Women in ancient and imperial China

3350: 4062: 3832: 3496: 2538: 4314:, or being widowed before the age of 30 and remaining a widow for more than 20 years. Even in these biographies, however, the women's names are rarely given. While the Ming authority approved of widow chastity, it was in the Qing period that it was officially promoted, with the practice described by a historian as a "bureaucratic tool of moral reform". To promote female chastity in every community, the government asked local leaders to nominate exemplary women and submit their biographies. If the woman was proven to fit the description of a "chaste widow", her family would receive a personal commendation written by the emperor or a chastity arch would be erected in her community memorializing her. From 1644 to 1736, approximately 6,870 women in the 3912:

changes in inheritance practices and social structure. Such changes led to the increasing dominance of orthodox patrilineal ideology, and family practices across China then became standardized by state law based on patriarchal principles. Nevertheless, the neo-Confucians were in part responsible for such changes. For example, it was the Song dynasty neo-Confucians who criticized the practice of women keeping their own dowries including properties they had inherited from their fathers, and after the death of their husbands, returned to the family of their birth along with such properties as well as any wealth they had accumulated during their marriage. Song dynasty widows who returned to their original family, referred to as

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early 1300s. women were stripped of their dowry rights and forfeited their property should they leave their first marriage. The Yuan promoted Neo Confucian patriarchal ideas formulated by Song dynasty philosopher Zhu Xi. The Yuan also stopped its initial push for levirate practices to be adopted Han, retracting the law and instead adopting the strict neo-Confucian position of Zhu Xi for widow chastity, adopting neo-Confucianism even more than past Han dynasties. Levirate was also banned for non-Han.

3623: 3900:. Cheng Yi considered it improper to marry a widow as she had lost her integrity, and as for widows who had become impoverished due to the death of their husbands, Cheng stated: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter." Chaste widows were praised, and while it was normal for widows to remarry in the early Song period, remarriage would later become a social stigma, which led to hardship and loneliness for many widows. The poetess 2999:; however, the teachings were not followed to the letter in daily life. Within the lands belonging to the former state of Qin, it was common practice for poor families to avoid the obligation of granting a son a share in the family property on attaining adulthood by sending him to live with his wife's family. Such a practice was looked down upon by the upper classes and men living with their wives' families were targeted in the 214 3190: 8429: 2907: 3069:. Matrilocal marriages were relatively common in the Han period, though in some states more than others. For instance, in the state of Qin, a son would be given a share of the family property on coming of age, but this was not always an option for impoverished families, who often opted to send their son to live with his wife's family. These men were referred to as 'pawned sons-in-law' ( 2529:, with their male guardians (husbands or fathers) controlling their actions. The marital division of labor of "men plow, women weave" is expected to widen the gap in power of household decision-making in favor of men, keeping women in a subordinate position. In contrast, archaeological remains from pre-Confucian periods show that women played active roles at all levels of society. 3587:) to change their position. However, a concubine was expected to serve the wife in the same way as a maid, her sons were required to treat the wife as their legal mother, and, on her husband's death, she had no claims to the property he left. Though wives were not supposed to be sold, the perception of women as marketable goods made it simple for husbands to sell their wives to 3038: 4142:) to chaste widow, giving approval of local chastity cults whereby commemorative arches and shrines were erected to honour the women by members of their families or communities. In the late 16th century, such awards were also extended to women who died resisting rape. Women who died or committed suicide to protect their honour were referred to as "fierce women" (烈女, 4344:). Critics of the practice argued that such deaths were usually inspired more by despair than loyalty to the deceased husband, caused by the threat of remarriage, abusive in-laws, etc. Qing law also gave fathers absolute authority over their daughters, including the ability to kill them for behavior they considered shameful, however, a man was forbidden from 2437:). Though limited by policies that prevented them from owning property, taking examinations, or holding office, their restriction to a distinctive women's world prompted the development of female-specific occupations, exclusive literary circles, whilst also investing certain women with certain types of political influence inaccessible to men. 2687:) in the north contained equal numbers of men and women, suggesting that both were given equal burial rites. In addition, the women's average age at death was slightly higher than the men's, which indicates that they lived longer. This contrasts with the pattern at other cemeteries of the same period, where fewer women received formal burial. 3116:), who were poor (presumably married into other families). This indicates a continued connection between a woman and her natal family during the Han, as well as the option for women to buy and work land. However, Xianjun and Ruojun could not hold onto the land permanently, as it was to be given to a younger brother on his release from 4044:. In 1323, Sengge Ragi held a historic "elegant gathering", which was made unique by the fact that the event was hosted by a woman. Her unique role in hosting the elegant gathering and collecting many fine pieces of art during her lifetime grant her a unique position in the cultural legacy of the Yuan dynasty. 3920:, and laws were then enacted forbidding women from taking their own properties back to the families of their birth, or to another family should they remarry. In so doing, a woman's property became the property of her first husband's family, which diminished a woman's worth and her prospect of remarriage. 4274:

and obey their fathers in childhood, their husbands when married, and their sons in widowhood. Women's personal names are typically unknown; they were referred to as, "the wife of ," or, "mother of ." A woman's achievements during her life were closely connected to her ability to bear children; those

