323:. Archived from
10322:
10311:
10305:
10304:
10288:
10282:
10281:
10265:
10259:
10258:
10242:
10236:
10235:
10219:
10210:
10209:
10191:
10185:
10184:
10182:
10180:
10174:October 18, 2010
10165:
10159:
10158:
10140:
10134:
10133:
10097:
10091:
10090:
10062:
10056:
10055:
10037:
10028:
10027:
9999:
9990:
9984:
9983:
9965:
9959:
9958:
9948:
9924:
9918:
9917:
9881:
9872:
9871:
9835:
9824:
9823:
9798:
9792:
9791:
9767:
9761:
9760:
9730:
9724:
9723:
9721:
9719:
9711:The Conversation
9701:
9695:
9694:
9692:
9691:
9677:
9671:
9669:
9638:
9632:
9631:
9597:
9591:
9590:
9560:
9554:
9553:
9519:
9513:
9512:
9510:
9508:
9491:
9485:
9484:
9466:
9460:
9459:
9435:
9429:
9428:
9410:
9404:
9403:
9385:
9379:
9378:
9338:
9329:
9328:
9327:
9326:
9294:
9288:
9287:
9285:
9283:
9271:Montreal Gazette
9261:
9255:
9254:
9232:
9226:
9225:
9223:
9221:
9204:
9193:
9192:
9168:
9162:
9161:
9143:
9111:
9105:
9104:
9068:
9062:
9061:
9059:
9058:
9043:
9037:
9036:
9018:
9012:
9011:
8987:
8981:
8980:
8956:
8947:
8946:42 (2): 359-384.
8940:
8934:
8933:59 (3): 595-612.
8927:
8921:
8920:
8884:
8878:
8877:
8848:Reynolds, Andrew
8844:
8825:
8824:73 (3): 540-555.
8818:
8812:
8811:
8763:
8757:
8756:
8716:
8710:
8709:
8703:
8695:
8689:
8688:
8670:
8653:(3–4): 601–630.
8638:
8632:
8631:
8621:
8597:
8591:
8590:
8554:
8548:
8547:
8507:
8498:
8497:
8465:
8456:
8455:
8445:
8435:
8415:
8404:
8403:
8401:
8400:
8394:
8388:. Archived from
8379:
8369:Nussbaum, Martha
8364:
8351:
8348:
8342:
8341:
8319:
8313:
8312:
8302:
8278:
8272:
8271:
8263:
8257:
8256:
8228:
8222:
8215:
8206:
8205:
8195:
8171:
8162:
8159:
8157:
8156:
8150:
8144:, archived from
8113:
8111:
8110:
8104:
8098:, archived from
8065:
8048:
8047:
8045:
8043:
8026:
8020:
8019:
7977:
7966:
7965:
7935:
7926:
7925:
7910:
7904:
7903:
7891:
7885:
7884:
7882:
7881:
7867:
7861:
7860:
7858:
7857:
7842:
7836:
7835:
7833:
7831:
7817:
7806:
7805:
7803:
7801:
7787:
7781:
7780:
7778:
7777:
7762:
7756:
7755:
7753:
7752:
7737:
7728:
7727:
7725:
7724:
7709:
7703:
7702:
7700:
7699:
7684:
7678:
7677:
7666:
7660:
7659:
7648:
7642:
7641:
7639:
7638:
7623:
7617:
7616:
7614:
7613:
7599:
7593:
7592:
7574:
7568:
7567:
7549:
7543:
7542:
7540:
7539:
7525:
7519:
7518:
7507:
7501:
7500:
7489:
7483:
7482:
7471:
7465:
7454:
7448:
7447:
7439:
7433:
7432:
7421:
7415:
7412:
7406:
7392:
7386:
7385:
7384:
7383:
7374:, archived from
7344:
7331:
7330:
7312:
7303:
7302:
7300:
7298:
7280:
7274:
7273:
7271:
7269:
7255:
7249:
7248:
7230:
7221:
7220:
7200:
7183:
7173:
7167:
7164:
7151:
7144:
7140:
7137:
7123:named references
7086:
7085:
7078:
7015:passive suffrage
6983:Women's suffrage
6924:
6915:
6884:(1999–2008) and
6810:Marion Scrymgour
6782:governor-general
6610:Elizabeth Warren
6590:Dianne Feinstein
6584:; U.S. Senators
6566:Barbara Mikulski
6457:served as mayors
6437:Jeannette Rankin
6352:Gretchen Whitmer
6320:Governor of Iowa
6276:
6267:
6258:
6249:
6238:
6229:
6220:
6211:
6200:
6191:
6182:
6173:
6105:served twice as
6068:(2022). In 1992
6064:(2016–2019) and
6042:House of Commons
5785:Nordic countries
5729:Senate president
5681:Giulio Andreotti
5656:Italian Republic
5565:(2014–2016) and
5440:Manuela Schwesig
5418:
5409:
5400:
5334:Legislative Yuan
5322:The constitution
5299:Niluka Ekanayake
5254:Adeline Molamure
5208:State Counsellor
5177:Aung San Suu Kyi
4975:Jawaharlal Nehru
4910:
4901:
4781:Soong Ching-ling
4735:Ganira Pashayeva
4715:Hijran Huseynova
4695:Mehriban Aliyeva
4443:Rwandan genocide
4079:
4072:
4068:
4065:
4059:
4033:
4032:
4025:
3957:opportunity cost
3699:, leader of the
3658:Sylvia Bashevkin
3625:two-round system
3621:alternative vote
3083:
3082:
2840:
2831:
2822:
2813:
2765:Ingrida Šimonytė
2731:
2722:
2713:
2702:
2693:
2684:
2626:Griselda Álvarez
2554:Louise Schroeder
2468:defence minister
2452:foreign minister
2436:justice minister
2416:finance minister
2123:Soong Ching-ling
1960:Marshall Islands
1916:25 January 2023
1866:7 December 2022
1834:22 October 2022
1800:27 January 2022
1711:Ingrida Šimonytė
1631:Sahle-Work Zewde
1624:25 October 2018
1559:
1558:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1461:underrepresented
1449:
1442:
1435:
1119:Marshall Islands
696:Paralympic Games
327:
104:
69:
47:
38:Women in society
30:
29:
21:
16060:
16059:
16055:
16054:
16053:
16051:
16050:
16049:
16025:
16024:
16023:
16018:
16014:First gentlemen
15998:
15967:
15926:
15899:
15883:
15862:
15813:
15797:
15761:
15752:Cabinet members
15733:
15727:
15697:
15692:
15656:
15616:United Kingdom
15468:Chief ministers
15421:First ministers
15362:
15237:
15232:
15187:Political Women
15162:
15109:
15090:
15071:
14988:
14986:Further reading
14983:
14982:
14972:
14970:
14967:
14961:
14957:
14943:
14941:
14937:
14930:
14926:
14925:
14921:
14907:
14905:
14900:
14899:
14895:
14885:
14883:
14882:on 14 June 2015
14874:
14873:
14869:
14859:
14857:
14852:
14851:
14847:
14814:
14810:
14781:
14777:
14768:
14764:
14749:
14748:
14744:
14729:
14725:
14710:
14709:
14705:
14692:
14691:
14687:
14678:
14676:
14672:
14661:
14657:
14656:
14652:
14643:
14641:
14633:
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14628:
14619:
14617:
14609:
14608:
14604:
14595:
14593:
14585:
14584:
14577:
14568:
14566:
14558:
14557:
14548:
14509:
14505:
14496:
14494:
14484:
14480:
14467:
14466:
14462:
14419:
14415:
14376:
14372:
14335:
14328:
14303:
14299:
14267:
14258:
14247:
14238:
14236:
14227:
14223:
14214:
14212:
14203:
14202:
14198:
14189:
14187:
14179:
14178:
14174:
14165:
14163:
14159:
14158:
14154:
14144:
14142:
14132:
14128:
14105:
14094:
14084:
14082:
14073:
14072:
14068:
14058:
14056:
14048:
14047:
14043:
14033:
14031:
14023:
14022:
14018:
14008:
14006:
13996:
13992:
13983:
13981:
13979:archive.ipu.org
13973:
13972:
13968:
13953:
13949:
13934:
13927:
13910:
13909:
13905:
13895:
13893:
13892:. June 28, 2018
13882:
13881:
13877:
13868:
13866:
13862:
13855:
13851:
13850:
13846:
13837:
13836:
13832:
13799:
13795:
13786:
13784:
13776:
13775:
13771:
13761:
13759:
13746:
13744:
13740:
13730:
13728:
13720:
13716:
13715:
13711:
13701:
13699:
13686:
13684:
13680:
13673:
13656:
13652:
13640:
13636:
13602:
13596:
13592:
13575:
13571:
13566:
13559:
13550:
13548:
13537:
13533:
13524:
13522:
13513:
13512:
13508:
13495:
13491:
13481:
13479:
13474:
13473:
13469:
13464:
13460:
13447:
13440:
13416:10.1.1.564.1797
13397:
13393:
13380:
13379:
13375:
13362:
13361:
13357:
13348:
13346:
13333:
13332:
13328:
13319:
13317:
13308:
13307:
13303:
13293:
13291:
13280:
13276:
13267:
13265:
13256:
13255:
13251:
13242:
13240:
13235:
13234:
13230:
13221:
13219:
13210:
13209:
13205:
13196:
13194:
13185:
13184:
13180:
13171:
13169:
13159:
13155:
13141:
13140:
13136:
13123:
13119:
13112:
13092:
13088:
13076:
13072:
13056:
13050:
13046:
13038:
13036:
13034:
13008:
13004:
12991:
12990:
12986:
12973:
12972:
12968:
12958:
12956:
12948:The Japan Times
12936:
12932:
12923:
12921:
12912:
12911:
12907:
12887:
12885:
12881:
12830:
12824:
12820:
12801:
12799:
12760:
12756:
12737:
12735:
12688:
12684:
12635:
12624:
12604:
12600:
12591:
12589:
12579:
12575:
12538:
12534:
12523:
12519:
12488:
12484:
12475:
12473:
12463:
12456:
12449:
12433:
12429:
12420:
12418:
12409:
12408:
12401:
12392:
12390:
12377:
12376:
12372:
12363:
12361:
12353:
12352:
12348:
12336:
12330:
12326:
12317:
12315:
12300:
12299:
12295:
12282:
12281:
12277:
12272:. 19 July 2018.
