Gender representation on corporate boards of directors

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influence firm performance and a board's decision-making process. An academic article produced by Nguyen, et al., suggests that numerous studies have found improvements in firm performance influenced by female staff members on corporate boards. Females bring a number of “social, managerial, and leadership qualities,” (Nguyen, et al.) to the table that directly influence corporate governance practices, such as ethics, trustworthiness, and risk taking/aversions. Another study by Nada K. Kakabadse et al. suggest that a diverse board will expand the board access to resources and networks, either from the directors' personal connections or simply by being a symbol through their position as a female director. The theory that gender diversity on corporate boards is of value is further strengthened by a study of 127 Malaysian firms that found stock markets react in a positive manner to the appointment of female directors. An analysis of the effects of greater female representation in the boards of directors of Iraqi companies by Farhan and Nayan found a "positive and significant" relationship between female directors and firm performance, as measured by return on assets. The study's authors stated that the important policy implication of their findings is that companies on the Iraqi stock exchange and security commission should incorporate gender diversity in their corporate governance practices.

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between female directors and market performance, possibly due to a variations in the female director/firm performance relationship between countries with different levels of gender equality. The relationship was found to be positive in those with gender equality and negative in those less gender equality. A study on nonfinancial Spanish small and medium-sized enterprises found a positive relationship between female directors and firm performance using return of assets as a measure of firm performance. Further, a survey of 6500 company boards revealed that an increase in participation by female directors reduces the firm's chances of becoming embroiled in corporate governance issues. A study of S&P 1500 companies by Maurice Levi, Kai Li and Feng Zhang found companies with female directors to be less likely to acquire other companies and to pay less bid premium if an acquisition occurs.

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earlier report discovered that Fortune-500 companies with the most female directors reported greater return on sales and equity. Other studies show that female directors enhance the effectiveness of boards at governing. Women have better attendance, and their presence improves the attendance of men. Female directors are also more apt to serve on monitoring committees and more likely to hold CEO's accountable for poor financial returns. Female directors, too, tend to ensure that corporations are more environmentally responsible. Three or more women directors also correlates with employee productivity, higher dividend payouts, and a greater diversity of ideas.

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that higher corporate ownership and firm risk led to a lower probability of having a female presence on a company's board. A survey of UK companies found larger companies to be more likely to have a higher proportion of female directors. The findings regarding firm size and corporate risk are consistent with a study conducted on 1002 companies across Brazil, Russia, India, China, the UK and USA. Masayuki Morikawa conducted a study that focused on Japanese companies and found that the probability of having a female director increased for companies that are managed by the owners of the companies, but decreased for public companies and older companies.

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overtime worked (Men are 3 times more likely to work overtime). Other relevant factors found by Maria Consuelo Pucheta-Martinez and Inmaculada Bel-Oms include whether the Compensation Committee contains female members and the size of the companies. Another study by Marianne Bertrand et al. concluded that the gender quota in Norway reduced the gender gap on boards. However, as some researchers have cautioned, the small dataset from which such data from which the studies have been conducted should be considered in interpreting such results.

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the Madrid Stock Exchange, have concluded that a gender pay gap exists between male and female directors. Philipp Geiler and Luc Renneboog found that female executive directors of listed UK companies earn 23% less than their male counterparts. A study by Gregory-Smith, Main and O'Reilly III on FTSE350 companies, however, found no evidence of such a discrepancy once the director's traits (including age and tenure) and other company features such as firm size and price to book ratio are taken into account.

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selection. The UK Government has commissioned two five year reviews, the Davies Review (2011) and the Hampton-Alexander Review (2016) to set recommendations and voluntary targets for FTSE350 listed companies to increase the number of women on public company boards. Further, companies are required to provide details of their boardroom gender diversity policy and procedures for appointing executives and managers, and to provide explanations for discrepancies with the targets listed in the guidelines.

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more diverse boards tended to pay higher dividends, pursue less risky financial policies, and invest more in research and development. The findings of this study were not exclusively positive, however. The study authors found that greater diversity was not always beneficial to firm performance when overall volatility was high. They posited that because diverse boards can endure longer decision-making processes, they can fail to respond rapidly when a quick decision is necessary.

1547:. Equality of treatment requires comparable situations to be treated in the same manner and prohibits direct and indirect discrimination. Equality of treatment refers to either equality of opportunity or equality of outcome. Equality of opportunity requires providing everyone with the same opportunity to attain what they desire. Equality of outcome requires every individual to possess an equal share of outcomes such as goods or positions. 2262:

directors in the Russell 3000 index, up .5% since 2008. In contrast, 20% of directors in the Russell 3000 were women, doubling from 10% in 2008. A 2020 report revealed that in the wake of California's adoption of SB 826, mandating gender diversity on boards, 511 board seats were filled by women. 77.9% of those seats were filled by white women, 11.5% by Asian women, 5.3% by African American women, and 3.3% by Latina women.

2103:" governance system by Governments and organizations such as stock exchanges. This system requires companies to address the issue of proportionate gender representation with regards to board and executive appointments in their company filings and other reports and to explain the reason for any failure to comply with particular gender guidelines issued by the organization. The "comply or explain" system exemplifies 1621:

difficulty with isolating the particular manner in which female directors contribute solely on the basis of their gender. Further, in the context of emerging economies, the study on Malaysian firms found gender diversity to have a negative effect on firm value in government owned companies, suggesting that the relationship between female directors and firm value might vary across company types.

2083:; and (2) externally, through appointments made from outside of the firm. Quota systems simply affect gender representation of the board and might not affect the number of women who reach the internal pool from which candidates are appointed. So even if there is greater gender diversity on a corporate board, the pool from which candidates are chosen remain disproportionately occupied by men. 1962:

countries with gender quotas and 15 countries with comply and explain systems found that countries that adopt gender quotas tend to have several pre-conditions: female labor market and gendered welfare state provisions, left-leaning political government coalitions, and path dependent policy initiatives for gender equality, both in the public realm as well as in the corporate domain.

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since remained between 36% and 40%. Iceland and Spain have introduced legislation requiring 40% of female board representation on publicly traded companies. Finland requires 40% of state owned enterprises to have female directors for 40% of their board seats. The Netherlands requires public companies with more than 250 employees to have female directors for 30% of the board seats.

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size, by the end of 2022. The term "underrepresented community" is defined as "an individual who self‑identifies as Black, African American, Hispanic, Latino, Asian, Pacific Islander, Native American, Native Hawaiian, or Alaska Native, or who self‑identifies as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender." The law was ruled unconstitutional on April 1, 2022.

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A study on Norwegian companies following the introduction of a gender quota for female directors found that the increase in female directors had a positive correlation with the appointment of a female board chair and a female CEO. Unlike directors, there does not appear to be a gender pay gap between

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In 1999, Israel legislated a gender quota requiring one female board director for publicly traded companies. In 2021, the United Arab Emirates made it law for each locally listed company to put at least one woman on their board of directors. Regulator the Emirates Securities and Commodities Authority

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In France, a bill was passed in 2011 requiring 40% female directorship by 2016. This quota is to be implemented on two schedules, one for private companies and one for public companies. Public companies will require 20% female board representation within three years, and 40% within six years. Private

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In 2006, the Norwegian government introduced quota legislation that required both public and state owned companies to have 40% female board representation by 2008. Failure to comply resulted in fines or company closures. Full compliance was achieved by 2009. The percentage of female board members has

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Another study on 30 companies with female directors in the United Kingdom, United States and Ghana found that having a minority female board representation does not affect board performance. This is in line with previous research based on 50 female directors that concluded at least 3 female directors

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found no significant relationship between having a female director and company performance as measured by shareholder return, return on assets, return on equity and price to book ratio. In an interview with 45 corporate insiders, Lissa Broome, John Conley and Kimberly Krawiec found that insiders have

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Another study, conducted by Gennaro Bernile, Vineet Bhagwat, and Scott Yonker in 2017, found that "board diversity associated with lower realized firm risk." The study further noted that "both operating performance and asset valuation multiples increase with board diversity." In addition, firms with

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Bill S-203 is an Act to modernize the composition of the boards of directors of certain corporations, financial institutions and parent Crown corporations, and in particular to ensure the balanced representation of women and men on those boards, 1st Sess, 41st Parl, 2011, (second reading 16 December

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to adopt new listing rules mandating board diversity. If successful, Nasdaq-listed companies would be required to publicly disclose diversity statistics for their board of directors. They would also have to have at least one director who identifies as female and one director who identifies as "Black

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In Australia, the ASX Corporate Governance Council announced proposed amendments to its guidelines to include a 30% quota in April 2018. Compliance is enforced only on a 'if not, why not' basis. In 2015, the Australian Institute of Company Directors had introduced the same quota as a recommendation.