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also became popular among the elite, later spreading to other social classes. The earliest known references to bound feet appeared in this period, and evidence from archaeology also indicates that foot binding was practiced among elite women in the thirteenth century. The practice may have originated

2950:

In spite of social rules that the sexes should be segregated, women were in charge of events held in their home (the domestic sphere), even if social rules meant that they should not appear to be. Even for meetings that were restricted to males, the woman of the house is often recorded as keeping a

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states that, "among family members, women's proper place is inside and man's proper place is outside." The written sources indicate that women were increasingly confined to enforce this gender separation, with women of lower social status expected to return home when not engaged in unavoidable work

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in which a man marries the wife of his deceased brother was common, but such practice was frowned upon by Han Chinese people. Laws promoting widow chastity on Han women were first enacted in part under the influence of the Song dynasty Confucians who argued against the remarriage of widows. In the

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suggest that the Shang preferred male children, as the question posed to one bone was whether Fu Hao's pregnancy would be good. The bone records that the pregnancy was, "not good; was a girl." In addition, male rulers were allowed to marry several wives in order to improve their chances of having

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woven by the women of his household. In short, the government presumed that a woman would be represented in official bureaucracy by a male guardian. Charles Benn notes that some Tang women adopted a cloak that covered their bodies from head to foot, with only a small gap for their eyes, from the

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While it is commonly argued that the decline of the status of women from the Song dynasty to the Qing was due to the rise of neo-Confucianism, others have also suggested that the cause may be more complex, a result of various social, political, legal, economic, and cultural forces, for example,

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were not yet strictly implemented. In burials from the early 9th century, however, the quantity of bronze vessels accompanying the wives decreases markedly, suggesting that the ritual system dictating a wife's subordination to her husband was in place. The burial of a Jin lord dating to the 8th

3551:), Tang legal codes set out the formal differences between wives and concubines, as well as the children born by each. A man was legally only allowed one wife, but could, "purchase as many concubines as he could afford." The legal status of a concubine was very far from that of a maid ( 4120:) and shrines, and honoured with commemorative writings. The Ming authority began to reward widow chastity, and widows who remarried would have their dowry and their husbands' property forfeited. Such changes in marriage and property laws to discourage remarriage started during the 3994:

is open to various debates. Mongol women, who divided herding work with men, had more power than women in contemporary China. However, Mongol society was essentially patriarchal, and women were generally expected only to serve her husband and family. The Yuan dynasty practiced

3916:(歸宗), enjoyed the protection of the laws on property rights, which made their remarriage easier. The neo-Confucians challenged such laws and argued that these widows should stay with their husbands' families to support them. Such neo-Confucian arguments won favor during the 3061:), will. He recalls that, after the death of his father, his mother returned to her natal family and raised him there. Although Confucian teachings dictated that a son should be raised by the father's family, the fact that this did not happen suggests that the emphasis on 3218:

wrote a poem, bemoaning the status of women. The poem begins: "How sad it is to be a woman! Nothing on earth is held so cheap." Fu Xuan was a Confucian, however, the low status of women is commonly described in relation to Confucianism adopted during the Han dynasty.

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were restricted from participating in various realms of social life, through social stipulations that they remain indoors, whilst outside business should be conducted by men. The strict division of the sexes, apparent in the policy that "men plow, women weave"

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order, with the distinction and separation extending to the inner (women) and outer (men), whereby women should remain indoor and not go out from the age of 10, and women should not discuss the matters of men in the outside world. The prominent neo-Confucian

4006:, a Chinese poet and painter who was active during the early Yuan dynasty, is credited with being "the most famous female painter in Chinese history...remembered not only as a talented woman but also as a prominent figure in the history of bamboo painting." 3393:, raising and commanding an army of 70,000 soldiers to assist her father's campaign. In addition, women continued to occupy powerful positions in the social consciousness, appearing in tales as powerful spirits responsible for a household's fate, as well as 2675:. This suggests that the women were being treated as possessions of the men buried in the main grave. The left leg of one female in a double burial was even caught beneath the coffin lid, which archaeologists suggest indicates that she was buried alive. The 3091:

who did not remarry, remarrying multiple times was common, as is recorded in other Han texts. In the case of Zhu's will, its actual dispensation was dictated by his mother, not Zhu himself. The mother describes in the will that she bought two fields of