12268:
12267:
12263:
12254:
12253:
12249:
12240:
12238:
12225:
12224:
12220:
12205:
12201:
12188:
12187:
12183:
12176:
12154:Hassim, Shireen
12151:
12147:
12137:
12135:
12126:
12125:
12121:
12111:
12109:
12097:
12090:
12054:
12050:
12043:54(2):298–333.
12038:
12034:
11991:
11987:
11950:
11946:
11911:
11904:
11869:
11865:
11820:
11816:
11763:
11756:
11713:
11709:
11701:
11699:
11688:
11684:
11676:
11674:
11663:
11659:
11624:
11620:
11597:(4): 989–1000.
11583:
11579:
11567:10.1.1.511.2415
11548:
11544:
11510:
11504:
11500:
11450:
11439:
11413:
11407:
11403:
11395:
11389:
11380:
11333:
11329:
11324:
11320:
11312:
11306:
11302:
11290:
11288:
11277:
11270:
11263:
11240:
11234:
11230:
11217:
11213:
11195:
11178:
11176:
11175:on 4 March 2017
11172:
11165:
11157:
11153:
11110:
11106:
11071:
11067:
11024:
11020:
10977:
10973:
10965:
10940:
10909:
10900:
10867:
10856:
10820:
10816:
10789:
10772:
10765:
10758:
10749:
10747:
10745:archive.ipu.org
10739:
10738:
10734:
10699:
10695:
10685:
10683:
10677:
10673:
10638:
10634:
10625:
10623:
10615:
10614:
10610:
10600:
10598:
10591:
10585:
10581:
10568:
10564:
10555:
10553:
10548:
10547:
10543:
10528:
10524:
10495:
10488:
10463:
10452:
10419:
10412:
10404:
10391:
10386:Wayback Machine
10372:
10370:
10363:
10347:
10343:
10333:
10331:
10327:
10320:
10312:
10308:
10289:
10285:
10266:
10262:
10243:
10239:
10220:
10213:
10206:
10192:
10188:
10178:
10176:
10166:
10162:
10155:
10141:
10137:
10098:
10094:
10063:
10059:
10052:
10038:
10031:
9997:
9991:
9987:
9980:
9966:
9962:
9925:
9921:
9882:
9875:
9836:
9827:
9821:
9800:
9799:
9795:
9788:
9768:
9764:
9731:
9727:
9717:
9715:
9702:
9698:
9689:
9687:
9679:
9678:
9674:
9639:
9635:
9598:
9594:
9561:
9557:
9520:
9516:
9506:
9504:
9492:
9488:
9481:
9467:
9463:
9456:
9436:
9432:
9425:
9411:
9407:
9400:
9386:
9382:
9339:
9332:
9324:
9322:
9320:
9296:
9295:
9291:
9281:
9279:
9262:
9258:
9233:
9229:
9219:
9217:
9205:
9196:
9169:
9165:
9112:
9108:
9069:
9065:
9056:
9054:
9044:
9040:
9033:
9019:
9015:
9008:
8988:
8984:
8977:
8957:
8950:
8941:
8937:
8928:
8924:
8885:
8881:
8845:
8828:
8819:
8815:
8764:
8760:
8737:10.2307/3088412
8717:
8713:
8701:
8697:
8696:
8692:
8639:
8635:
8598:
8594:
8579:
8555:
8551:
8508:
8501:
8466:
8459:
8416:
8407:
8398:
8396:
8392:
8377:
8365:
8354:
8349:
8345:
8338:
8320:
8316:
8279:
8275:
8264:
8260:
8229:
8225:
8216:
8209:
8172:
8165:
8154:
8152:
8148:
8142:
8108:
8106:
8102:
8096:
8066:
8051:
8041:
8039:
8028:
8027:
8023:
7978:
7969:
7936:
7929:
7912:
7911:
7907:
7892:
7888:
7879:
7877:
7869:
7868:
7864:
7855:
7853:
7843:
7839:
7829:
7827:
7819:
7818:
7809:
7799:
7797:
7789:
7788:
7784:
7775:
7773:
7763:
7759:
7750:
7748:
7739:
7738:
7731:
7722:
7720:
7710:
7706:
7697:
7695:
7685:
7681:
7668:
7667:
7663:
7650:
7649:
7645:
7636:
7634:
7624:
7620:
7611:
7609:
7601:
7600:
7596:
7589:
7575:
7571:
7564:
7550:
7546:
7537:
7535:
7527:
7526:
7522:
7509:
7508:
7504:
7491:
7490:
7486:
7473:
7472:
7468:
7455:
7451:
7440:
7436:
7423:
7422:
7418:
7413:
7409:
7403:Wayback Machine
7393:
7389:
7381:
7379:
7372:
7364:, p. xxi,
7345:
7334:
7327:
7313:
7306:
7296:
7294:
7282:
7281:
7277:
7267:
7265:
7256:
7252:
7245:
7231:
7224:
7201:
7197:
7192:
7187:
7186:
7174:
7170:
7165:
7161:
7152:
7141:
7135:
7132:
7111:discouraged by
7087:
7083:
7076:
7034:
7011:active suffrage
7007:
6995:Main articles:
6985:
6957:
6956:
6955:
6954:
6927:
6926:
6925:
6917:
6916:
6905:
6899:
6894:
6859:Elizabeth Yates
6855:
6849:
6827:Joanna Lindgren
6786:Christine Milne
6759:45th Parliament
6736:Dame Enid Lyons
6732:Dorothy Tangney
6689:
6683:
6678:
6658:Sonia Sotomayor
6622:Shirley Chisolm
6586:Nancy Kassebaum
6578:Debbie Stabenow
6522:Hillary Clinton
6461:state governors
6413:
6399:
6398:
6397:
6396:
6279:
6278:
6277:
6269:
6268:
6260:
6259:
6251:
6250:
6241:
6240:
6239:
6231:
6230:
6222:
6221:
6213:
6212:
6203:
6202:
6201:
6193:
6192:
6184:
6183:
6175:
6174:
6163:
6129:
6124:
6095:Nicola Sturgeon
6070:Betty Boothroyd
6023:
6015:Main articles:
6013:
5963:True Path Party
5937:
5931:Women in Turkey
5929:Main articles:
5927:
5903:
5891:Viorica Dăncilă
5866:
5849:
5804:was president,
5799:Social democrat
5787:
5772:
5652:
5527:. In line with
5498:
5492:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5421:
5420:
5419:
5411:
5410:
5402:
5401:
5390:
5385:
5361:, first female
5352:
5326:Mainland Period
5319:
5317:Women in Taiwan
5313:
5304:Rosy Senanayake
5250:
5244:
5231:
5170:
5149:
5143:
5093:
5076:—has served as
5048:
5042:
5014:Mamata Banerjee
4943:
4942:
4941:
4940:
4932:Mamata Banerjee
4925:, first female
4913:
4912:
4911:
4903:
4902:
4891:
4885:
4774:
4745:Havva Mammadova
4685:Sudaba Hasanova
4637:Elmira Gafarova
4627:Tahira Tahirova
4599:military pilot.