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A number of studies have been conducted to determine the type of companies that are more likely to have female directors on their boards. A study on Spanish small and medium-sized enterprises found that firm performance increases the probability of having a female director. The same study also found

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The reasons behind the disproportionate gender ratio of directors is a subject of much debate. A survey of more than 4000 directors found that male directors over the age of 55 cited a lack of qualified female candidates as the main reason behind the stagnant number of female directors. In contrast,

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The director gender pay gap appears to be dependent on several factors, including whether the company is in a male dominated industry and whether the female director is married or has children. Other factors include experience, the ability to negotiate pay, willingness to travel, the expectation of

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For example, Norway's quota system has significantly increased the number of women on corporate boards. However, the quota may not have altered the way women progress through organizations. In 2013, Norway's public companies had 41% female board representation but women made up only 5.8% of general

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California passed Senate Bill 826 in October 2018, mandating gender diversity on the boards of public companies headquartered in California. The bill set deadlines in 2019 (for two women on five-person boards) and 2021 (for three women on seven-person boards). It was challenged as unconstitutional

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Numerous studies have been undertaken on the effects of gender diversity on company boards with mixed results. In exploring the relationship between female directors and firm performance, Corinne Post and Kris Byron argue that differences in cognitive functions and values between the genders should

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reforms, equality of outcome reforms, or by spreading information on gender bias. Governments and corporations have attempted to address the disproportionality of gender representation on corporate boards through both types of reform measures, including legislation mandating gender quotas (a reform

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refers to the differences between the average pay received by all men compared to the average pay received by all women (Does not account for men and women working in differing industries). A number of studies, including a study on top managers of listed UK companies and one on companies listed on

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In Canada, two bills have been introduced that would require 40% of female board directors. Bill S-217 imposes a 40% quota for female board members of public companies and other regulated entities such as banks and insurance companies. Bill-C473 will balance the gender proportionality of directors

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BlackRock added board diversity guidelines in 2017. BlackRock's 2020 Proxy paper encourages "companies to have at least two women directors on their board." In the event that BlackRock determines a company is not sufficiently committed to board diversity, Blackrock may recommend voting against the

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In Finland, a "comply or explain" system requires both genders to be represented on corporate boards, and to describe and justify any failures to meet such gender representation. Following the introduction of this system and Finland's gender quota, female board representation increased from 12% to

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In Africa, a survey of 307 listed companies across 12 African nations found that women hold 12.7% of board seats. Kenya has the largest female board representation of 19.8%, South Africa has 17.4% and Botswana has 16.9%. On the other end, Côte d'Ivoire has the lowest female board representation of

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In 2020, California passed Assembly Bill 979, requiring publicly held companies headquartered in California to include board members from underrepresented communities. The law requires at least one director from an underrepresented community by the end of 2021, and up to three, depending on board

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approach, which is concerned with the result rather than the means of achieving such a result. Belgium, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Israel, Italy, Norway, the UAE and Pakistan and Spain currently have legislated quotas for women on corporate boards of publicly listed companies. A study on 10

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The study by Corinne Post and Kris Byron using results from 140 studies found that the presence of female directors on a corporate board has a positive correlation with accounting returns and monitoring and strategizing tasks. However, the study concluded that there is no significant relationship

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Protests in the United States in 2020 have ignited controversy that progress on board diversity has advanced significantly faster for white women than for racial minorities. In data from 2019, Institutional Shareholder Services (ISS) observed that black directors accounted for only 4.1% of board

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ISS added board diversity guidelines in 2018, stipulating that U.S. boards should have at least one female director. In the guidelines released for 2020, ISS recommended to "vote against or withhold from the chair of the nominating committee at companies where there are no women on the company's

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Institutional Investor Glass Lewis released guidelines related to gender diversity on corporate boards in 2016. The most recent guidelines state that FTSE 350 companies must have 33% female board representation by 2020. The method of enforcement laid out is that Glass Lewis "may recommend voting

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contains a mandatory "comply or explain" measure designed to address the disproportional representation on corporate boards. The UK Corporate Governance Code allows corporate boards to implement their own gender diversity policies and explicitly requires merit to be a consideration in candidate

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Nevertheless, the disparity between internal and external appointments to corporate boards also arises in jurisdictions that have not instituted a quota system. For example, in 2013, 48% of the female executive directors in the United Kingdom were internally promoted, compared to 62% for males.

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Many studies have found gender quotas to be beneficial, including through its positive impact on the appointment of a female board chair and a female CEO. A 2016 study of more than 21,000 companies in 91 countries showed that firms with at least 30% women in the c-suite are more profitable. An

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The proportion of board seats held by women in Europe varies significantly. In the Scandinavian countries, Norway leads the way with 35.5% of board seats of the companies in the OBX index held by women. Finland is in second place with women holding 29.9% of board seats on the companies in the

2017:(ESCA), had previously set a 'comply or explain' target for 20 percent female representation on their boards. The move is “in the context of keenness to empower Emirati women and encourage them to play a greater role in the boards of directors of listed companies,” ESCA said in a statement. 1714:

In Latin America only 6.4% of board seats of the 100 largest companies in the region are held by women. Colombia has the highest percentage of female board seats in Latin America with 13.4%. Brazil has the second highest with 6.3%. Chile shows a percentage of female on board equal to 7%.

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requires states that have ratified the convention to guarantee the exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms to women on an equal basis to men. Further, achieving gender equality, including in economic decision-making processes, is one of the United Nations'

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on corporate boards, studies often use the percentage of women holding corporate board seats and the percentage of companies with at least one woman on their board. Globally, men occupy more board seats than women. As of 2018, women held 20.8% of the board seats on

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companies were female. As of 2019 that had increased to 5% (25 in total). In 2020, several major companies appointed Women CEOs, including Citigroup, Clorox, CVS, Dick's Sporting Goods, and UPS. At the start of 2021, women held 7.8% of CEO positions in the

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Glass Lewis' US benchmarks were first released in 2017. The most recent proxy paper mandates that boards have at least one female director and "will generally recommend voting against the nominating committee chair of a board that has no female members."

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companies (up from 17.9% in 2015). Most percentages for gender representation on corporate boards refer only to public company boards. Private companies are not required to disclose information on their board of directors, so the data is less available.

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53 of the 100 largest companies in Latin America have at least one female director. In Africa, 67.1% of 307 listed companies across 12 African nations surveyed had at least 1 female director. 33.6% of the companies only have 1 female director.

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Glass, Christy & Cook, Alison & R. Ingersoll, Alicia. (2015). Do Women Leaders Promote Sustainability? Analyzing the Effect of Corporate Governance Composition on Environmental Performance. Business Strategy and the Environment.

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companies, female board representation varies between industry sectors. In Germany women consisted of 8% of executive board members of the largest banks in Germany, despite holding 18.5% of board seats across industries.

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index respectively. In the United Kingdom, among the companies in the FTSE 100 index, women hold 22.8% of board seats. At the other end of the scale, women hold only 10.3% of board seats in Ireland and 7.9% in Portugal.

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In Australia, the Australian Securities Exchange adopted diversity reporting guidelines in 2010. The percentage of women on boards of ASX 200 companies in Australia has increased from 11% to 20% from 2010 to 2015.