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began to espouse the advantages to each sex performing stereotypical work roles; in theory, such a division guaranteed morality and social order. Well-ordered gender relations gradually came to be expressed in the phrase, "men plow, women weave,"

3822:

found distressing, as women's faces were exposed when venturing outside. Gaozong issued two edicts attempting to revive the style, but the headwear was soon replaced by a wide-brimmed hat with a gauze veil hanging from the brim to the shoulders.

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century BC, in contrast, is smaller than either tomb of his two wives, an act explicitly forbidden by the texts. This demonstrates the waning power of the Zhou government, as well as the variability in the levels of application of the rituals.

4080:, chaste widows were elevated to the role of cultural heroes. Widow chastity became increasingly common, and chastity also became associated with suicide, with suicide by widows increasing dramatically during the Ming era. "Chaste widow" ( 4047:

During the Yuan dynasty, due to the different cultural practices of the Mongols and Han people, there were for a time different laws that would be applicable only to the Mongols or the Han communities. For example, among the Mongols,

3087:) and were barred by Qin law from holding government office. For common people, however, there was no strong prejudice against the practice, as Zhu's mother easily attracted two new husbands. In spite of Confucian dogma that praised 2827:; 'obediences' refers to the expectation that she would first obey her father, then her husband, then her sons after her husband's death. After marriage, women were expected to live with their husband's family and demonstrate 2869:

contained 19 joint burials of the Jin lords and their wives. Based on the rich burial goods, archaeologists have suggested that women's status was closer to that of the men during the 10th century BC, potentially because the

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became the dominant belief system, and it has been argued that the rise of neo-Confucianism had also led to a decline in the status of women. From the Song dynasty onwards, restrictions on women became more pronounced.

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and cause them to assist in stabilizing and defending the empire's borders. Recently, the actions of the khaganate have been thoroughly unreasonable and its horses have come south. Do you, Aunt, not fear the anger of

2724:, demonstrating her wealth. In addition, texts from the Shang dynasty have been excavated that record Fu Hao leading troops into battle to the north of Shang territories, conquering states, leading services to 2711:

women are thought to have been considered lower in status to men, archaeological excavations of burials have shown that women not only could reach high status but that they also exercised political power. The

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work written by a Chinese woman, reveals the wide variety of dishes essential for daily consumption and the significant amount of curing, pickling, and preservation done by women in households at the time.

2521:, compiled in the 1st century BCE as a collection of cautionary tales for men, highlighting the advantages of virtuous women, as well as the dangers posed by loose ones. The majority of women included were 3158:

stipulated that both women and men between the ages of 15 - 56 should pay taxes. As a result, women could own and manage property in their own right. Documents record that peasant women were assigned 20

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The Qing government praised demonstrations of virtue and, to prove their commitment to morality, discouraged officials and scholars from visiting courtesans. The developed academic and literary circles

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became increasingly independent and powerful in their own right. Philosophies that dictated how the world should be ordered became particularly abundant in this period of unrest, the majority of which

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that all the consorts of the Ming court should come from low-ranking families. The result of this policy is that palace women of the Ming era were less powerful compared to those of other dynasties.

3490:

and should be powerful enough to issue orders. If the khaganate does not follow your orders, this will end the relationship between our two states and they will no longer be able to hide behind you!

2978:, cooks, and musical performers. However, the majority of textual and archaeological evidence concerns upper-class women, which makes it difficult to reconstruct the lives of everyday people. 2955:

requested that his wife assess his colleagues during a drinking party from behind a screen; his wife then gave the minister advice on the personalities of his guests. Similarly, a minister of

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dictates that a woman should be married by 20 or, "if there is a problem, be married by 23." Despite this, female relatives of rulers played key roles in diplomacy. For example, two wives of

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background whose women did not bind their feet. Christian missionaries then played a part in changing opinion on footbinding, and the earliest-known Christian anti-foot binding society, the

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Women of the period were expected to manage much of household matters, with food preparation for nourishment and entertainment being a significant part of the work. The Song dynasty

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was effectively the ruler of China in the late Qing period. She governed for 47 years (from 1861 to 1908) from behind the throne of the emperors who were installed as figureheads.