4520:
4514:
4478:
4472:
4467:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4419:
4410:
4401:
4392:
4379:
4362:
4327:
4305:Mona Lena Krook
4271:
4240:
4205:
4116:Andrew Reynolds
4095:
4089:
4080:
4069:
4063:
4060:
4049:
4034:
4030:
4019:Andrew Reynolds
3968:sexual violence
3944:
3916:
3903:
3873:
3811:
3772:
3758:
3745:
3736:
3701:Parti Québécois
3692:
3645:
3613:Andrew Reynolds
3609:
3584:
3563:
3542:
3533:
3525:Northern Africa
3492:
3483:
3462:
3031:
3009:
2943:Mary McAleese's
2903:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2833:
2832:
2824:
2823:
2815:
2814:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2724:
2723:
2715:
2714:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2695:
2694:
2686:
2685:
2674:
2562:governing mayor
2514:
2508:
2502:
2428:Frances Perkins
2354:
2332:
2272:Mary McAleese's
2209:(1991–1996) of
2040:
2030:
2024:
2014:North Macedonia
1969:Prime minister
1948:3 January 2024
1885:Prime Minister
1837:Prime Minister
1771:Prime Minister
1707:Prime Minister
1691:Prime Minister
1659:Prime Minister
1611:Prime Minister
1565:Title of office
1562:Date term began
1554:
1544:
1538:
1515:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1481:
1453:
1424:
1423:
759:
749:
748:
741:
729:Track and field
616:
606:
605:
557:
556:Popular culture
549:
548:
477:
476:
461:
460:
415:Science fiction
361:
360:
342:
341:
325:
276:
275:
257:
256:
232:Venture capital
197:Law enforcement
102:
87:Animal advocacy
83:
63:
60:Women's history
55:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
16058:
16048:
16047:
16042:
16037:
16020:
16019:
16017:
16016:
16010:
16008:
16004:
16003:
16000:
15999:
15997:
15996:
15991:
15986:
15981:
15975:
15973:
15969:
15968:
15966:
15965:
15960:
15955:
15950:
15945:
15940:
15934:
15932:
15928:
15927:
15925:
15924:
15918:
15916:
15909:
15905:
15904:
15901:
15900:
15898:
15897:
15891:
15889:
15885:
15884:
15882:
15881:
15876:
15870:
15868:
15864:
15863:
15861:
15860:
15855:
15850:
15845:
15840:
15834:
15832:
15823:
15819:
15818:
15815:
15814:
15812:
15811:
15805:
15803:
15799:
15798:
15796:
15795:
15790:
15785:
15780:
15775:
15769:
15767:
15763:
15762:
15760:
15759:
15754:
15748:
15746:
15739:
15735:
15734:
15726:
15725:
15718:
15711:
15703:
15694:
15693:
15691:
15690:
15685:
15680:
15675:
15670:
15664:
15662:
15658:
15657:
15655:
15654:
15653:
15652:
15647:
15642:
15637:
15631:United States
15629:
15628:
15627:
15622:
15614:
15613:
15612:
15602:
15601:
15600:
15592:
15591:
15590:
15582:
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15580:
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15570:
15562:
15561:
15560:
15552:
15551:
15550:
15542:
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15532:
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15525:
15517:
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15510:
15505:
15500:
15495:
15487:
15486:
15485:
15477:
15476:
15475:
15470:
15465:
15460:
15450:
15449:
15448:
15440:
15439:
15438:
15433:
15425:
15424:
15423:
15418:
15413:
15403:
15402:
15401:
15396:
15391:
15381:
15380:
15379:
15370:
15368:
15364:
15363:
15361:
15360:
15359:
15358:
15356:queens regnant
15348:
15347:
15346:
15341:
15336:
15331:
15321:
15316:
15315:
15314:
15309:
15304:
15296:
15295:
15294:
15289:
15284:
15279:
15274:
15266:
15265:
15264:
15259:
15254:
15245:
15243:
15239:
15238:
15231:
15230:
15223:
15216:
15208:
15202:
15201:
15196:
15183:
15178:
15173:
15161:
15160:External links
15158:
15157:
15156:
15149:
15120:
15113:
15107:
15094:
15088:
15075:
15069:
15053:
15030:
15020:(6): 691–708.
15007:
15000:
14987:
14984:
14981:
14980:
14955:
14919:
14893:
14867:
14845:
14826:(3): 369–386.
14808:
14775:
14762:
14742:
14723:
14703:
14685:
14650:
14626:
14602:
14575:
14564:www.aph.gov.au
14546:
14503:
14478:
14460:
14433:(3): 525–541.
14413:
14392:10.1086/691799
14370:
14326:
14315:(2): 123–153.
14297:
14278:(4): 326–343.
14245:
14221:
14196:
14185:www.senate.gov
14172:
14152:
14126:
14092:
14066:
14041:
14016:
13990:
13966:
13947:
13925:
13903:
13889:Anadolu Agency
13875:
13844:
13841:. 6 June 2018.
13830:
13811:(2): 166–190.
13793:
13769:
13738:
13709:
13678:
13671:
13659:Nohlen, Dieter
13650:
13634:
13615:(2): 169–193.
13590:
13569:
13557:
13531:
13506:
13489:
13467:
13458:
13438:
13409:(2): 211–232.
13402:Party Politics
13391:
13373:
13355:
13326:
13301:
13274:
13249:
13228:
13203:
13178:
13167:The Media Line
13153:
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12754:
12752:
12751:
12682:
12622:
12609:(April 2012).
12598:
12573:
12550:(3): 294–314.
12532:
12517:
12482:
12454:
12447:
12427:
12399:
12370:
12346:
12324:
12293:
12275:
12261:
12247:
12218:
12213:Foreign Policy
12199:
12181:
12174:
12145:
12132:worldfocus.org
12119:
12088:
12069:(4): 111–125.
12057:Abbott, Pamela
12048:
12032:
11985:
11964:(3): 478–493.
11944:
11925:(4): 165–193.
11902:
11863:
11814:
11754:
11707:
11682:
11657:
11638:(3): 576–594.
11618:
11577:
11542:
11498:
11496:
11495:
11462:(1): 207–216.
11437:
11426:(3): 367–394.
11401:
11378:
11347:(2): 502–515.
11327:
11318:
11300:
11268:
11261:
11228:
11211:
11209:
11208:
11151:
11124:(3): 393–425.
11104:
11085:(3): 570–585.
11065:
11044:10.1086/697251
11038:(3): 916–932.
11018:
10991:(3): 725–736.
10971:
10938:
10919:(2): 268–283.
10898:
10854:
10835:(3): 303–327.
10814:
10812:
10811:
10786:
10756:
10732:
10693:
10671:
10632:
10608:
10596:United Nations
10579:
10562:
10541:
10522:
10486:
10475:(4): 537–563.
10450:
10410:
10389:
10361:
10341:
10306:
10283:
10260:
10237:
10211:
10205:978-0199899661
10204:
10186:
10160:
10153:
10135:
10092:
10079:10.1086/269251
10073:(2): 180–199.
10057:
10050:
10029:
9985:
9978:
9960:
9919:
9892:(4): 446–463.
9873:
9825:
9819:
9793:
9786:
9762:
9725:
9696:
9672:
9652:(3): 611–636.
9633:
9614:(2): 144–167.
9592:
9555:
9514:
9486:
9479:
9461:
9454:
9430:
9423:
9405:
9398:
9380:
9353:(2): 264–280.
9330:
9318:
9289:
9256:
9227:
9194:
9163:
9126:(1): 260–287.
9106:
9079:(2): 435–466.
9063:
9038:
9031:
9013:
9006:
8982:
8975:
8948:
8935:
8922:
8879:
8860:(4): 547–572.
8853:World Politics
8826:
8813:
8758:
8711:
8690:
8633:
8612:(4): 804–822.
8592:
8577:
8549:
8522:(2): 222–253.
8499:
8480:(2): 264–280.
8457:
8405:
8352:
8343:
8336:
8314:
8273:
8258:
8223:
8207:
8163:
8161:
8160:
8140:
8114:
8094:
8067:Two chapters:
8049:
8021:
8000:10.1086/444445
7994:(2): 505–552.
7967:
7948:(1): 263–284.
7927:
7905:
7886:
7862:
7837:
7807:
7782:
7757:
7729:
7718:Balkan Insight
7704:
7679:
7661:
7643:
7618:
7594:
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7484:
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7072:
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7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7033:
7030:
7024:The rules for
6984:
6981:
6979:and security.
6976:
6975:
6972:
6953:
6952:
6943:
6937:Fátima Bezerra
6929:
6928:
6919:
6918:
6910:
6909:
6908:
6907:
6906:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6886:Jacinda Ardern
6851:Main article:
6848:
6845:
6844:
6843:
6836:
6830:
6824:
6814:
6807:
6685:Main article:
6682:
6679:
6677:
6674:
6630:Barbara Jordan
6606:Lisa Murkowski
6534:Jeanne Shaheen
6395:
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6385:
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6340:
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6186:
6185:
6177:
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6168:
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6166:
6165:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6155:United Nations
6136:Danielle Smith
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6113:has served as
6046:House of Lords
6012:
6011:United Kingdom
6009:
5978:the parliament
5967:prime minister
5948:Prime Minister
5926:
5923:
5902:
5899:
5871:2016 elections
5865:
5862:
5848:
5845:
5833:Mari Kiviniemi
5816:and after the
5786:
5783:
5771:
5768:
5760:Giorgia Meloni
5733:Marta Cartabia
5727:, was elected
5704:, was elected
5651:
5648:
5644:Thomas Johnson
5608:Micheál Martin
5586:Jan O'Sullivan
5572:Following the
5491:
5488:
5474:, first woman
5456:
5455:
5449:Anke Rehlinger
5446:
5437:
5423:
5422:
5413:
5412:
5404:
5403:
5395:
5394:
5393:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5351:
5348:
5315:Main article:
5312:
5309:
5246:Main article:
5243:
5240:
5230:
5227:
5169:
5166:
5145:Main article:
5142:
5139:
5092:
5089:
5078:prime minister
5044:Main article:
5041:
5038:
5025:17th Lok Sabha
5006:chief minister
4998:Droupadi Murmu
4983:Pratibha Patil
4939:
4938:
4929:
4915:
4914:
4905:
4904:
4896:
4895:
4894:
4893:
4892:
4884:
4881:
4872:Feminist Five'
4849:Hunan Province
4836:PRC government
4773:
4770:
4769:
4768:
4758:
4752:
4742:
4732:
4722:
4712:
4706:
4699:Vice President
4692:
4682:
4668:
4662:
4651:Lydia Rasulova
4648:
4634:
4624:
4621:Sakina Aliyeva
4618:
4615:United Nations
4600:
4586:
4579:Ayna Sultanova
4576:
4513:
4510:
4474:Main article:
4471:
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4459:Shireen Hassim
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4255:
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4234:
4222:
4204:
4201:
4176:Drude Dahlerup
4164:
4163:
4160:
4157:
4150:
4149:
4141:
4134:
4124:state feminism
4091:Main article:
4088:
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3697:Pauline Marois
3691:
3688:
3644:
3641:
3608:
3605:
3583:
3580:
3562:
3559:
3541:
3538:
3532:
3529:
3491:
3488:
3482:
3479:
3465:and security.