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Kakabadse, Nada; Figueira, Catarina; Nicolopoulou, Katerina; Hong Yang, Jessica; Kakabadse, Andrew; Ozbilgin, Mustafa (March 2015). "Gender Diversity and Board Performance: Women's Experiences and Perspectives".

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Other studies have found no evidence of a positive relationship between gender diversity and firm performance. A study by Ian Gregory-Smith, Brian G.M. Main and Charles A. O'Reilly III on companies listed on the

2029:, passed in 2006, is the only provincial legislation currently in effect in Canada that deals with gender representation on corporate boards. This bill requires an equal number of men and woman on the boards of 2265:

Companies in the UK are facing similar scrutiny. A 2019 analysis of FTSE board directors found that 100% of female board directors in the FTSE 100 were white, as were 97% of female directors in the FTSE 250.

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One approach taken by governments to achieve gender equality on corporate boards has been to enact legislation requiring a set quota of female representation on corporate boards. The quota system typifies an

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Bill 53, An Act respecting the governance of state-owned enterprises and amending various legislative provisions, 2nd Sess, 37th Leg, Quebec, 2006, cl 43(2) (assented to 14 December 2006), SQ 2006, c 59.

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In 2012, the European Commission introduced a proposal requiring companies in the EU member states to have 40% non executive female directors. For the time being the proposal (which was introduced by

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In Pakistan, the Corporate Governance Code implemented under the Companies Act of 2017 imposes a requirement on all public interest companies to have at least one woman director within three years.

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in the same study, female directors and younger male directors considered the male-dominated networking that often led to the appointment of directors to be the reason behind women's slow progress.

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In Latin America, the Brazilian Government has proposed a quota for female directors on state owned enterprises. The bill requires boards to eventually have a minimum of 40% of female directors.

4767: 3226:

Lleras-Muney, Adriana; Jensen, Sissel; Black, Sandra E.; Bertrand, Marianne (2019-01-01). "Breaking the Glass Ceiling? The Effect of Board Quotas on Female Labour Market Outcomes in Norway".

2107:, an approach to equality whereby all people should be treated similarly, regardless of prejudices, preferences, or historical disadvantages, unless particular distinctions can be justified. 1739:

companies had all male boards of directors. This is a marked improvement from 2005, when 12% of S&P companies had all male boards of directors. All FTSE 100 firms have female directors.

3134:

Broome, Lisa; Conley, John; Krawiec, Kimberley (March 2011). "Board Diversity and Corporate Performance: Filing in the Gaps: Dangerous Categories: Narratives of Corporate Board Diversity".

2076:. A working paper on the female labor market in Norway found that although a mandated quota led to an increase in female directors, it did not affect female employees of lower positions. 3425: 4215: 3505: 146: 2008:

Belgium passed a law requiring 33% female directorship by 2018. Failure to comply with these schedules will result in voided nominations and suspended remuneration of board members.

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In 2013, Shinzo Abe, the Prime Minister of Japan announced his intention to facilitate a great increase in female directors in Japan in a commentary in the Wall Street Journal.

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Renée B. Adams, Daniel Ferreira, Women in the boardroom and their impact on governance and performance, Journal of Financial Economics, Volume 94, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 291-309.

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29%. In 2012, the Finland Chamber of Commerce implemented a mentoring program for women in mid to high-level managerial positions as a supplement to their current approach.

2002:

companies will have nine years to reach the 40% quota. Failure to comply with these schedules will result in voided nominations and suspended remuneration of board members.

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Given that gender diversity on boards is an issue rooted in the principle of equality of treatment, inequality in gender representation on boards can be combated through

5020: 4672:

Terjesen, Siri; Aguilera, Ruth; Lorenz, Ruth (May 2015). "Legislating a Woman's Seat on the Board: Institutional Factors Driving Gender Quotas for Boards of Directors".

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or African American, Hispanic or Latinx, Asian, Native American or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, two or more races or ethnicities, or as LGBTQ+."

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Saeed, Abubakr; Belghitar, Yacine; Yousaf, Anna (November 2014). "Firm-level determinants of gender diversity in the boardrooms: Evidence from some emerging markets".

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Cranfield University School of Management, The Female FTSE Board Report 2013, (Bedford (England): Cranfield University, 2013) at 7, online: Cranfield University <

2743: 4624: 4850: 4306: 3816: 2708:

Martín-Ugedo, Juan Francisco; Minguez-Vera, Antonio (2014). "Firm Performance and Women on the Board: Evidence from Spanish Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises".

5441: 3874:

Terjesen, S.; Aguilera, R.; Lorenz, R. (2015). "Legislating a Woman's Seat on the Board: Institutional Factors Driving Gender Quotas for Boards of Directors".

2310: 4088: 2369: 2046: 3994: 3786: 3756: 3726: 3696: 3666: 3636: 3606: 3576: 4253: 1435: 1813:. France had the highest number of gender equitable boards, amounting to 20. The UK was next with 12, followed by Germany and the Netherlands with 7. 4764: 1634:, Norway's gender quota "had very little discernible impact on women in business beyond its direct effect on the women who made it into boardrooms." 5060:

Bill C-473, An Act to amend the Financial Administration Act (balanced representation), 2nd Sess, 41st Parl, 2013, (first reading 25 February 2013).

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Finland Chamber of Commerce, Consultation on Gender Imbalance in Corporate Boards in the EU, 2012, at 4, online: Financial Chamber of Commerce <

1982:

and any public unlisted company having a paid-up share capital of 100 crore or more rupees($ 14m) or a turnover of 300 crore or more rupees($ 42m).

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had the most companies with gender equitable boards, totaling 69, or 19.7% of the index. Some of the more recognizable companies in that group are

4359:

Wang, Mingzhu; Kelan, Elisabeth (2013). "The Gender Quota and Female Leadership: Effects of the Norwegian Gender Quota on Board Chairs and CEOs".

2463: 4278: 3527: 4650: 3450: 2405: 4411: 1643:, Norway's adoption of the gender quota did not have a spillover on politics. It did not lead to greater political representation among women. 4800: 4205: 4042: 1562:

Many countries have also opted to pursue this principle through their constitution or through various forms of legislation. For example, the

902: 2840:"Women on corporate boards and corporate financial and non-financial performance: A systematic literature review and future research agenda" 2151:

In December 2014, the Ontario Securities Commission introduced comply-and-explain rules with regards to the percentage of female directors.

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Holst, Elke; Kirsch, Anja (2016). "Financial Sector: Share of Women on Corporate Boards Increases Slightly but Men Still Call the Shots".

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Board members are typically appointed in one of two ways: (1) internally, through in-firm appointments of high level executives such as

5230:"Beyond human capital explanations for the gender pay gap among executives: investigating board embeddedness effects on discrimination" 4332: 3945: 303: 141: 5384: 4398: 3853: 1820:

had at least 50% women on the board, accounting for 20 of the 500 companies on the index. Some of the more recognizable companies are

4062: 3211:

Kramer, Vicki; Konrad, Alison; Erkut, Sumru (2006). "Critical Mass on Corporate Boards: Why Three of More Women Enhance Governance".

4394: 4134: 2065:

The use of gender quotas as a mean of rectifying disproportionate gender representation on corporate boards has been controversial.

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UK Department for Business, Innovation & Skills, Women on Boards (UK: Department for Business, 2011) at 22, online: GOV.UK <

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Bernile, Gennaro; Bhagwat, Vineet; Yonker, Scott (March 6, 2017). "Board Diversity, Firm Risk, and Corporate Policies". p. 7.

4229: 2935:"An empirical evidence on the effect of women board representation on firm performance of companies listed in Iraq Stock Exchange" 2072:

Yet other studies advance negative outcomes. Some argue that quotas inadequately address the larger structural issue known as the

475: 2232: 1563: 294: 4707: 1513:

from 1900. The survey also found that the average first year of appointing a company's first female director was 1985. In 2001,

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Fifteen countries have inserted requirements to report gender diversity board composition in their corporate governance codes.