4368:, large numbers of privately owned brothels appeared. Some of the more expensive brothels had women of the courtesan tradition, who could sing, dance, and entertain their clients. 2696: 7529:

Liu, Fei-Wen (2001). "The Confrontation between Fidelity and Fertility: Nüshu, Nüge, and Peasant Women's Conceptions of Widowhood in Jiangyong County, Hunan Province, China".

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was an important occupation. When a male and female were buried together, they lay next to each other in the same positions, suggesting no difference in social status. By the

2728:, and assisting in political affairs at court. After her death, Fu Hao was honored by later rulers as Ancestor Xin and given sacrifices to ensure she remained benevolent. 4262:. In poor families, women's feet might not be bound or, even if they were, the woman would work in the family's fields. Though the Qing attempted to end the practice ( 2971:. The evidence, therefore, suggests that women were closely involved with important political and social events, serving as advisers, planners, and providers of food. 4061: 3661:

and poetry that he employed them as court poets. Several other poets of the time, like Li Ye, bridged various social divides, being at different times courtesans and

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increased during the Tang. In contrast to earlier dynasties, the princesses sent by the Tang court were usually genuine members of the imperial house. Far from being

2926: 8132: 6994: 3032: 2882:, defending themselves against harsh legal sentences, teaching noblemen how to shoot arrows correctly, admonishing their ruler for unacceptable behaviour, and 89: 2812:

enjoyed the luxury of not having to work outside and their family's ability to sequester them from the male gaze became an indication of their status.

1434: 6844: 7800:

Wu 吴, Xiaohua 晓华 (2009). "周代男女角色定位及其对现代社会的影响" [Role orientation of men and women in the Zhou Dynasty and their effects on modern society].

3326:. Attitudes towards women could be derisive, however, as demonstrated in diplomacy between the Tang rulers with female sovereigns of other states. 3170: 3160: 7498:

Linduff, Kathryn M. (2002). "Women's lives memorialized in burial in Ancient China at Anyang". In Nelson, Sarah M.; Rosen-Ayalon, Myriam (eds.).

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to combat the practice, and anti-footbinding societies sprang up across the country, with membership for the movement claimed to reach 300,000.

6099: 2819:, mainly male, Zhou people perceived women. They indicate that male children were preferred, with female children seen as less valuable to the 7148:

Campbell, Roderick (2014). "Animal, human, god: pathways of Shang animality and divinity". In Arbuckle, Benjamin S.; McCarty, Sue Ann (eds.).

4254:, and were mainly restricted to work that could be conducted within the home, such as weaving. This was facilitated by the common practice of 3831: 2581:, even though each had different types of items, was used to show that Marx's first great social division of labor had not occurred, thus the 7813:

Yong, Ying (2004). "Gender, status, ritual regulations, and mortuary practice in the state of Jin". In Linduff, Kathrym M.; Sun, Yan (eds.).

6711: 3151:) as requiring no, "brilliant talent or remarkable difference. Womanly language need not be clever in disputation or sharp in conversation." 901: 4318:

region received such honours. Numerous chastity and filial arches (節孝坊) were constructed in communities all over China. In contrast to the

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than males. Up to age 9, a female child might receive the same education as a male, however, at age 10, girls were expected to study the

936: 4424:, who underwent the painful process of unbinding her own bound feet, attacked footbinding and other traditional practices. In 1902, the 7772:

Sun, Yan; Yang, Hongyu (2004). "Gender ideology and mortuary practice in Northwestern China". In Linduff, Kathrym M.; Sun, Yan (eds.).

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show that many women felt abandoned in widowhood, so remarriage was an attractive option, particularly if they had no sons or fathers (

2384: 2324: 302: 140: 3673:. Not all female poets during the Tang were courtesans, however, and women writers were common enough that the scholar Cai Xingfeng ( 3495: 3290:. This image of women's freedom comes from the fact that the Tang Empire was governed by several powerful women for half a century. 3179:, while the taxes for unmarried women and men were adjusted so that four people paid the equivalent of one married couple. In 604, 7791:

Wang 王, Baoqing 宝庆 (2015). "彩礼的法律性质及返还规则探析" [The legal characteristics of the bride-price and the rules for restitution].