3461:
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3453:United Nations
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3213:
3209:
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3149:
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3141:
3138:
3133:
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3113:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3008:
3005:
2902:
2899:
2894:
2893:
2884:
2878:Xiomara Castro
2875:
2866:
2849:heads of state
2845:
2844:
2835:
2834:
2826:
2825:
2817:
2816:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2798:
2789:
2780:
2771:
2762:
2753:
2747:Giorgia Meloni
2736:
2735:
2726:
2725:
2717:
2716:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2697:
2696:
2688:
2687:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2576:Chief Minister
2538:was the first
2528:, part of the
2517:Yevgenia Bosch
2501:
2498:
2440:Ayna Sultanova
2412:Dolgor Puntsag
2389:Irish Republic
2369:Yevgenia Bosch
2331:
2328:
2229:Carmen Pereira
2195:Benazir Bhutto
2189:Southeast Asia
2185:Corazon Aquino
2134:prime minister
2121:1953–1954 and
2076:Yevgenia Bosch
2064:Dilma Rousseff
2023:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2003:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1973:Judith Suminwa
1970:
1967:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1933:
1932:20 March 2023
1929:
1928:
1925:
1923:Borjana Krišto
1920:
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1913:
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1909:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1891:
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1878:
1875:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1841:Giorgia Meloni
1838:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1827:
1825:Droupadi Murmu
1822:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1807:Xiomara Castro
1804:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1777:
1772:
1769:
1765:
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1761:
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1753:
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1737:
1736:19 March 2021
1733:
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1672:13 March 2020
1669:
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1628:
1625:
1621:
1620:
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1612:
1609:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1596:
1595:Prime Minister
1593:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1577:
1576:25 March 1983
1573:
1572:
1569:
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1563:
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1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1374:United Kingdom
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
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1286:
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1111:
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1031:
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911:
906:
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851:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
760:
755:
754:
751:
750:
746:List of sports
743:
742:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
698:
693:
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683:
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541:
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452:
451:
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436:
431:
430:
429:
419:
418:
417:
407:
402:
401:
400:
398:"Chick flicks"
390:
385:
384:
383:
381:Women's cinema
373:
368:
362:
359:
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349:
348:
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194:
189:
184:
179:
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133:
128:
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118:
113:
108:
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99:
89:
82:
81:
75:
74:
71:
70:
56:
53:
52:
49:
48:
40:
39:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
16057:
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15189:(Vol. 1 of 2)
15188:
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15108:9780691048208
15104:
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15070:9780226514550
15066:
15062:
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15023:
15019:
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14998:
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14734:
14727:
14719:
14718:
14713:
14707:
14699:
14695:
14689:
14675:on 2018-10-30
14671:
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14145:September 26,
14141:
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14097:
14080:
14076:
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14020:
14005:
14004:Vancouver Sun
14001:
13994:
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13958:
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13943:
13939:
13932:
13930:
13921:
13917:
13913:
13907:
13891:
13890:
13885:
13879:
13865:on 2016-03-04
13861:
13854:
13848:
13840:
13834:
13826:
13822:
13818:
13814:
13810:
13806:
13805:
13797:
13783:
13779:
13773:
13757:
13753:
13749:
13742:
13726:
13719:
13713:
13697:
13693:
13689:
13682:
13674:
13672:9783832956097
13668:
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13660:
13654:
13645:
13638:
13630:
13626:
13622:
13618:
13614:
13610:
13609:
13601:
13594:
13586:
13585:
13580:
13573:
13564:
13562:
13546:
13545:De Volkskrant
13542:
13535:
13520:
13516:
13510:
13503:
13499:
13493:
13477:
13471:
13462:
13455:
13451:
13445:
13443:
13434:
13430:
13426:
13422:
13417:
13412:
13408:
13404:
13403:
13395:
13387:
13383:
13377:
13369:
13365:
13359:
13345:on 2021-10-26
13344:
13340:
13336:
13330:
13315:
13311:
13305:
13289:
13285:
13278:
13264:on 2015-11-15
13263:
13259:
13253:
13238:
13232:
13218:on 2019-01-24
13217:
13213:
13207:
13193:on 2017-03-29
13192:
13188:
13182:
13168:
13164:
13157:
13148:
13147:.kantei.go.jp
13144:
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13130:
13129:
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13113:
13111:9780801476822
13107:
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13035:
13033:0-19-925768-X
13029:
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13006:
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12994:
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12980:
12979:shugiin.go.jp
12976:
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12880:
12876:
12872:
12867:
12862:
12858:
12854:
12850:
12846:
12842:
12838:
12837:
12829:
12822:
12814:
12813:
12808:
12807:
12798:on 2022-09-01
12797:
12792:
12787:
12783:
12779:
12775:
12771:
12770:
12765:
12758:
12750:
12749:
12744:
12743:
12734:on 2022-08-22
12733:
12729:
12725:
12720:
12715:
12711:
12707:
12703:
12699:
12698:
12693:
12686:
12678:
12674:
12670:
12666:
12662:
12658:
12654:
12650:
12646:
12642:
12641:
12633:
12631:
12629:
12627:
12618:
12614:
12613:
12608:
12602:
12588:
12584:
12577:
12569:
12565:
12561:
12557:
12553:
12549:
12545:
12544:
12536:
12528:
12521:
12513:
12509:
12505:
12501:
12497:
12493:
12486:
12472:
12468:
12465:Sun, Yazhou.
12461:
12459:
12450:
12448:9781466891333
12444:
12440:
12439:
12431:
12416:
12412:
12406:
12404:
12388:
12384:
12380:
12374:
12360:
12356:
12350:
12342:
12335:
12328:
12314:on 2019-03-29
12313:
12309:
12308:
12303:
12297:
12289:
12285:
12279:
12271:
12265:
12257:
12251:
12237:on 2019-04-22
12236:
12232:
12228:
12222:
12214:
12210:
12203:
12195:
12191:
12185:
12177:
12175:9780521128650
12171:
12167:
12163:
12159:
12155:
12149:
12138:September 23,
12133:
12129:
12123:
12112:September 23,
12108:
12107:
12106:The WorldPost
12102:
12095:
12093:
12084:
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12064:
12063:
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12052:
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12042:
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12024:
12020:
12016:
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12008:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11989:
11981:
11977:
11972:
11967:
11963:
11959:
11955:
11948:
11940:
11936:
11932:
11928:
11924:
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11916:
11909:
11907:
11898:
11894:
11890:
11886:
11882:
11878:
11874:
11867:
11859:
11855:
11851:
11847:
11842:
11837:
11833:
11829:
11825:
11818:
11810:
11806:
11801:
11796:
11792:
11788:
11784:
11780:
11776:
11772:
11768:
11761:
11759:
11750:
11746:
11742:
11738:
11734:
11730:
11726:
11722:
11718:
11711:
11697:
11693:
11686:
11672:
11668:
11661:
11653:
11649:
11645:
11641:
11637:
11633:
11629:
11622:
11614:
11610:
11605:
11600:
11596:
11592:
11588:
11581:
11575:
11568:
11563:
11560:. p. 3.
11559:
11555:
11554:
11546:
11538:
11534:
11529:
11524:
11521:(3): 95–121.
11520:
11516:
11509:
11502:
11493:
11489:
11488:
11485:
11481:
11477:
11473:
11469:
11465:
11461:
11457:
11456:
11448:
11446:
11444:
11442:
11433:
11429:
11425:
11421:
11420:
11412:
11405:
11394:
11387:
11385:
11383:
11374:
11370:
11365:
11364:11250/2989822
11360:
11355:
11350:
11346:
11342:
11338:
11331:
11322:
11311:
11304:
11298:
11287:on 2017-03-04
11286:
11282:
11275:
11273:
11264:
11262:9780195215960
11258:
11254:
11249:
11248:
11239:
11232:
11224:
11223:
11215:
11205:
11201:
11194:
11193:
11186:
11185:
11171:
11164:
11163:
11155:
11147:
11143:
11139:
11135:
11131:
11127:
11123:
11119:
11115:
11108:
11100:
11096:
11092:
11088:
11084:
11080:
11076:
11069:
11061:
11057:
11053:
11049:
11045:
11041:
11037:
11033:
11029:
11022:
11014:
11010:
11006:
11002:
10998:
10994:
10990:
10986:
10982:
10975:
10968:
10963:
10961:
10959:
10957:
10955:
10953:
10951:
10949:
10947:
10945:
10943:
10934:
10930:
10926:
10922:
10918:
10914:
10907:
10905:
10903:
10894:
10890:
10886:
10882:
10878:
10874:
10873:
10865:
10863:
10861:
10859:
10850:
10846:
10842:
10838:
10834:
10830:
10829:
10824:
10818:
10808:
10804:
10800:
10796:
10792:
10787:
10783:
10779:
10775:
10771:
10770:
10768:
10763:
10761:
10746:
10742:
10736:
10728:
10724:
10720:
10716:
10712:
10708:
10704:
10697:
10682:
10675:
10667:
10663:
10659:
10655:
10652:(aop): 1–19.
10651:
10647:
10643:
10636:
10622:
10618:
10612:
10597:
10590:
10583:
10575:
10574:
10566:
10551:
10545:
10537:
10533:
10526:
10517:
10512:
10508:
10504:
10500:
10493:
10491:
10482:
10478:
10474:
10470:
10469:
10461:
10459:
10457:
10455:
10446:
10442:
10438:
10434:
10430:
10426:
10425:
10417:
10415:
10408:
10402:
10400:
10398:
10396:
10394:
10387:
10383:
10380:
10369:on 2018-06-20
10368:
10364:
10362:9780756740214
10358:
10354:
10353:
10345:
10330:on 2017-06-01
10326:
10319:
10318:
10310:
10302:
10298:
10294:
10287:
10279:
10275:
10271:
10264:
10256:
10252:
10248:
10241:
10233:
10229:
10225:
10218:
10216:
10207:
10201:
10197:
10190:
10175:
10171:
10164:
10156:
10154:9780195432497
10150:
10146:
10139:
10131:
10127:
10123:
10119:
10115:
10111:
10107:
10103:
10096:
10088:
10084:
10080:
10076:
10072:
10068:
10061:
10053:
10051:9780195432497
10047:
10043:
10036:
10034:
10025:
10021:
10017:
10013:
10009:
10005:
10004:
9996:
9989:
9981:
9979:9780195432497
9975:
9971:
9964:
9956:
9952:
9947:
9942:
9938:
9934:
9930:
9923:
9915:
9911:
9907:
9903:
9899:
9895:
9891:
9887:
9880:
9878:
9869:
9865:
9861:
9857:
9853:
9849:
9845:
9841:
9834:
9832:
9830:
9822:
9816:
9812:
9808:
9804:
9797:
9789:
9787:9781551110363
9783:
9779:
9775:
9774:
9766:
9758:
9754:
9750:
9746:
9742:
9738:
9737:
9729:
9713:
9712:
9707:
9700:
9686:
9682:
9676:
9667:
9663:
9659:
9655:
9651:
9647:
9646:
9637:
9629:
9625:
9621:
9617:
9613:
9609:
9608:
9603:
9596:
9588:
9584:
9580:
9576:
9573:(1): 97–120.