1505:

from 1934. A survey of Fortune 250 companies in 2012, however, found the first female director of the surveyed companies to be

1428: 1362: 398: 151: 5161: 5088: 5027: 2087:

managers at the public companies. In the same year, at the CEO level, only 6% of listed companies in Norway had a female CEO.

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Ku Ismail, Ki; Manaf, Ka (April 2016). "Market Reactions towards the Appointment of Women to the Boards of Malaysian Firms".

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had gender equitable boards (with at least 50% women's representation). Most of the companies are in the Financials sector.

4787: 587: 3155:"Does Having Women on Board Create Value? The Impact of Societal Perceptions and Corporate Governance in Emerging Markets" 3014: 2751: 2139:

requires companies to disclose information on the gender proportionality their managers in the companies' annual reports.

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companies had 24% or more female directors. In Canada, 36.7% of S&P/TSX60 Companies has 25% or more female directors.

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Similar to the disproportionate gender representation on corporate boards, there is a lack of gender diversity amongst

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had 6 companies with gender equitable boards, or 10% of the overall index. Some of the recognizable companies include

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Larcker, David; Tayan, Brian (September 2013). "Pioneering Women on Boards: Pathways of the First Female Directors".

1421: 1357: 5326: 4763:

Financial Reporting Council, The UK Corporate Governance Code, 2011, at 12, online: Financial Reporting Council <

3154: 104: 54: 4765:

https://www.frc.org.uk/Our-Work/Publications/Corporate-Governance/UK-Corporate-Governance-Code-September-2012.aspx

3970: 4836: 4576: 4507:(June 2014). "Breaking the Glass Ceiling? The Effect of Board Quotas on Female Labor Market Outcomes in Norway". 2839: 1574:

in the United Kingdom which protects against discrimination based on sex. In the United States, Title VII of the

907: 827: 649: 444: 4977: 4599: 3263:"The impact of women above the political glass ceiling: Evidence from a Norwegian executive gender quota reform" 2380: 5191:

Pucheta-Martinez, Maria Consuelo; Bel-Oms, Immaculada (April 2015). "The Gender Gap in Pay in Company Boards".

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The desire to achieve proportionate gender representation on corporate boards is derived from the principle of

364: 200: 3794: 3764: 3734: 3704: 3674: 3644: 3614: 3584: 2986:

Post, Corinne; Byron, Kris (October 2015). "Women on Boards and Firm Financial Performance: A Meta-Analysis".

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Post, Corinne; Byron, Kris (October 2015). "Women on Boards and Firm Financial Performance: A Meta-Analysis".

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http://www.som.cranfield.ac.uk/som/dinamic-content/media/Research/Research%20Centres/CICWL/FTSEReport2013.pdf

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Pucheta-Martinez, Maria Consuelo; Bel-Oms, Immaculada (April 2015). "The Gender Pay Gap in Company Boards".

4443: 4164: 5002: 4949: 4881:"2020 Proxy Paper Guidelines: An Overview of the Glass Lewis Approach to Proxy Advice 2020, United Kingdom" 2128: 2030: 1943:

had 0 companies with gender equitable boards. The closest any company came was 40% women's representation.

1884: 1342: 577: 495: 470: 403: 4914: 4880: 4043:

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/31480/11-745-women-on-boards.pdf

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had 8 companies with gender equitable boards, or 16% of the index. Some of the recognizable companies are

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Groysberg, Boris; Cheng, Yo-Jud; Stuart, Spencer; Bell, Deborah; The WomenCorporateDirectors Foundation.

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Another approach to addressing the disproportionality on corporate boards has been the adoption of the "

572: 210: 5347: 5290: 4898:"BlackRock Investment Stewardship: Corporate governance and proxy voting guidelines for U.S. securities" 2678: 2614: 4397:," Quartz, 8 February 2016. The original study was Marcus Noland, Tyler Moran, and Barbara Kotschwar, " 2053:. It is now pending another appeal. A separate lawsuit found the law unconstitutional on May 13, 2022. 1691:

index in Denmark. In France and Germany, women hold 29.7% and 18.5% of board seats of companies on the

1367: 957: 2182:

board." This advice was relevant to companies on either the Russell 3000 or the S&P 1500 indices.

4915:"2020 Proxy Paper Guidelines: An Overview of the Glass Lewis Approach to Proxy Advice, United States" 3461: 3036:

Levi, Maurice; Li, Kai; Zhang, Feng (October 2014). "Director genders and mergers and acquisitions".

2491: 2416: 1895: 1535:, the chairman and CEO of Xerox, was the first African American female CEO of a Fortune 500 company. 745: 75: 4517: 2224:

serving on boards of state corporations by establishing minimum participant requirements by gender.

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was one of the first female directors of a prominent company. She was a member of the board of the

1197: 891: 220: 185: 5366: 5272: 4811: 3394: 2788:

Morikawa, Masayuki (2016). "What types of companies have female directors? Evidence from Japan".

2315: 2104: 2080: 1914: 1899: 1865: 1849: 1473: 33: 4835:

TD Economics, Special Report: Get on Board Corporate Canada (7 March 2013) at 1, online: TD <

5474: 4512: 1917:

had 2 companies with gender equitable boards, or 5% of the overall index. Those two companies,

550: 235: 225: 161: 5418: 4540:

Burgess, Zena; Tharenou, Phyllis (2002). "Women Board Directors: Characteristics of the Few".

4120: 3903: 3075: 2961: 2639: 2207:) has been shelved, although discussions for such a proposal (or a similar one) remain open. 1668: 1544: 1498: 1494: 1387: 1332: 1262: 1242: 1227: 1097: 619: 582: 490: 354: 190: 1707:

index. In the United States of America, women hold 19.2% of board seats on companies in the

4504: 2934: 1272: 1267: 1212: 1162: 1147: 1032: 922: 872: 752: 313: 274: 109: 99: 85: 4662:(Paul de Vries (2011-09-12), equal opportunity, Blackwell Reference, retrieved 2011-09-12) 8: 4142: 2340: 2325: 1958: 1510: 1478: 1377: 1307: 1237: 1112: 1087: 1067: 1047: 927: 802: 792: 669: 500: 422: 415: 410: 325: 230: 215: 175: 136: 4788:

http://ec.europa.eu/justice/newsroom/gender-equality/opinion/files/120528/all/143_en.pdf

4689: 4557: 4376: 3891: 3116: 2725: 2370:"2018 Progress of Women Corporate Directors by Company Size, State and Industry Sector" 2300: 1975: 1907: 1452: 1392: 1287: 1247: 1117: 1012: 977: 787: 777: 702: 644: 629: 480: 460: 437: 289: 269: 48: 5392: 2589: 1687:

index are held by women. Women also hold 21.9% of board seats of the companies on the

4561: 4380: 4107: 4082: 3899: 3294: 3243: 3071: 2859: 2729: 2345: 2320: 2100: 1880: 1790: 1770: 1688: 1639: 1571: 1502: 1482: 1312: 1282: 1207: 1187: 1172: 1127: 1092: 1057: 992: 932: 867: 847: 842: 712: 697: 624: 614: 602: 512: 505: 485: 369: 284: 240: 170: 80: 4735: 4693: 3895: 3279: 3262: 3120: 1762:'s SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report, as of February 2023, 8.8% of the 1671:

200 index respectively. Women in Japan hold 3.1% of board seats on companies in the

5251: 5241: 5208: 5200: 5177: 5173: 5135: 5127: 5104: 5100: 4681: 4549: 4522: 4480: 4472: 4368: 3883: 3284: 3274: 3235: 3177: 3169: 3108: 3049: 3045: 2995: 2949: 2898: 2890: 2851: 2820: 2793: 2717: 2565: 2038: 1929: 1876: 1845: 1684: 1524: 1456: 1397: 1382: 1372: 1352: 1322: 1257: 1232: 1157: 1137: 1132: 1077: 997: 962: 947: 912: 897: 877: 822: 807: 797: 782: 767: 762: 757: 707: 684: 527: 522: 308: 279: 256: 119: 4476: 3395:"EyN: Eléctricas lideran en la diversidad de ejecutivos dentro de las firmas IPSA" 3093: 5479: 4771: 3367:"2015 CWDI Report: Women Board Directors of 100 Largest Latin American Companies" 2797: 2721: 1918: 1680: 1664: 1567: 1347: 1337: 1327: 1302: 1292: 1222: 1202: 1182: 1122: 1062: 1042: 1027: 982: 972: 952: 887: 837: 832: 817: 772: 717: 532: 205: 5309:"Russell 3000 Surpasses Milestone Marker of 20% Female Representation on Boards" 4333:"Judge says California law requiring diverse company boards is unconstitutional" 2855: 2335: 2245: 2204: 2042: 2005:

Italy requires public companies to have 33% of either underrepresented gender.