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to compose poetry for him. Dezong was known for his appreciation of female scholars and talent, as he had previously summoned the

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History As Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China

4171:). Ming popular literature of the time produced numerous stories about such wanton women, the most notorious being the fictional 3836: 293: 8118: 2014: 1427: 1361: 397: 150: 8101: 8080: 8041: 8005: 7973: 7937: 7901: 7822: 7781: 7683: 7662: 7636: 7578: 7519: 7479: 7423: 7397: 7319: 7250: 7231: 7131: 7095: 7066: 7025: 6975: 6948: 6914: 6887: 6827: 6794: 6767: 6740: 6536: 6460: 6389: 6355: 6321: 6287: 6253: 6216: 6189: 6139: 6075: 6050: 6023: 5982: 5940: 5890: 5780: 5753: 5724: 5555: 5317: 5290: 4644: 4610: 2314: 554: 113: 5547: 3790:

temples with priestesses in the early 8th century. The nuns participated in religious processions, such as the arrival of a

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of land, whilst taxes were set according to the baseline of a husband and wife unit. Married couples were taxed one bolt of

2640:, leading archaeologists to argue that the genders combined were considered to be powerful, perhaps as a precursor to later 2419:(written at the end of the Warring States Period), even stipulating that women be educated specifically in "women's rites" ( 5957:

Xu Ji 徐積《詠蔡家婦》：「但知勒四支，不知裹两足。」(translation: "knowing about arranging the four limbs, but not about binding her two feet);

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issued an anti-foot binding edict, but it was soon rescinded. The practice did not start to end until the beginning of the

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Biographies of citizens of merit recognized women for what the writers judged to be moral achievements, such as committing

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among women, and less and less was heard about beauties and courtesans who were also great dancers after the Song dynasty.

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Mann, Susan (1992). ""Fuxue" (Women's Learning) by Zhang Xuecheng (1738-1801): China's First History of Women's Culture".

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Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Stefanowska, A. D.; Wiles, Sue (2007). "Preface". In Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Stefanowska, A. D. (eds.).

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residence was likely very common among the lower classes throughout imperial Chinese history, as poor men could use it to

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Hinsch, Bret (2004). "Prehistoric images of women from the north China region: the origins of Chinese goddess worship?".

4036:, Grand Princess of the State of Lu, was notable for being a patroness of the arts, having commissioned works of art and 1518: 653: 6479:

Lu, Weijing (2010). "The Chaste and the Licentious: Female Sexuality and Moral Discourse in Ming and Early Qing China".

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was also accused of believing in the inferiority of women and that men and women needed to be kept strictly separate.

3681:) edited a collection of poetry written exclusively by women, known as the Collection of New Songs from the Jade Lake ( 3483: 2861:

The specifications of the Zhou ritual texts regarding women were not always followed. For example, the cemetery of the

2475:

has been pursued for many years. The societal status of both women and men in ancient China was closely related to the

1508: 7158: 8265: 8216: 6423: 4271: 2824: 2573:, which argue that social structure is determined by the economy. The fact that burials of both women and men of the 2185: 1420: 1356: 5258: 8449: 8188: 4432:

era, and the ending of the practice is seen as a significant event in the process of female emancipation in China.

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Records testify to women exercising authority through their families. The excavation of a married couple's tomb in

103: 53: 8193: 8168: 4429: 3818:. The intention was to avoid men's gazes when out and about. The fashion began to fade in the 8th century, which 1939: 906: 826: 648: 443: 7455:

Tribal segmentation and spatial variability: the social organization of a prehistoric Yangshao village community

6712:"Was Cixi a feminist trailblazer or wayward thief? How historians are divided on this enigmatic Chinese Empress" 6553:"500 years ago, he uttered the phrase "Women without talent is virtue", and it has been passed down to this day" 4181:. During the Ming dynasty, a well-known saying about women also appeared: "A woman without talent is virtuous" ( 8454: 8072: 7997: 7965: 4327: 3960: 3753:) were five sisters who all became employed as official poets at the Imperial court. Another known poetess was 3682: 3674: 3612: 2517: 2377: 2329: 363: 199: 6042:

Sexual life in ancient China:A Preliminary Survey of Chinese Sex and Society from Ca. 1500 B.C. Till 1644 A.D.

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Zuo, J. (2007). "Marital construction of family power among male-out-migrant couples in a Chinese village".

2522: 8312: 6859: 4202: 3465:先朝割愛隆婚，義寧家園，謂回顧必能御侮，安靜塞垣。今回顧所為，甚不循理，每馬首南向，姑得不畏高祖、太宗之威靈！慾侵擾邊疆，豈不思太皇太后慈愛！為其國母，足得指揮。若回顧不能稟命，則是棄絕姻好，今日已後，不得以姑為詞 2725: 2500: 2287: 1341: 576: 494: 469: 402: 8239: 7655:

Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qin Period through the Song Dynasty

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A Social and Religious History of the Jews: Late Middle Ages and the era of European expansion, 1200-1650

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in 1874. It was championed by the Woman's Christian Temperance Movement founded in 1883 and advocated by

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is presumed to have been matrilineal. This assumption continues to be influential in modern archaeology.