9572:
9568:
9567:
9559:
9551:
9547:
9543:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9530:
9525:
9518:
9503:
9502:
9497:
9490:
9482:
9480:9780195432497
9476:
9472:
9465:
9457:
9455:9780195431704
9451:
9447:
9443:
9442:
9434:
9426:
9424:9780520021563
9420:
9416:
9409:
9401:
9399:9780195432497
9395:
9391:
9384:
9376:
9372:
9368:
9364:
9360:
9356:
9352:
9348:
9344:
9337:
9335:
9321:
9319:9781108612722
9315:
9311:
9307:
9303:
9299:
9293:
9277:
9273:
9272:
9267:
9260:
9252:
9248:
9245:(1): 81–100.
9244:
9240:
9239:
9231:
9216:
9215:
9210:
9203:
9201:
9199:
9190:
9186:
9182:
9178:
9174:
9167:
9159:
9155:
9151:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9133:
9129:
9125:
9121:
9117:
9110:
9102:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9082:
9078:
9074:
9067:
9053:
9049:
9042:
9034:
9032:9780190602093
9028:
9024:
9017:
9009:
9007:9780195431704
9003:
8999:
8995:
8994:
8986:
8978:
8976:9780195431704
8972:
8968:
8964:
8963:
8955:
8953:
8945:
8939:
8932:
8926:
8918:
8914:
8910:
8906:
8902:
8898:
8894:
8890:
8883:
8875:
8871:
8867:
8863:
8859:
8855:
8854:
8849:
8843:
8841:
8839:
8837:
8835:
8833:
8831:
8823:
8817:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8778:(1): 96–107.
8777:
8773:
8769:
8762:
8754:
8750:
8746:
8742:
8738:
8734:
8730:
8726:
8722:
8715:
8707:
8700:
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8475:
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8464:
8462:
8453:
8449:
8444:
8439:
8434:
8429:
8425:
8421:
8414:
8412:
8410:
8395:on 2022-05-24
8391:
8387:
8383:
8376:
8375:
8370:
8363:
8361:
8359:
8357:
8347:
8339:
8337:9780367138264
8333:
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8325:
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8220:
8214:
8212:
8203:
8199:
8194:
8189:
8185:
8181:
8177:
8170:
8168:
8151:on 2019-10-12
8147:
8143:
8141:9789280639988
8137:
8133:
8132:
8127:
8123:
8119:
8115:
8105:on 2019-10-12
8101:
8097:
8095:9789280639988
8091:
8087:
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7708:
7694:
7690:
7683:
7675:
7671:
7665:
7657:
7656:Dhaka Tribune
7653:
7647:
7633:
7629:
7622:
7608:
7604:
7598:
7590:
7588:9780190602093
7584:
7580:
7573:
7565:
7563:9780190602093
7559:
7555:
7548:
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7530:
7524:
7516:
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7506:
7498:
7494:
7488:
7480:
7476:
7470:
7463:
7462:The 19th News
7459:
7453:
7445:
7438:
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7426:
7420:
7411:
7404:
7400:
7397:
7391:
7378:on 2021-02-27
7377:
7373:
7371:9789290850731
7367:
7363:
7359:
7358:
7353:
7349:
7343:
7341:
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7328:
7326:9780190602093
7322:
7318:
7311:
7309:
7293:
7289:
7285:
7279:
7263:
7262:
7254:
7246:
7244:9781107507180
7240:
7236:
7229:
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7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7199:
7195:
7182:
7178:
7172:
7163:
7159:
7150:
7147:
7139:
7130:
7129:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7115:for footnotes
7114:
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7102:
7101:
7096:
7095:
7089:
7080:
7079:
7069:
7066:
7064:
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7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7035:
7029:
7027:
7022:
7020:
7019:full suffrage
7016:
7012:
7006:
7002:
6998:
6989:
6980:
6973:
6970:
6969:
6968:
6964:
6961:
6951:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6938:
6935:
6934:
6932:
6923:
6914:
6904:
6892:South America
6889:
6887:
6883:
6880:(1997–1999),
6879:
6878:Jenny Shipley
6874:
6871:
6866:
6864:
6860:
6854:
6841:
6837:
6834:
6831:
6828:
6825:
6822:
6818:
6815:
6811:
6808:
6805:
6802:
6801:
6800:
6798:
6793:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6774:Julia Gillard
6771:
6766:
6764:
6760:
6755:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6733:
6729:
6725:
6721:
6716:
6715:Electoral Act
6712:
6708:
6701:
6697:
6696:Jacinta Allan
6693:
6688:
6673:
6671:
6667:
6663:
6659:
6655:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6627:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6602:Susan Collins
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6582:Tammy Baldwin
6579:
6575:
6574:Barbara Boxer
6571:
6570:Olympia Snowe
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6510:Kamala Harris
6506:
6502:
6499:
6495:
6492:
6487:
6484:
6480:
6477:
6472:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6443:
6438:
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6429:
6427:
6417:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6393:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6290:
6287:
6286:
6284:
6275:
6266:
6257:
6248:
6237:
6228:
6219:
6210:
6199:
6190:
6181:
6172:
6161:United States
6158:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6122:North America
6119:
6116:
6112:
6111:Eluned Morgan
6108:
6104:
6103:Arlene Foster
6100:
6096:
6092:
6090:
6087:repealed the
6086:
6082:
6078:
6073:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6060:(1979–1990),
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6022:
6018:
6008:
6006:
6002:
6001:Orta district
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5981:
5979:
5974:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5936:
5932:
5922:
5920:
5919:Pedro Sánchez
5915:
5907:
5898:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5861:
5859:
5855:
5854:Tarja Halonen
5844:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5802:Tarja Halonen
5800:
5796:
5792:
5782:
5779:
5775:
5767:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5740:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5713:Renzi cabinet
5709:
5707:
5703:
5700:
5693:
5688:
5684:
5682:
5678:
5675:
5671:
5668:
5663:
5661:
5657:
5647:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5630:'s president
5629:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5604:
5600:
5598:
5594:
5589:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5570:
5569:(2016–2017).
5568:
5564:
5561:(2008–2011),
5560:
5559:Mary Coughlan
5557:(1997–2006),
5556:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5535:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5513:
5511:
5510:Mary McAleese
5507:
5503:
5502:Mary Robinson
5497:
5487:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5464:
5454:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5417:
5408:
5399:
5380:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5318:
5308:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5293:
5288:
5286:
5282:
5277:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5261:
5259:
5255:
5249:
5239:
5236:
5226:
5224:
5220:
5215:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5194:
5189:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5165:
5161:
5153:
5148:
5138:
5135:
5129:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5117:Masa Nakayama
5113:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5088:
5086:
5081:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5037:
5033:
5032:
5028:
5026:
5021:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4967:Indira Gandhi
4964:
4961:
4957:
4947:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4924:
4923:Indira Gandhi
4921:
4920:
4918:
4909:
4900:
4890:
4880:
4878:
4873:
4867:
4866:
4865:Anti-feminism
4861:
4857:
4856:
4852:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4831:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4805:CCP Politburo
4800:
4797:
4793:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4766:
4762:
4759:
4756:
4755:Leyla Aliyeva
4753:
4750:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4736:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4716:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4693:
4690:
4686:
4683:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4669:
4666:
4663:
4660:
4657:(1988–1992),
4656:
4652:
4649:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4635:
4632:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4616:
4613:, members of
4612:
4608:
4604:
4603:Sima Eyvazova
4601:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4580:
4577:
4574:
4573:Elena Stasova
4571:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4536:
4532:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4477:
4462:
4460:
4455:
4453:
4447:
4444:
4423:
4414:
4405:
4396:
4387:
4383:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4357:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4341:
4331:
4322:
4319:
4314:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4289:Latin America
4284:
4281:
4277:
4266:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4244:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4210:sociocultural
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4186:
4180:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4142:
4139:
4135:
4132:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4099:
4094:
4078:
4075:
4067:
4057:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4027:
4026:
4023:
4020:
4015:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3939:
3937:
3932:
3930:
3920:
3911:
3908:
3898:
3894:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3868:
3864:
3861:
3857:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3819:
3815:
3806:
3804:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3767:
3764:
3753:
3749:
3740:
3734:Resource gaps
3731:
3729:
3725:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3677:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3662:
3659:
3653:
3649:
3640:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3579:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3548:
3537:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3517:Southern Asia
3514:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3487:
3478:
3475:
3470:
3466:
3457:
3454:
3451:In 1995, the
3449:
3447:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3430:
3428:
3422:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3075:
3069:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3039:
3037:
3036:Latin America
3030:
3021:
3013:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2989:head of state
2985:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2970:Sheikh Hasina
2966:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2951:Mary Robinson
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2915:
2907:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:Dina Boluarte
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2839:
2830:
2821:
2812:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2730:
2721:
2712:
2701:
2692:
2683:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2619:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2604:Imelda Marcos
2601:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2581:
2580:Uttar Pradesh
2577:
2573:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2507:
2497:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2486:Kamala Harris
2483:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2365:Soviet Russia
2362:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2280:Mary Robinson
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2237:Sylvie Kinigi
2234:
2233:Guinea-Bissau
2230:
2226:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2158:Angela Merkel
2155:
2151:
2147:
2146:Indira Gandhi
2143:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2069:
2068:Park Geun-hye
2065:
2060:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
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1873:Dina Boluarte
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739:Winter sports
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574:Film industry
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434:Photographers
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323:
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318:
316:
315:Organizations
313:
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279:
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242:Voting rights
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168:Queen regnant
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67:
61:
58:
57:
51:
50:
46:
42:
41:
37:
36:
32:
31:
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15943:Marine Corps
15732:and military
15564:Philippines
15373:Afghanistan
15339:first mayors
15312:upper houses
15302:lower houses
15234:
15186:
15152:
15134:
15128:
15116:
15098:
15079:
15060:
15040:
15034:
15017:
15011:
15003:
14992:
14973:September 6,
14971:. Retrieved
14958:
14949:
14944:September 6,
14942:. Retrieved
14935:the original
14922:
14913:
14908:September 6,
14906:. Retrieved
14896:
14884:. Retrieved
14880:the original
14870:
14858:. Retrieved
14848:
14823:
14817:
14811:
14792:
14788:
14778:
14770:
14765:
14754:
14745:
14736:
14726:
14715:
14706:
14697:
14688:
14677:. Retrieved
14670:the original
14665:
14653:
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14638:
14629:
14618:. Retrieved
14614:
14605:
14594:. Retrieved
14590:
14567:. Retrieved
14563:
14519:(1): 69–88.