1979: 1940: 1657: 1527:, previously the chairwoman of the board of The Post Co., was the first female 1402: 1317: 1297: 1277: 1252: 1217: 1177: 1152: 1142: 1082: 1052: 1037: 1007: 1002: 987: 967: 917: 862: 857: 812: 734: 567: 517: 427: 376: 320: 5246: 5229: 4837:

http://www.td.com/document/PDF/economics/special/GetOnBoardCorporateCanada.pdf

4685: 4553: 4372: 3887: 3552:"2014 Catalyst Census: S&P 500 Companies With 25% of More Women Directors" 3506:"These are the 12 major companies that still don't have women on their boards" 5468: 3426:"Where Are The Women: Inclusive Boardrooms in Africa's top listed companies?" 3298: 3247: 2863: 2330: 2305: 2073: 1891: 1872: 1853: 1841: 1829: 1798: 1763: 1704: 1407: 1192: 1167: 1102: 1072: 1022: 1017: 942: 882: 852: 727: 562: 432: 393: 381: 359: 341: 156: 4230:"Creighton Meland Jr. v. Shirley N. Weber, Secretary of State of California" 4165:"UAE listed companies must have at least one female board member: regulator" 3239: 3182: 2615:"Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women" 1730: 4412:

The Bottom Line: Corporate Performance and Women’s Representation on Boards

4395:

Huge study finds that companies with more women leaders are more profitable

1723: 1532: 1506: 1461: 692: 180: 4851:"Gender-equity "comply or explain" rules for boards are working - sort of" 2999: 2824: 2569: 2351:

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

1932:

only had 1 company (0.7% of the index) with gender equality on the board:

1552:

Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women

5455: 5204: 5131: 4932:"United States: Proxy Voting Guidelines Benchmark Policy Recommendations" 4708:"Recommendation 1.5, Corporate Governance Principles and Recommendations" 3289: 2953: 2838:

Nguyen, Thi Hong Hanh; Ntim, Collins G.; Malagila, John K. (2020-10-01).

2284: 1903: 1857: 1837: 1794: 1528: 1485:

guidelines (a reform based on the principle of equality of opportunity).

639: 609: 386: 5256: 5213: 5140: 3187: 3092:

Gregory-Smith, Ian; Main, Brian; O'Reilly III, Charles (February 2014).

1538: 4485: 4458:"Women in the boardroom and their impact on governance and performance" 3112: 2556:

Watson, Philippa (1995). "Equality of Treatment: A Variable Concept?".

2279: 2050: 1817: 1753: 1743: 1736: 1708: 1663:

In Hong Kong and India women hold 10.2% and 9.5% of board seats of the

1581: 1514: 722: 664: 659: 3817:"All listed UAE companies now need at least one female board director" 2903: 2894: 2879: 1936:. Across the index, the average representation was 1 woman out of 10. 1656:

As of March 2018, 27.1% of board seats of companies on the Australian

3995:"SECP Regulation: Women Directors to More Than Double in Three Years" 3173: 2587: 1922: 1825: 1821: 1802: 5348:"233 CA-Based Public Company Boards Lack Racial or Ethnic Diversity" 4279:"New Law Requires Diversity on Boards of California-Based Companies" 4017: 3831: 3153:

Abdullah, Shansul; Ismail, Ku Nor Izah; Nachum, Lilac (March 2016).

1778: 1651: 5228:

Oehmichen, Jana; Sarry, Maximilian; Wolff, Michael (October 2014).

4526: 4206:"California Becomes 1st State To Require Women On Corporate Boards" 1946: 1810: 1774: 1617: 1518: 124: 5442:"Percentage of women CEOs rises during challenging business year" 3091: 679: 634: 3918:

Rules 3, Companies (Appointment & Qualification) Rules, 2014

3528:"Companies with women on the board perform better, report finds" 1978:

imposes a quota of at least one female director on the board of

1578:

prohibits discrimination against employees on the basis of sex.

4502: 3225: 2228: 1833: 1786: 1782: 1692: 1683:

index. In Sweden, 28.8% of board seats of the companies in the

195: 5071:"Nasdaq Proposes New Listing Rules Related to Board Diversity" 4057: 4055: 4053: 4051: 3094:"Appointments, Pay and Performance in UK Boardrooms by Gender" 1703:

In Canada women hold 20.8% of board seats on companies in the

4399:

Is Gender Diversity Profitable? Evidence from a Global Survey

4254:"Judge: California's women on boards law is unconstitutional" 1971: 1933: 1759: 1672: 1551: 129: 67: 5271:

Badkar, Mamta; Edgecliffe-Johnson, Andrew (June 11, 2020).

4307:"California corporate diversity law ruled unconstitutional" 4048: 2744:"Proportion of Female Directors is Higher for Larger Firms" 3946:"ASX writes 30pc gender target into governance guidelines" 1586: 1517:, Viscountess Hailsham, became the first woman to chair a 5327:"Boardroom Refreshment: A Review of Trends at U.S. Firms" 5021:"Quotas Impact on Organisations Diversity | Reports" 4210: 2239: 1806: 1731:

Percentage of companies with at least one female director

1696: 1625:

is required to improve a company's corporate governance.

5270: 4401:," 2016, Petersen Institute for International Economics. 2707: 2185: 2060: 2041:. The District Court ruled the challengers did not have 5190: 5117: 3997:. Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP) 2486: 2484: 5273:"US boardrooms fail to reflect country's demographics" 4671: 4069:. 2013-06-27. Archived from the original on 2023-08-28 3873: 2311:

Worker representation on corporate boards of directors

2154: 1449:

Gender representation on corporate boards of directors

92:

Gender representation on corporate boards of directors

4456:

Adams, Renée B.; Ferreira, Daniel (1 November 2009).

2583: 2581: 2579: 1539:

Rationale behind gender diversity on corporate boards

1451:

refers to the proportion of men and women who occupy

3854:"Women, Business and the Law 2016: Getting to Equal" 3152: 3069: 2772: 2481: 2461: 1925:., are both in Brazil and in the financials sector. 1754:

Percentage of companies with gender equitable boards

1582:

Determinants of gender diversity on corporate boards

5227: 4503:Bertrand, Marianne; Black, Sandra; Jensen, Sissel; 3133: 2665:

Section 15, Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

4950:"Shinzo Abe: Unleashing the Power of 'Womenomics'" 3499: 3497: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 2837: 2576: 2514: 2512: 2269: 5367:"Board diversity push leaves out women of colour" 5160:Geiler, Philipp; Renneboog, Luc (December 2015). 5087:Geiler, Philipp; Renneboog, Luc (December 2015). 3210: 1652:Percentage of women holding corporate board seats 5466: 4972: 4970: 4444:Women on Boards and the Human Capital Connection 4087:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3787:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3757:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3727:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3697:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3667:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3637:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3607:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 3577:"SHEgoverns Awards 2023: Women on Boards Report" 2932: 1947:Encouraging gender diversity on corporate boards 1722:Although women hold 17.9% of the board seats on 315:Science, technology, engineering and mathematics 5159: 5086: 4782: 4780: 4577:"Gender Quotas Worked in Norway. Why Not Here?" 4539: 4498: 4496: 3494: 3305: 3013:Grene, Sophia; Newlands, Chris (8 March 2015). 2509: 2278:(CEO). As of February 2016, only 4% of CEOs of 5082: 5080: 3763:. The SHE Mark. pp. 33–34. Archived from 3643:. The SHE Mark. pp. 28–29. Archived from 3613:. The SHE Mark. pp. 24–27. Archived from 2917: 4967: 4759: 4757: 4455: 4354: 4352: 3261:Geys, Benny; Sørensen, Rune J. (2019-06-08). 3012: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2920:Journal of Multinational Financial Management 2094: 1742:The 2014 Catalyst Census found that 26.2% of 1429: 5162:"Are female tope managers really paid less?" 4777: 4493: 3260: 2966:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 ( 2875: 2873: 2518: 1566:which guarantees equality rights, including 5089:"Are female top managers really paid less?" 5077: 3485: 3035: 2588:McCoy Family Center for Ethics in Society. 5221: 5155: 5153: 5151: 4754: 4349: 4102:"Article 518 bis, Belgian Companies Code". 3793:. The SHE Mark. p. 35. Archived from 3733:. The SHE Mark. p. 32. Archived from 3703:. The SHE Mark. p. 31. Archived from 3673:. The SHE Mark. p. 30. Archived from 3213:Wellesley Centers for Women's Publications 2974: 2844:International Review of Financial Analysis 1436: 1422: 5255: 5245: 5212: 5139: 4516: 4484: 4358: 4037: 4035: 3336:Australian Institute of Company Directors 3288: 3278: 3181: 2985: 2933:Farhan Jedi, Firas; Nayan, Sabri (2018). 2902: 2870: 2810: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2165:against the nominating committee chair." 1637:According to a 2019 study in the journal 5184: 4801:"Finnish Corporate Governance Code 2015" 2787: 1585: 5148: 4978:"Legislative Board Diversity - Pending" 4600:"Even Scandinavia has a CEO Gender Gap" 4020:. Dawn, The Business and Finance Weekly 3834:. Dawn, The Business and Finance Weekly 3374:Corporate Women Directors International 3087: 3085: 1564:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 5467: 5352:Latino Corporate Directors Association 4597: 4032: 2696: 2555: 2535:"Hogg makes history as FTSE 100 chair" 2379:. 2020 Women on Boards. Archived from 2240:The gender pay gap on corporate boards 5439: 5415:"List: Women CEOs of the S&P 500" 4330: 4015: 3829: 3546: 3544: 3479: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3015:"Boards without women breed scandals" 2594:Equality of Opportunity and Education 2186:Other responses and pending responses 2061:Impact and criticism of gender quotas 5364: 5003:"EU Shelves Women Board Quotas Plan" 3503: 3082: 2457: 2455: 1646: 588:Gender representation in video games 4947: 4848: 3525: 2155:Pressure by institutional investors 2049:. The District Court then denied a 13: 5291:"2019 U.S. Board Diversity Trends" 4016:Jamal, Nasir (February 12, 2018). 3830:Jamal, Nasir (February 12, 2018). 3541: 3409: 3350: 3056: 2468:WomenCorporateDirectors Foundation 2218: 2174:nominating/governance committee." 2146: 14: 5501: 4948:Abe, Shinzo (25 September 2013). 4598:Zander, Christina (21 May 2014). 2452: 2190: 2159: 2113: 5448: 5433: 5407: 5377: 5358: 5340: 5319: 5301: 5283: 5264: 5111: 5063: 5054: 5044: 5013: 4995: 4941: 4715:ASX Corporate Governance Council 4218:from the original on 2023-04-14. 2496:Lettie Pate Whitehead Foundation 2256: 2210: 2168: 2020: 1951: 105:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 32: 5440:Stych, Anne (January 4, 2021). 5385:"Women CEOs of the S&P 500" 5365:Sule, Ahmed (January 9, 2019). 5193:Industrial and Corporate Change 5120:Industrial and Corporate Change 4924: 4907: 4890: 4873: 4842: 4829: 4793: 4728: 4700: 4665: 4656: 4643: 4617: 4591: 4574: 4568: 4533: 4449: 4436: 4426: 4417: 4404: 4387: 4324: 4299: 4285: 4271: 4246: 4222: 4198: 4184: 4175: 4157: 4127: 4095: 4009: 3987: 3963: 3938: 3924: 3910: 3867: 3846: 3823: 3809: 3779: 3749: 3719: 3689: 3659: 3629: 3599: 3569: 3519: 3443: 3387: 3280:10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102050 3254: 3219: 3204: 3146: 3127: 3029: 3006: 2926: 2911: 2831: 2804: 2781: 2766: 2736: 2671: 2657: 2640:"Sustainable Development Goals" 2632: 2607: 2443:"Contact Vell Executive Search" 2270:Female Chief Executive Officers 1965: 5417:. catalyst.org. Archived from 5178:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2015.08.010 5105:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2015.08.010 4631:. The Economist. November 2014 4465:Journal of Financial Economics 3932:The Companies Act, 2013, Ch XI 3583:. The SHE Mark. Archived from 3228:The Review of Economic Studies 3050:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2013.11.005 2942:Business and Economic Horizons 2549: 2527: 2435: 2398: 2362: 2047:Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals 2011: 1877:Auckland International Airport 1631:The Review of Economic Studies 1: 4808:Securities Market Association 4477:10.1016/j.jfineco.2008.10.007 4063:"Legislative Board Diversity" 2988:Academy of Management Journal 2813:Academy of Management Journal 2775:International Business Review 2679:"Discrimination: Your Rights" 2356: 1896:Canadian National Railway Co. 1628:According to a 2019 study in 1557:Sustainable Development Goals 5166:Journal of Corporate Finance 5093:Journal of Corporate Finance 4509:NBER Working Paper No. 20256 4331:Picon, Andres (2022-04-02). 4141:. 1 May 2013. Archived from 4135:"Take 5: Questioning Quotas" 3975:aicd.companydirectors.com.au 3332:"Board Diversity Statistics" 3162:Strategic Management Journal 3038:Journal of Corporate Finance 2798:10.1016/j.japwor.2015.09.001 2722:10.1080/13545701.2014.895404 2537:. The Telegraph. 19 May 2001 2129:UK Corporate Governance Code 2045:, but was overturned by the 2037:on the grounds of violating 556:Portrayal in American comics 147:Heads of state or government 7: 3397:(in Spanish). 27 March 2017 3136:North Carolina Board Review 2790:Japan and the World Economy 2521:Stanford Closer Look Series 2294: 2198: 2137:Swedish Annual Accounts Act 2127:In the United Kingdom, the 2122: 10: 5506: 4674:Journal of Business Ethics 4542:Journal of Business Ethics 4361:Journal of Business Ethics 3876:Journal of Business Ethics 3431:. African Development Bank 2856:10.1016/j.irfa.2020.101554 2464:"2016 Global Board Survey" 2227:In the United States, The 2095:Corporate governance codes 1488: 1477:based on the principle of 5247:10.1007/s40685-014-0009-5 4686:10.1007/s10551-014-2083-1 4373:10.1007/s10551-012-1546-5 3888:10.1007/s10551-014-2083-1 2883:Human Resource Management 1992: 1915:S&P Latin American 40 1735:As of August 2015, 2% of 1660:index are held by women. 1598: 4234:Pacific Legal Foundation 4018:"Women in the boardroom" 3832:"Women in the boardroom" 3451:"Gender Diversity Index" 2406:"Gender Diversity Index" 2276:Chief Executive Officers 1862:Walgreens Boots Alliance 1576:Civil Rights Act of 1964 1497:Foundation asserts that 5456:"Women CEOs in America" 4954:The Wall Street Journal 4604:The Wall Street Journal 4554:10.1023/A:1014726001155 4337:San Francisco Chronicle 4293:"Assembly Bill No. 979" 2492:"Lettie Pate Whitehead" 2316:Chief Executive Officer 2105:equality of opportunity 1908:Sun Life Financial, Inc 1900:National Bank of Canada 1474:equality of opportunity 142:Conservatives in the US 115:Explorers and travelers 2956:(inactive 2024-06-23). 2558:Industrial Law Journal 2291:male and female CEOs. 2051:preliminary injunction 1591: 1453:board member positions 445:In Shakespeare's works 5315:. September 11, 2019. 