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was raised by some Chinese writers in the 18th century, and footbinding was briefly outlawed during the

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was also likely less rigid in the Neolithic than in later periods, as demonstrated by a vessel from the

8407: 8353: 8183: 7159:""Fu hao," "fu hao," "fuHao," or "fu Hao"? A Cataloger's Navigation of an Ancient Chinese Woman's Name" 5847:

Ropp, Paul S. (1994). "Women in late imperial China: a review of recent english-language scholarship".

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to the courts they married into. This could be in the role of a cultural ambassador, as in the case of

3323: 3311: 3298:'s concubine to govern the country in various roles, first as his empress consort, later as regent for 2344: 1366: 956: 4457: 4279:, and neighbors. If a woman did not give birth within a few years, the husband would typically take a 3381:, with women recorded as handling legal disputes, involved in politics, and participating in warfare. 2930: 2496: 8358: 7957:

Courtesans, concubines, and the cult of female fidelity: gender and social change in China, 1000-1400

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to formally acknowledge the rebel leader. The message sent to her by Emperor Wuzong, recorded in the

3299: 2370: 2307: 2272: 1845: 1541: 1451: 744: 74: 6845:"The Tian Zu Hui (Natural Foot Society): Christian Women in China and the Fight against Footbinding" 6552: 5746:

Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qin Period to the Song Dynasty

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like the earlier Tang dynasty, and these Yuan relatives were genuine members of the imperial house.

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hierarchy. The foundation for enforced division of women and men in later times appeared during the

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Male Anxiety and Female Chastity: a comparative study of Chinese ethical values in Ming-Ch'ing time

3947: 3946:(937–976), and ironically the increasing popularity of the practice also led to the decline of the 3759: 3599:

of Chang'an were employed to sing, converse with, and entertain customers, similar to the Japanese

3588: 3500: 2781: 2676: 2562: 2041: 1690: 1196: 890: 219: 184: 6784: 3227: 8297: 8234: 8033: 7628: 7087: 4124:, which made widow chastity increasingly popular. The state also awarded 'testimonial of merit' ( 3841: 3819: 3592: 3479: 3331: 3327: 3295: 2745: 2492: 2267: 32: 3923: 3855: 8333: 8287: 8224: 8209: 7983: 7507: 7489:

Linduff, Kathryn M. (2003). "Many wives, one queen in Shang China". In Nelson, Sarah M. (ed.).

7418:. Vol. Issue 21 of University of Hong Kong Libraries publications. New York: M.E. Sharpe. 7190: 7050: 5827:"The Burden of Female Talent: The Poet Li Qingzhao and Her History in China, by Ronald C. Egan" 5801:"Daughter/Wife/Mother or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? Women in the Teaching of Chinese Religions" 4708: 4502: 4014:(1341–1367), a chaotic time at the end of the Yuan dynasty. She is incorrectly included in the 3897: 3893: 3794:

to Chang'an, when nuns and monks walked behind the vehicle conveying the Buddha's finger bone.

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Originally, the empire lost its beloved daughter for a marriage that would make peace with the

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during her lifetime, and was a collector of artwork, most of which dated to the period of the

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Examples of occupations pursued by women include trade (selling foodstuffs), weaving, tending

3444:. After being widowed in 824, Princess Taihe was kidnapped twice during the conflict with the 3243: 8328: 8229: 7673: 7653:

Norden, van, Bryan (2003). "Oracle bone inscriptions on women 甲骨文". In Wang, Robin R. (ed.).

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The Anchor Book of Chinese Poetry: From Ancient to Contemporary, The Full 3000-Year Tradition

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The Tang dynasty ruling family was paternally Han Chinese and maternally Xianbei, who were a

3334:

that he would solve the problem of her aggressive neighbors by sending a Tang prince to rule

3263: 3205:

of the Jin dynasty (266–420), with texts providing advice to the women of the imperial court.

3097: 3004: 2968: 2842: 2292: 1709: 1386: 1331: 1261: 1241: 1226: 1096: 618: 581: 489: 353: 189: 7832:

Yue 岳, Ling 岭 (2008). "汉代妇女政策研究" [A study of Han dynasty policies regarding women].

7015: 3778:

to officials. Joining a religious institution was also a career choice taken by many women.

8390: 8383: 8373: 8363: 7993: 7817:. Gender and Archaeology. Vol. 8. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 161–202. 5913:

Bettine Birge (1995). "Levirate Marriage and the Revival of Widow Chastity in Yüan China".