14516:
14512:
14506:
14495:. Retrieved
14491:
14481:
14472:
14463:
14430:
14426:
14416:
14383:
14379:
14373:
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14342:
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14306:
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14275:
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14233:
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14199:
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14184:
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14155:
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14112:
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14078:
14069:
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14053:
14044:
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14028:
14019:
14007:. Retrieved
14003:
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13969:
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13950:
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13920:the original
13915:
13906:
13896:December 25,
13894:. Retrieved
13887:
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13860:the original
13847:
13833:
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13802:
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13781:
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13756:the original
13751:
13741:
13729:. Retrieved
13724:
13712:
13700:. Retrieved
13696:the original
13691:
13681:
13662:
13653:
13643:
13637:
13612:
13606:
13593:
13582:
13572:
13549:. Retrieved
13544:
13534:
13523:. Retrieved
13518:
13509:
13497:
13492:
13480:. Retrieved
13470:
13461:
13406:
13400:
13394:
13385:
13376:
13367:
13358:
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13343:the original
13338:
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13288:the original
13277:
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13262:the original
13252:
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13231:
13220:. Retrieved
13216:the original
13206:
13195:. Retrieved
13191:the original
13181:
13170:. Retrieved
13166:
13156:
13146:
13137:
13127:
13120:
13096:
13089:
13079:
13073:
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13060:
13047:
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13015:
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12987:
12978:
12969:
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12953:the original
12946:
12933:
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12908:
12897:
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12879:the original
12840:
12834:
12821:
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12796:the original
12791:1721.1/64150
12773:
12767:
12757:
12746:
12736:. Retrieved
12732:the original
12719:1721.1/39126
12701:
12697:Econometrica
12695:
12685:
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12644:
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12611:
12601:
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12587:The Guardian
12586:
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12568:ResearchGate
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12391:. Retrieved
12387:the original
12382:
12373:
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12358:
12349:
12340:
12327:
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12312:the original
12305:
12296:
12287:
12278:
12264:
12250:
12239:. Retrieved
12235:the original
12230:
12221:
12212:
12202:
12193:
12184:
12165:
12158:Shapiro, Ian
12148:
12136:. Retrieved
12131:
12122:
12110:. Retrieved
12104:
12066:
12060:
12051:
12040:
12035:
12002:
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11988:
11961:
11957:
11947:
11922:
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11880:
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11866:
11831:
11827:
11817:
11774:
11770:
11727:(1): 31–70.
11724:
11720:
11710:
11700:, retrieved
11695:
11685:
11675:, retrieved
11670:
11660:
11635:
11631:
11621:
11594:
11590:
11580:
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11518:
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11344:
11340:
11330:
11321:
11303:
11289:. Retrieved
11285:the original
11246:
11231:
11221:
11214:
11191:
11177:. Retrieved
11170:the original
11161:
11154:
11121:
11117:
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11082:
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11068:
11035:
11031:
11021:
10988:
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10912:
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10876:
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10832:
10826:
10817:
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10777:
10766:
10748:. Retrieved
10744:
10735:
10710:
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10696:
10684:. Retrieved
10674:
10649:
10645:
10635:
10624:. Retrieved
10621:www.idea.int
10620:
10611:
10599:. Retrieved
10595:
10582:
10572:
10565:
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10544:
10535:
10525:
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10502:
10472:
10466:
10428:
10422:
10371:. Retrieved
10367:the original
10351:
10344:
10332:. Retrieved
10325:the original
10316:
10309:
10292:
10286:
10269:
10263:
10246:
10240:
10223:
10195:
10189:
10177:. Retrieved
10173:
10163:
10144:
10138:
10108:(2): 27–56.
10105:
10101:
10095:
10070:
10066:
10060:
10041:
10007:
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9988:
9969:
9963:
9936:
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9846:(1): 74–88.
9843:
9839:
9802:
9796:
9772:
9765:
9740:
9734:
9728:
9716:. Retrieved
9709:
9699:
9688:. Retrieved
9685:www.oecd.org
9684:
9675:
9649:
9643:
9636:
9611:
9605:
9595:
9570:
9564:
9558:
9533:
9527:
9517:
9507:November 11,
9505:. Retrieved
9499:
9489:
9470:
9464:
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9433:
9414:
9408:
9389:
9383:
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9346:
9323:, retrieved
9301:
9292:
9282:November 13,
9280:. Retrieved
9276:the original
9269:
9259:
9242:
9236:
9230:
9218:. Retrieved
9212:
9180:
9176:
9166:
9141:10419/183375
9123:
9119:
9109:
9076:
9072:
9066:
9055:. Retrieved
9051:
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8961:
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8938:
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8895:(1): 50–71.
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8552:
8519:
8515:
8477:
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8443:10852/107360
8423:
8397:. Retrieved
8390:the original
8373:
8346:
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8317:
8290:
8286:
8276:
8267:
8261:
8236:
8232:
8226:
8218:
8183:
8179:
8153:, retrieved
8146:the original
8130:
8107:, retrieved
8100:the original
8084:
8040:. Retrieved
8033:
8024:
7991:
7985:
7945:
7939:
7922:the original
7917:
7908:
7902:. p. 4.
7889:
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7874:
7865:
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7828:. Retrieved
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7785:
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7760:
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7747:. 2024-05-17
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7717:
7707:
7696:. Retrieved
7692:
7682:
7673:
7664:
7655:
7646:
7635:. Retrieved
7631:
7621:
7610:. Retrieved
7606:
7597:
7578:
7572:
7553:
7547:
7536:. Retrieved
7532:
7523:
7514:
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7487:
7478:
7469:
7461:
7452:
7443:
7437:
7428:
7419:
7410:
7390:
7380:, retrieved
7376:the original
7356:
7316:
7295:. Retrieved
7287:
7278:
7266:. Retrieved
7260:
7253:
7234:
7208:
7204:
7198:
7171:
7162:
7142:
7136:January 2022
7133:
7126:
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7098:
7092:
7023:
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6977:
6965:
6958:
6930:
6875:
6867:
6856:
6817:Linda Burney
6804:Carol Martin
6794:
6767:
6756:
6722:was passed,
6704:
6634:Marcy Kaptur
6614:Edith Rogers
6518:Patty Murray
6514:Nancy Pelosi
6507:
6503:
6500:
6496:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6481:
6473:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6434:
6430:
6422:
6370:Kathy Hochul
6343:Maura Healey
6316:Kim Reynolds
6282:
6144:
6093:
6081:Elizabeth II
6074:
6039:
5989:Lale Aytaman
5982:
5975:
5959:Tansu Çiller
5957:
5944:Tansu Çiller
5916:
5912:
5867:
5850:
5825:Center party
5788:
5780:
5776:
5773:
5750:, President
5741:
5723:, member of
5710:
5696:
5677:Tina Anselmi
5664:
5653:
5640:Labour Party
5605:
5601:
5597:Dáil Éireann
5590:
5571:
5552:
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5340:Tsai Ing-wen
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5100:Yuriko Koike
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5063:
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5029:
5022:
5010:Indian state
4965:
4952:
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4864:
4862:
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4854:
4853:
4833:
4829:
4828:
4825:
4801:
4789:
4671:Lala Shevket
4661:(1993–1997).