4505:Lleras-Muney, Adriana 4192:"Senate Bill No. 826" 3488:DIW Economic Bulletin 3240:10.1093/restud/rdy032 3000:10.5465/amj.2013.0319 2825:10.5465/amj.2013.0319 2590:"Equality of Outcome" 2229:Nasdaq stock exchange 1923:PagSeguro Digital Ltd 1589: 1545:equality of treatment 1499:Lettie Pate Whitehead 1495:Lettie Pate Whitehead 201:Nobel Prize laureates 5421:on 12 September 2023 5073:. December 13, 2020. 4937:. November 18, 2019. 4849:Bosanac, Alexandra. 4736:"Women in Australia" 4145:on 14 September 2016 3971:"30 percent by 2018" 3458:2020 Women on Boards 3101:The Economic Journal 2954:10.15208/beh.2018.10 2413:2020 Women on Boards 1358:United Arab Emirates 295:in the United States 110:Economic development 100:Diversity (politics) 86:Female entrepreneurs 5336:. January 22, 2015. 5007:Wall Street Journal 4281:. October 10, 2020. 2570:10.1093/ilj/24.1.33 2341:Economic inequality 2326:Female entrepreneur 1976:Companies Act, 2013 1959:equality of outcome 1511:Abbott Laboratories 1479:equality of outcome 1343:Trinidad and Tobago 578:Speculative fiction 471:Theological figures 416:Feminist philosophy 216:Reproductive rights 22:Part of a series on 5485:Board of directors 5458:. January 4, 2021. 5205:10.1093/icc/dtu016 5132:10.1093/icc/dtu016 5009:. 23 October 2012. 4770:2013-10-07 at the 4625:"A Nordic mystery" 4414:," Catalyst, 2007. 4295:. October 2, 2020. 4194:. October 1, 2018. 3791:www.theSHEmark.com 3761:www.theSHEmark.com 3731:www.theSHEmark.com 3701:www.theSHEmark.com 3671:www.theSHEmark.com 3641:www.theSHEmark.com 3611:www.theSHEmark.com 3581:www.theSHEmark.com 3113:10.1111/ecoj.12102 3107:(574): F109–F128. 2710:Feminist Economics 2386:on 30 October 2019 2301:Board of directors 2031:Crown corporations 1771:S&P Europe 350 1592: 908:Dominican Republic 675:Mixed martial arts 645:Fastpitch softball 226:Violence and abuse 211:Positions of power 5234:Business Research 4855:Canadian Business 4115:Missing or empty 3267:Electoral Studies 3017:. Financial Times 2895:10.1002/hrm.21694 2346:Gender inequality 2321:Women in business 2101:comply or explain 1930:S&P/TOPIX 150 1881:Commonwealth Bank 1689:OMX Copenhagen 20 1647:Current landscape 1640:Electoral Studies 1572:Equality Act 2010 1503:Coca-Cola Company 1483:comply or explain 1446: 1445: 650:Football / soccer 573:Fictional pirates 365:Art history field 241:Exchange of women 16:Aspect of culture 5497: 5460: 5459: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5437: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5391:. Archived from 5381: 5375: 5374: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5344: 5338: 5337: 5331: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5249: 5225: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5157: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5084: 5075: 5074: 5067: 5061: 5058: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5041: 5039: 5038: 5032: 5026:. Archived from 5025: 5017: 5011: 5010: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4974: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4920:. November 2019. 4919: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4886:. November 2019. 4885: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4857:. Archived from 4846: 4840: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4816: 4810:. Archived from 4805: 4797: 4791: 4784: 4775: 4761: 4752: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4712: 4704: 4698: 4697: 4669: 4663: 4660: 4654: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4520: 4500: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4462: 4453: 4447: 4440: 4434: 4433:10.1002/bse.1879 4430: 4424: 4421: 4415: 4408: 4402: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4356: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4343: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4318: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4275: 4269: 4268: 4266: 4265: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4240: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4188: 4182: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4171:. 15 March 2021. 4161: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4118: 4113: 4111: 4103: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4086: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4059: 4046: 4039: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3981: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3958: 3957: 3950:Financial Review 3942: 3936: 3935: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3858: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3819:. 15 March 2021. 3813: 3807: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3797:on 23 March 2023 3783: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3767:on 23 March 2023 3753: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3737:on 23 March 2023 3723: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3707:on 23 March 2023 3693: 3687: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3677:on 23 March 2023 3663: 3657: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3647:on 23 March 2023 3633: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3617:on 23 March 2023 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3587:on 23 March 2023 3573: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3548: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3504:McGregor, Jena. 3501: 3492: 3491: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3466: 3460:. Archived from 3455: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3430: 3422: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3371: 3363: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3328: 3303: 3302: 3292: 3282: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3192: 3186:. Archived from 3185: 3183:10.1002/smj.2352 3174:10.1002/smj.2352 3159: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3098: 3089: 3080: 3079: 3067: 3054: 3053: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2983: 2972: 2971: 2965: 2957: 2939: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2877: 2868: 2867: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2750:. Archived from 2740: 2734: 2733: 2705: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2675: 2669: 2668: 2661: 2655: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2636: 2630: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2585: 2574: 2573: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2516: 2507: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2488: 2479: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2459: 2450: 2449: 2447: 2439: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2421: 2415:. Archived from 2410: 2402: 2396: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2385: 2374: 2366: 2039:equal protection 1980:listed companies 1846:Paramount Global 1685:OMX Stockholm 30 1525:Katharine Graham 1509:, a director of 1457:gender diversity 1438: 1431: 1424: 1108:Marshall Islands 685:Paralympic Games 316: 93: 58: 36: 27:Women in society 19: 18: 5505: 5504: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5490:Gender equality 5465: 5464: 5463: 5454: 5453: 5449: 5438: 5434: 5424: 5422: 5413: 5412: 5408: 5398: 5396: 5383: 5382: 5378: 5371:Financial Times 5363: 5359: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5329: 5325: 5324: 5320: 5307: 5306: 5302: 5297:. May 31, 2019. 5289: 5288: 5284: 5277:Financial Times 5269: 5265: 5226: 5222: 5189: 5185: 5158: 5149: 5116: 5112: 5085: 5078: 5069: 5068: 5064: 5059: 5055: 5049: 5045: 5036: 5034: 5030: 5023: 5019: 5018: 5014: 5001: 5000: 4996: 4986: 4984: 4976: 4975: 4968: 4958: 4956: 4946: 4942: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4903:. January 2020. 4900: 4896: 4895: 4891: 4883: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4864: 4862: 4847: 4843: 4834: 4830: 4820: 4818: 4814: 4803: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4785: 4778: 4772:Wayback Machine 4762: 4755: 4745: 4743: 4742:. 