4487: 4425: 4371: 4227: 3066: 2515:, focus on male nobles and scholars, with infrequent references to women. One exception is 2334: 1547: 1271: 1266: 1211: 1161: 1146: 1031: 921: 871: 751: 312: 273: 108: 98: 84: 3023:, while the woman's family property would not have to be divided among various relatives. 8: 7776:. Gender and Archaeology. Vol. 8. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 29–46. 4398: 4259: 4190:

An unusual feature of Ming dynasty imperial marriages was the stipulation by its founder

4037: 4016: 3642: 3482:'s spirits! When the empire's borders are disturbed, do you not think of the love of the 3315: 3180: 2963:. She judged that Chong'er would become an exceptional leader, however, the ruler of Cao 2952: 2862: 2663:, the woman is found buried outside of the main coffin along with the grave goods, as at 2637: 1499: 1376: 1306: 1236: 1111: 1086: 1066: 1046: 926: 801: 791: 668: 499: 421: 414: 409: 324: 229: 214: 174: 135: 4210:

woman in 1869 wearing shoes with high, narrow platforms to give the impression that her

2616:

figure was found inside a temple, this supports the idea that they were worshipped. The

8307: 8280: 8141: 7760: 7752: 7605: 7554: 7546: 7433: 7298: 7210: 7178: 6504: 6496: 6093: 5922: 4726: 4402: 3872: 3425: 3377:. In these societies, women and men were more equal than had been permitted during the 3201: 2820: 2605: 2468: 2302: 1482: 1391: 1286: 1246: 1116: 1011: 976: 786: 776: 701: 643: 628: 479: 459: 436: 288: 268: 47: 6131:

In the Wake of the Mongols: The Making of a New Social Order in North China, 1200–1600

3997:

marrying female relatives to rulers of neighboring states to forge political alliances

3805:

to the state; women were not taxed. However, part of a male's tax included 20 feet of

2612:. These figures are posed with their hands resting on their large bellies and, as the 8178: 8097: 8076: 8037: 8001: 7969: 7933: 7897: 7818: 7777: 7764: 7679: 7658: 7632: 7609: 7574: 7558: 7515: 7475: 7419: 7393: 7315: 7246: 7227: 7214: 7127: 7091: 7062: 7021: 6971: 6944: 6910: 6883: 6823: 6812: 6790: 6763: 6736: 6532: 6508: 6456: 6419: 6385: 6351: 6317: 6283: 6249: 6212: 6185: 6135: 6081: 6071: 6046: 6019: 5978: 5886: 5776: 5749: 5720: 5551: 5313: 5286: 4730: 4640: 4382: 4049: 4033: 3436:. An example of a princess acting as a political diplomat is seen in the marriage of 3417: 3382: 3129: 3000: 2944: 2918: 2871: 2773: 2601: 2511: 2230: 1798: 1778: 1553: 1311: 1281: 1206: 1186: 1171: 1126: 1091: 1056: 991: 931: 866: 846: 841: 711: 696: 623: 613: 601: 511: 504: 484: 368: 283: 239: 169: 79: 7416:

Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E

7182: 7017:

Footbinding, Feminism, and Freedom: The Liberation of Women's Bodies in Modern China

6967:

Footbinding, Feminism, and Freedom: The Liberation of Women's Bodies in Modern China

5998: 8302: 8275: 8270: 8251: 8029: 7893: 7862: 7841: 7744: 7735:

Sterckx, Roel (2006). "Sages, cooks, and flavors in Warring States and Han China".

7705: 7624: 7597: 7538: 7366: 7342: 7290: 7281:

Hinsch, Bret (1998). "Women, kinship, and property as seen in a Han dynasty will".

7269: 7202: 7170: 6488: 5856: 4718: 4497: 4345: 4239: 4154: 4125: 4103: 4081: 3955: 3867: 3570: 3552: 3534: 3516: 3470: 3441: 3358: 3319: 3314:

in 690. Other major female players in politics at this time included her secretary

3303: 3267: 3134: 3109: 3101: 3070: 3054: 2964: 2891: 2809: 2794: 2749: 2680: 2648: 2625: 2621: 2597: 2593: 2582: 2574: 2542: 2456:, and restrictions on women became more pronounced. A number of practices, such as 2453: 2420: 2402: 1909: 1467: 1459: 1396: 1381: 1371: 1351: 1321: 1256: 1231: 1156: 1136: 1131: 1076: 996: 961: 946: 911: 896: 876: 821: 806: 796: 781: 766: 761: 756: 706: 683: 526: 521: 307: 278: 255: 118: 3645:

clientele, meant that many wrote poetry commenting on current society and events.