4554:Milli Məclis
4539:
4531:Lala Shevket
4498:Suraya Dalil
4494:Roya Rahmani
4479:
4456:
4448:
4439:
4426:Case studies
4420:
4411:
4402:
4393:
4384:
4380:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4340:universality
4336:
4317:
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4093:Gender quota
4070:
4061:
4039:
4016:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3945:
3933:
3925:
3904:
3895:
3891:
3874:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3812:
3800:
3795:Khadija Arib
3785:
3773:
3762:
3759:
3750:
3746:
3737:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3713:
3693:
3684:
3681:
3678:
3663:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3637:
3610:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3571:gender roles
3564:
3555:
3551:
3543:
3534:
3521:Western Asia
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3484:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3450:
3442:
3431:
3423:
3420:
3264:South Africa
3043:
3040:
3032:
2991:, and 16 as
2986:
2982:
2967:
2963:Sandra Mason
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2846:
2774:Evika Siliņa
2737:
2656:
2642:
2624:
2602:
2584:
2570:
2552:
2534:
2515:
2490:Janet Yellen
2484:
2480:
2393:
2357:Sofia Panina
2355:
2324:Sandra Mason
2317:
2305:Elizabeth II
2303:
2292:
2261:
2223:
2215:Tansu Çiller
2193:
2173:Isabel Perón
2166:
2131:
2096:
2073:
2048:Elizabeth II
2002:12 May 2024
1889:Evika Siliņa
1791:Sandra Mason
1768:24 May 2021
1759:Vjosa Osmani
1608:25 May 2018
1555:
1531:
1518:East Germany
1473:
1469:
1458:
1399:Vatican City
1344:Turkmenistan
1274:South Africa
1254:Sierra Leone
1239:Saudi Arabia
704:Roller derby
502:Christianity
487:Baháʼí Faith
366:Architecture
147:
66:legal rights
15963:Coast Guard
15958:Space Force
15867:Legislators
14795:: 208–226.
14351:: 150–157.
14059:January 30,
14034:January 30,
14009:January 31,
13294:February 4,
13061:Asian Women
12498:(1): 2–14.
10713:(1): 5–28.
10686:January 24,
10601:January 24,
10431:(1): 3–21.
9718:January 26,
9220:November 2,
8239:(2): 1–20.
8042:18 November
7914:"Home page"
7603:"Hype.News"
7128:quick guide
6960:Bertha Lutz
6946:Raquel Lyra
6882:Helen Clark
6847:New Zealand
6724:Edith Cowan
6662:Elena Kagan
6626:Bella Abzug
6550:Nellie Ross
6546:Nikki Haley
6530:Sarah Palin
6455:Women have
6388:Kristi Noem
6334:Janet Mills
6325:Laura Kelly
6298:Katie Hobbs
6062:Theresa May
5997:Turgut Özal
5770:Netherlands
5702:Nilde Iotti
5626:coalition,
5620:Green Party
5616:Fianna Fáil
5578:Joan Burton
5563:Joan Burton
5555:Mary Harney
5431:Malu Dreyer
5018:West Bengal
4956:West Bengal
4817:Liu Yandong
4665:Leyla Yunus
4597:Azerbaijani
4470:Afghanistan
4230:inheritance
4203:Legislation
4007:Lydia Kompe
3931:movements.
3929:empowerment
3709:backbencher
3576:patriarchal
3531:Regime type
3436:countries,
3360:Switzerland
3152:New Zealand
2887:Hilda Heine
2783:Mia Mottley
2662:Mexico City
2654:from 2012.
2566:West Berlin
2536:Nellie Ross
2442:, in 1938.
2235:(1984) and
2207:Khaleda Zia
1955:Hilda Heine
1615:Mia Mottley
1284:South Sudan
1279:South Korea
1224:Puerto Rico
1209:Philippines
1174:North Korea
1159:New Zealand
1044:Ivory Coast
934:El Salvador
764:Afghanistan
621:Auto racing
594:Video games
507:Catholicism
286:Engineering
163:Legislators
16029:Categories
15598:Parliament
15594:Sri Lanka
15558:Parliament
15548:Parliament
15377:Parliament
15195:1840–1883)
15137:(1): 3–6.
14679:2018-10-24
14644:2018-10-24
14620:2018-10-24
14596:2018-10-24
14569:2018-10-24
14497:2021-11-29
14239:2020-01-17
14215:2018-09-26
14190:2018-09-26
14166:2018-09-26
14085:October 7,
13984:2017-10-25
13869:2020-05-21
13787:2024-01-25
13762:21 January
13752:impowr.org
13731:21 January
13702:21 January
13692:impowr.org
13551:2018-02-09
13547:(in Dutch)
13525:2022-10-22
13349:2021-11-29
13320:2021-05-02
13268:2015-11-20
13243:2015-11-20
13222:2015-11-20
13197:2015-11-20
13172:2022-12-27
13039:2024-01-25
12924:2019-06-24
12896:See also:
12809:See also:
12802:2017-03-04
12745:See also:
12738:2017-03-04
12592:2018-02-27
12476:2018-02-27
12421:2018-02-27
12393:2018-02-27
12364:2018-02-27
12318:2019-03-28
12241:2022-12-27
11777:: 102761.
11702:2024-04-30
11677:2024-04-30
11291:2017-03-04
11187:See also:
10750:2020-10-08
10626:2024-01-25
10556:2019-12-19
10373:2017-03-04
10334:2017-03-04
10010:(4): 334.
9939:(1): 3–6.
9743:(3): 373.
9690:2021-05-20
9325:2021-12-18
9057:2023-06-21
8704:(Report).
8668:1956/21958
8399:2017-03-02
8155:2011-04-22
8109:2011-04-22
7898:(Report).
7880:2020-01-15
7856:2018-04-20
7851:Apolitical
7800:August 12,
7776:2020-01-17
7751:2024-06-02
7723:2022-01-06
7698:2021-01-26
7637:2022-06-25
7612:2019-06-17
7538:2020-01-17
7515:kmu.gov.ua
7382:2017-03-02
7190:References
6901:See also:
6840:Nova Peris
6797:Federation
6770:Anna Bligh
6740:Joan Child
6618:Patsy Mink
6401:See also:
6379:Tina Kotek
6097:served as
5883:Government
5754:appointed
5742:After the
5606:Following
5121:Until 1994
5074:Golda Meir
5064:Since the
5055:Golda Meir
4934:, current
4841:Mao Zedong
4809:Xi Jinping
4675:Azerbaijan
4585:) in 1938.
4566:Azerbaijan
4562:Nakhchivan
4558:Azerbaijan
4516:See also:
4512:Azerbaijan
4480:After the
4345:autonomous
4041:neutrality
3728:In Nigeria
3582:Voter bias
3434:East Asian
3427:parliament
3392:Mozambique
3296:Costa Rica
3027:See also:
2853:government
2644:Carrie Lam
2544:U.S. state
2510:See also:
2444:Ana Pauker
2432:Azerbaijan
2245:Ruth Perry
2211:Bangladesh
2150:Golda Meir
2032:See also:
2005:President
1987:President
1951:President
1935:President
1903:President
1869:President
1821:President
1803:President
1787:President
1755:President
1739:President
1727:Maia Sandu
1723:President
1715:Lithuania
1675:President
1643:President
1627:President
1546:See also:
1526:Yugoslavia
1522:Tannu Tuva
1389:Uzbekistan
1319:Tajikistan
1249:Seychelles
1124:Mauritania
1099:Madagascar
1079:Kyrgyzstan
1059:Kazakhstan
939:East Timor
814:Bangladesh
804:Azerbaijan
757:By country
744:See also:
734:Volleyball
676:Ice hockey
671:Gymnastics
631:Basketball
422:Philosophy
410:Literature
357:Humanities
337:Telegraphy
272:Technology
187:Journalism
148:Government
15984:1945–1999
15953:Air Force
15931:By branch
15888:Municipal
15838:Governors
15802:Judiciary
15645:Governors
15610:Ministers
15578:Governors
15534:Mongolia
15519:Malaysia
15458:Governors
15384:Australia
15043:: 46–60.
14951:Gobierno.
14840:155804786
14541:143310106
14533:0190-9320
14455:219889475
14447:0003-0554
14408:222434641
14400:0022-3816
14292:145107322
13825:154891466
13482:26 August
13411:CiteSeerX
12669:229169083
12512:1548-1417
12231:ASIA-Plus
12083:142994312
12019:1743-923X
11980:0092-5853
11939:1945-7782
11897:1354-5701
11858:232411595
11850:1354-5701
11791:0304-3878
11749:142532360
11741:1225-9276
11652:2156-5503
11613:0003-0554
11562:CiteSeerX
11537:1945-7731
11484:153945965
11373:240536568
11204:224920746
11138:1743-9248
11099:1540-5907
11060:145033409
11052:0022-3816
11013:220339143
11005:0032-3217
10893:214653958
10727:1939-9162
10666:2515-1088
10536:EJIL Talk
10445:154644601
10130:153570490
10122:0195-7732
10087:0033-362X
9955:1350-5068
9914:147381109
9906:1464-8849
9868:152103794
9860:1086-3214
9757:145574989
9666:156194257
9587:154549148
9550:153460717
9536:: 24–39.
9375:147854693
9367:2156-5503
9150:1945-7782
9101:148761998
9093:0190-9320
8917:154428935
8909:0275-0740
8874:153495080
8792:1065-9129
8745:0092-5853
8685:199281190
8677:0010-4140
8628:252797196
8587:158709634
8544:237742180
8536:0010-4140
8494:1540-5907
8452:0003-0554
8386:608384493
8328:Routledge
8309:149525083
8253:153775291
8202:0034-7329
7918:sapint.or
7607:hype.news
7493:"Ukraine"
7217:194900864
7100:loc. cit.
6792:in 2012.
6707:Australia
6705:In 1902,
6681:Australia
6066:Liz Truss
5697:In 1979,
5646:in 1927.
5628:Sinn Féin
5624:Fine Gael
5612:Taoiseach
5529:Sinn Féin
5500:In 1990,
5242:Sri Lanka
5229:Singapore
5212:Win Myint
5204:president
4960:Rajasthan
4783:, former
4729:Ombudsman
4568:include:
4349:democracy
4310:Mala Htun
4238:Financing
4185:Homophily
4064:June 2020
4052:talk page
3942:Education
3936:Zhenotdel
3460:Diplomacy
3408:Argentina
3200:Nicaragua
2997:Sri Lanka
2588:, of the
2521:Bolshevik
2456:Qian Ying
2398:, Danish
2396:Nina Bang
2301:in 2019.