12 March 2014 4734: 4733: 4729: 4719: 4717: 4710: 4706: 4705: 4701: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4648: 4644: 4634: 4632: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4608: 4606: 4596: 4592: 4582: 4580: 4573: 4569: 4538: 4534: 4518:10.1.1.657.2039 4501: 4494: 4460: 4454: 4450: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4409: 4405: 4392: 4388: 4357: 4350: 4341: 4339: 4329: 4325: 4316: 4314: 4305: 4304: 4300: 4291: 4290: 4286: 4277: 4276: 4272: 4263: 4261: 4252: 4251: 4247: 4238: 4236: 4228: 4227: 4223: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4190: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4163: 4162: 4158: 4148: 4146: 4133: 4132: 4128: 4116: 4114: 4105: 4104: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4080: 4079: 4072: 4070: 4061: 4060: 4049: 4040: 4033: 4023: 4021: 4014: 4010: 4000: 3998: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3979: 3977: 3969: 3968: 3964: 3955: 3953: 3944: 3943: 3939: 3930: 3929: 3925: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3872: 3868: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3837: 3835: 3828: 3824: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3800: 3798: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3770: 3768: 3755: 3754: 3750: 3740: 3738: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3710: 3708: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3680: 3678: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3650: 3648: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3620: 3618: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3560: 3558: 3550: 3549: 3542: 3532: 3530: 3526:Farrell, Sean. 3524: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3502: 3495: 3484: 3480: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3453: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3434: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3423: 3410: 3400: 3398: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3378: 3376: 3369: 3365: 3364: 3351: 3341: 3339: 3330: 3329: 3306: 3259: 3255: 3224: 3220: 3209: 3205: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3157: 3151: 3147: 3132: 3128: 3096: 3090: 3083: 3068: 3057: 3034: 3030: 3020: 3018: 3011: 3007: 2984: 2975: 2959: 2958: 2937: 2931: 2927: 2916: 2912: 2878: 2871: 2836: 2832: 2809: 2805: 2786: 2782: 2771: 2767: 2757: 2755: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2706: 2697: 2687: 2685: 2677: 2676: 2672: 2663: 2662: 2658: 2648: 2646: 2638: 2637: 2633: 2623: 2621: 2613: 2612: 2608: 2598: 2596: 2586: 2577: 2554: 2550: 2540: 2538: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2517: 2510: 2500: 2498: 2490: 2489: 2482: 2472: 2470: 2460: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2440: 2436: 2425: 2423: 2419: 2408: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2389: 2387: 2383: 2377:www.2020wob.com 2372: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2297: 2272: 2259: 2242: 2231:filed with the 2221: 2213: 2201: 2193: 2188: 2171: 2162: 2157: 2149: 2135:In Sweden, the 2125: 2116: 2097: 2063: 2023: 2014: 1995: 1968: 1954: 1949: 1941:S&P Asia 50 1919:Banco Do Brasil 1756: 1733: 1681:OMX Helsinki 25 1675:Core 30 Index. 1665:Hang Seng Index 1658:S&P/ASX 200 1654: 1649: 1601: 1584: 1568:gender equality 1541: 1491: 1442: 1413: 1412: 748: 738: 737: 730: 718:Track and field 605: 595: 594: 546: 545:Popular culture 538: 537: 466: 465: 450: 449: 404:Science fiction 350: 349: 331: 330: 314: 265: 264: 246: 245: 221:Venture capital 186:Law enforcement 91: 76:Animal advocacy 72: 52: 49:Women's history 44: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5503: 5493: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5462: 5461: 5447: 5432: 5406: 5395:on 29 May 2016 5376: 5357: 5339: 5334:ISS Governance 5318: 5300: 5295:ISS Governance 5282: 5263: 5240:(2): 351–380. 5220: 5199:(2): 467–510. 5183: 5147: 5126:(2): 467–510. 5110: 5076: 5062: 5053: 5043: 5012: 4994: 4966: 4940: 4923: 4906: 4889: 4872: 4861:on 2 June 2016 4841: 4828: 4792: 4776: 4753: 4727: 4699: 4680:(2): 233–251. 4664: 4655: 4642: 4616: 4590: 4579:. New Republic 4567: 4532: 4527:10.3386/w20256 4492: 4471:(2): 291–309. 4448: 4446:," 2018, MSCI. 4435: 4425: 4416: 4403: 4386: 4348: 4323: 4298: 4284: 4270: 4245: 4221: 4197: 4183: 4174: 4156: 4126: 4094: 4047: 4031: 4008: 3986: 3962: 3937: 3923: 3909: 3882:(2): 233–251. 3866: 3845: 3822: 3808: 3778: 3748: 3718: 3688: 3658: 3628: 3598: 3568: 3540: 3518: 3493: 3478: 3442: 3408: 3386: 3349: 3338:. 7 March 2018 3304: 3253: 3234:(1): 191–239. 3218: 3203: 3168:(3): 466–476. 3145: 3126: 3081: 3055: 3028: 3005: 2973: 2948:(1): 117–131. 2925: 2910: 2889:(2): 265–281. 2869: 2830: 2803: 2792:. 37–38: 1–7. 2780: 2765: 2754:on 9 June 2016 2735: 2716:(3): 136–162. 2695: 2670: 2656: 2644:United Nations 2631: 2606: 2575: 2548: 2526: 2508: 2480: 2451: 2434: 2397: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2336:Gender pay gap 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2296: 2293: 2271: 2268: 2258: 2255: 2246:gender pay gap 2241: 2238: 2220: 2217: 2212: 2209: 2205:Viviane Reding 2200: 2197: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2170: 2167: 2161: 2160:United Kingdom 2158: 2156: 2153: 2148: 2145: 2124: 2121: 2115: 2112: 2096: 2093: 2062: 2059: 2022: 2019: 2013: 2010: 1994: 1991: 1967: 1964: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1892:S&P/TSX 60 1873:S&P/ASX 50 1764:S&P Global 1755: 1752: 1732: 1729: 1705:S&P/TSX 60 1695:index and the 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1600: 1597: 1583: 1580: 1540: 1537: 1490: 1487: 1444: 1443: 1441: 1440: 1433: 1426: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1363:United Kingdom 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 749: 744: 743: 740: 739: 735:List of sports 732: 731: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 606: 601: 600: 597: 596: 593: 592: 591: 590: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 559: 558: 547: 544: 543: 540: 539: 536: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 509: 508: 503: 498: 488: 483: 478: 473: 467: 464: 463: 457: 456: 455: 452: 451: 448: 447: 442: 441: 440: 435: 425: 420: 419: 418: 408: 407: 406: 396: 391: 390: 389: 387:"Chick flicks" 379: 374: 373: 372: 370:Women's cinema 362: 357: 351: 348: 347: 344: 338: 337: 336: 333: 332: 329: 328: 323: 318: 311: 306: 301: 300: 299: 298: 297: 282: 277: 272: 266: 263: 262: 259: 253: 252: 251: 248: 247: 244: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 167: 166: 165: 164: 154: 149: 144: 134: 133: 132: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 96: 95: 88: 78: 71: 70: 64: 63: 60: 59: 45: 42: 41: 38: 37: 29: 28: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5502: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5475:Businesswomen 5473: 5472: 5470: 5457: 5451: 5443: 5436: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5343: 5335: 5328: 5322: 5314: 5310: 5304: 5296: 5292: 5286: 5278: 5274: 5267: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5215: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5083: 5081: 5072: 5066: 5057: 5047: 5033:on 2016-08-20 5029: 5022: 5016: 5008: 5004: 4998: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4971: 4955: 4951: 4944: 4933: 4927: 4916: 4910: 4899: 4893: 4882: 4876: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4838: 4832: 4817:on 2 May 2016 4813: 4809: 4802: 4796: 4789: 4783: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4766: 4760: 4758: 4741: 4737: 4731: 4716: 4709: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4659: 4652: 4646: 4630: 4626: 4620: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4578: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4536: 4528: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4497: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4459: 4452: 4445: 4439: 4429: 4420: 4413: 4407: 4400: 4396: 4390: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4355: 4353: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4312: 4308: 4302: 4294: 4288: 4280: 4274: 4259: 4255: 4249: 4235: 4231: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4212: 4207: 4201: 4193: 4187: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4160: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4130: 4122: 4109: 4098: 4090: 4084: 4068: 4064: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4044: 4038: 4036: 4019: 4012: 3996: 3990: 3976: 3972: 3966: 3951: 3947: 3941: 3933: 3927: 3919: 3913: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3862: 3855: 3849: 3833: 3826: 3818: 3812: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3782: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3692: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3632: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3545: 3529: 3522: 3507: 3500: 3498: 3489: 3482: 3467:on 4 May 2017 3463: 3459: 3452: 3446: 3427: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3396: 3390: 3375: 3368: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3290:11250/2620766 3286: 3281: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3214: 3207: 3193:on 2021-12-07 3189: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3088: 3086: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3016: 3009: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2969: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2929: 2921: 2914: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2874: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2784: 2776: 2769: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2666: 2660: 2645: 2641: 2635: 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