2169:president
1911:Slovenia
1747:Tanzania
1635:Ethiopia
1619:Barbados
1587:Eswatini
1419:Kurdistan
1404:Venezuela
1299:Sri Lanka
1259:Singapore
1129:Mauritius
1024:Indonesia
989:Guatemala
799:Australia
789:Argentina
512:Mormonism
449:Punk rock
405:Fine arts
301:dentistry
281:Computing
247:Workforce
131:Education
16007:See also
15979:pre-1945
15908:Military
15766:Congress
15538:Mongolia
15489:Ireland
15442:Jamaica
15431:Assembly
15399:Premiers
15287:interior
15059:(2009).
14698:ABC News
14666:UN Women
14473:BBC News
14079:BBC News
13725:roaep.ro
13629:53538363
13386:行政院性別平等會
13314:BBC News
12875:22245740
12661:27798484
12564:56047416
12415:BBC News
12307:NBC News
12288:BBC News
12027:67759059
11809:34785851
11146:67759059
10933:55211404
10849:54638042
10382:Archived
10024:53409655
9628:85534263
9158:35429913
8808:34891125
8800:23612038
8426:: 1–20.
8293:: 9–28.
8120:(2006),
8074:(2006),
8035:BBC News
8016:55082933
7674:RisingBD
7399:Archived
7268:26 March
7213:ProQuest
7032:See also
7001:Suffrage
6763:UN Women
6558:Kay Ivey
6289:Kay Ivey
5985:governor
5893:was the
5711:In 2014
5369:Thailand
5350:Thailand
5342:won the
5271:won the
5193:de facto
4727:– first
4687:– was a
4673:– is an
4653:– was a
4639:– was a
4591:– was a
4297:the West
4226:property
4148:Africa).
4045:disputed
3977:Norris's
3779:and the
3001:Barbados
2847:Current
2666:Americas
2630:governor
2320:Barbados
2199:Pakistan
2105:led the
1978:DR Congo
1812:Honduras
1731:Moldova
1667:Denmark
1651:Georgia
1603:Namibia
1571:Country
1324:Thailand
1294:Suriname
1219:Portugal
1199:Paraguay
1184:Pakistan
1139:Mongolia
1109:Maldives
1104:Malaysia
1069:Kiribati
1004:Honduras
944:Ethiopia
914:DR Congo
879:Colombia
859:Cambodia
854:Bulgaria
719:Swimming
681:Lacrosse
626:Baseball
524:Hinduism
517:Opus Dei
497:Buddhism
472:Religion
296:Medicine
202:Military
136:Feminism
92:Business
15972:History
15915:Leaders
15661:Related
15620:Commons
15584:Russia
15427:France
15292:justice
15282:foreign
15277:finance
15272:defence
14886:21 June
14860:21 June
14365:8506511
14121:3896499
13519:Il Post
13433:6977512
12959:May 23,
12918:Haaretz
12888:4 March
12866:3394179
12845:Bibcode
12836:Science
12728:3598894
12677:1148421
11800:8581441
11476:2569852
11179:4 March
10778:ipu.org
10179:June 3,
9183:: 549.
8753:3088412
8128:(ed.),
8082:(ed.),
7962:9483072
7354:(ed.),
7288:ipu.org
6676:Oceania
6054:Cabinet
6005:Çankırı
5864:Romania
5856:of the
5847:Finland
5758:leader
5634:became
5490:Ireland
5388:Germany
5168:Myanmar
5141:Lebanon
5125:kōenkai
5085:Knesset
4821:Fu Ying
4790:In the
4482:Taliban
4353:regimes
4108:Germany
3971:labor).
3561:Society
3513:Central
3415:40.28%
3367:26.09%
3351:23.81%
3344:Namibia
3328:Senegal
3319:39.02%
3280:Finland
3271:38.89%
3248:Andorra
3239:30.77%
3232:Grenada
3191:49.22%
3143:47.22%
3136:Bolivia
3111:38.46%
3089:Country
2959:Iceland
2947:Ireland
2448:Romania
2387:in the
2288:Iceland
2276:Ireland
2257:Liberia
2249:Liberia
2241:Burundi
2181:Iceland
2162:Germany
2070:in 2015
1763:Kosovo
1683:Greece
1409:Vietnam
1394:Vanuatu
1384:Uruguay
1364:Ukraine
1334:Tunisia
1269:Somalia
1244:Senegal
1169:Nigeria
1149:Myanmar
1144:Morocco
1089:Lebanon
1009:Iceland
974:Germany
969:Georgia
959:Finland
924:Ecuador
909:Denmark
889:Croatia
884:Comoros
834:Bolivia
819:Belgium
809:Bahrain
794:Armenia
779:Andorra
774:Algeria
769:Albania
714:Surfing
691:Netball
651:Cycling
646:Curling
641:Cricket
539:Sikhism
534:Judaism
320:Science
291:Geology
268:Science
54:Society
15809:Judges
15773:Senate
15640:Senate
15605:Turkey
15573:Senate
15544:Nepal
15528:Senate
15515:Israel
15498:Seanad
15436:Senate
15416:Senate
15406:Canada
15394:Senate
15105:
15086:
15067:
14997:online
14838:
14539:
14531:
14453:
14445:
14406:
14398:
14363:
14290:
14119:
13823:
13669:
13627:
13502:online
13452:
13431:
13413:
13388:. 行政院.
13108:
13030:
12873:
12863:
12726:
12675:
12667:
12659:
12562:
12510:
12445:
12172:
12081:
12041:Polity
12025:
12017:
11978:
11937:
11895:
11856:
11848:
11807:
11797:
11789:
11747:
11739:
11650:
11611:
11564:
11535:
11482:
11474:
11371:
11259:
11202:
11144:
11136:
11097:
11058:
11050:
11011:
11003:
10931:
10891:
10847:
10725:
10664:
10443:
10359:
10295:: 71.
10272:: 70.
10249:: 60.
10226:: 59.
10202:
10151:
10128:
10120:
10085:
10048:
10022:
9976:
9953:
9912:
9904:
9866:
9858:
9817:
9784:
9755:
9664:
9626:
9585:
9548:
9477:
9452:
9421:
9396:
9373:
9365:
9316:
9156:
9148:
9099:
9091:
9052:Forbes
9029:
9004:
8973:
8915:
8907:
8872:
8806:
8798:
8790:
8751:
8743:
8683:
8675:
8626:
8585:
8575:
8542:
8534:
8492:
8450:
8384:
8334:
8307:
8251:
8200:
8138:
8126:UNICEF
8118:UNICEF
8092:
8080:UNICEF
8072:UNICEF
8014:
8006:
7960:
7585:
7560:
7368:
7352:UNRISD
7348:UNRISD
7323:
7241:
7215:
7003:, and
6897:Brazil
6668:, and
6608:, and
6580:, and
6476:Carlin
6409:, and
6127:Canada
6036:state.
5952:Turkey
5925:Turkey
5383:Europe
5311:Taiwan
5040:Israel
5008:of an
4794:, the
4643:, and
4609:1982,
4436:Rwanda
4431:Africa
4295:, and
4293:Africa
4280:UNIFEM
4276:UNICEF
4233:1996).
4112:Norway
4087:Quotas
3629:Andrew
3438:Taiwan
3412:40.86%
3380:41.42%
3376:Norway
3348:42.71%
3332:43.03%
3300:45.61%
3268:46.35%
3236:46.67%
3220:46.99%
3216:Sweden
3204:47.25%
3184:Mexico
3156:50.42%
3140:53.08%
3124:53.22%
3108:61.25%
3104:Rwanda
2638:Colima
2634:Mexico
2519:, the
2476:Ceylon
2422:, the
2350:, and
2219:Turkey
2142:Ceylon
2046:Queen
2036:, and
1894:Latvia
1845:Italy
1829:India
1779:Samoa
1524:, and
1512:
1506:
1500:
1494:
1359:Uganda
1349:Tuvalu
1339:Turkey
1314:Taiwan
1304:Sweden
1234:Russia
1214:Poland
1194:Panama
1134:Mexico
1074:Kuwait
1054:Jordan
1039:Israel
994:Guyana
984:Greece
964:France
899:Cyprus
849:Brunei
844:Brazil
839:Bosnia
829:Bhutan
784:Angola
724:Tennis
709:Rowing
636:Boxing
614:Sports
562:Comics
544:Taoism
217:Piracy
207:Mother
182:Health
62:
15994:2010s
15989:2000s
15778:House
15635:House
15625:Lords
15568:House
15523:House
15479:Iran
15453:India
15446:House
15411:House
15389:House
14968:(PDF)
14938:(PDF)
14931:(PDF)
14836:S2CID
14673:(PDF)
14662:(PDF)
14537:S2CID
14451:S2CID
14404:S2CID
14361:S2CID
14288:S2CID
14268:(PDF)
13863:(PDF)
13856:(PDF)
13821:S2CID
13721:(PDF)
13625:S2CID
13603:(PDF)
13465:ibid.
13429:S2CID
13102:32–33
13057:(PDF)
12939:Kyodo
12882:(PDF)
12831:(PDF)
12724:JSTOR
12665:S2CID
12657:JSTOR
12607:J-PAL
12560:S2CID
12337:(PDF)
12079:S2CID
12023:S2CID
12005:(3).
11854:S2CID
11745:S2CID
11511:(PDF)
11480:S2CID
11472:JSTOR
11414:(PDF)
11396:(PDF)
11369:S2CID
11313:(PDF)
11241:(PDF)
11196:(PDF)
11173:(PDF)
11166:(PDF)
11142:S2CID
11056:S2CID
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