2448:, ruled China for several decades. However, the status of women declined from the 8091: 8062: 8023: 7987: 7955: 7927: 7875: 7618: 7379: 7354: 7174: 7113: 7077: 6998: 5307: 4507: 4322:, however, the Qing actively discouraged the practice of young widows committing 3978: 3445: 3374: 3020: 2960: 2887: 2801:). This division expanded to create social separation between men and women. The 1346: 1336: 1326: 1301: 1291: 1221: 1201: 1181: 1121: 1061: 1041: 1026: 981: 971: 951: 886: 836: 831: 816: 771: 716: 531: 204: 8110: 7462: 6759:

For Our Daughters: How Outstanding Women Worldwide Have Balanced Home and Career

6163:

Flowering in the Shadows: Women in the History of Chinese and Japanese Painting.

4492: 4284: 4011: 3908:

died, remarried briefly when she was 49, for which she was strongly criticized.

3896:

also placed strong emphasis on chastity, with Cheng Yi accused of promoting the

3397:, despite the fact that a secular class of physicians existed during the Tang. 8433: 8160: 7866: 7709: 7273: 7206: 6245:

Flowering in the Shadows: Women in the History of Chinese and Japanese Painting

5527:

Harvard University. CBDB ID: 93349 Song Ruoshen. Retrieved March 2, 2023, from

4442: 4292: 4276: 4231: 4191: 3905: 3512: 3454: 3437: 3362: 3283: 3211: 3183:

altered the system so that only males could hold property and pay taxes on it.

3067:

attracted multiple new sons-in-law to their home through the mother's marriages

3062: 2992: 2713: 2609: 2472: 2461: 1811: 1728: 1401: 1316: 1296: 1276: 1251: 1216: 1176: 1151: 1141: 1081: 1051: 1036: 1006: 1001: 986: 966: 916: 861: 856: 811: 733: 566: 516: 426: 375: 319: 7748: 7721: 7357:(1999). "At the beginning: the status of women in Neolithic and Shang China". 5974:

The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period

5860: 4153:

In contrast to "chaste women" of the Ming period were the "licentious women" (

3622: 2974:

Recorded professions for women of lower social classes in this period include

2831:

towards his parents as if they were her own. The custom of the groom's family

8443: 8058: 7989:

The inner quarters marriage and the lives of Chinese women in the Sung period

7620:

Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao

7566: 7385: 7346: 7294: 6085: 4722: 4447: 4296: 4007: 4003: 3943: 3287: 3279: 3065:

was less strong in the Han. In addition, Zhu's mother's family seems to have

2996: 2940: 2935: 2708: 2668: 2660: 2652: 2415: 1601: 1568: 1406: 1191: 1166: 1101: 1071: 1021: 1016: 941: 881: 851: 726: 561: 431: 392: 380: 358: 340: 155: 7926:

Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Stefanowska, A. D.; Ho, Clara Wing-chung, eds. (1998).

7370: 4002:

Jurchen women started becoming nuns of the Quanzhen sect under the Mongols.

3649:

was so famed for her literary talents that she was summoned to the court of

8421: 8203: 7693: 7601: 7512:

The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age

7474:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 4386: 4378: 4357: 4319: 4311: 4270:

proved impossible. As in previous periods, women were expected to obey the

4255: 4223: 4219: 4211: 4177: 4121: 4077: 4041: 4025: 4021: 3991: 3938: 3917: 3880: 3845: 3771: 3724: 3714: 3702: 3658: 3646: 3627: 3390: 3370: 3275: 3271: 3259: 3232: 2910: 2828: 2777: 2765: 2732: 2641: 2449: 2441: 2410: 2176: 2152: 2139: 2126: 2070: 2029: 1967: 1681: 1671: 1648: 691: 179: 6181:

Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming 618–1644

3996: 3875:

was also said to have become common. Neo-Confucians of the period such as

3401: 3003:

purge of undesirables. They were rounded up and dispatched to help in the

7853:

Zhou, Yiqun (2003). "Virtue and talent: women and fushi in early China".

4472: 4406: 4365: 4353: 4280: 4267: 4250:. Women had no legal rights to property, other than in relation to their 4172: 3901: 3860: 3791: 3779: 3754: 3744: 3734: 3654: 3631: 3409: 3378: 3236: 3155: 3117: 2956: 2854: 2847: 2832: 2769: 2617: 2578: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2476: 2457: 2083: 1954: 1788: 1756: 1743: 1577: 638: 608: 385: 7756: 6500: 6492: 5926: 5772:

Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China

3402:

marrying female relatives to foreign rulers to forge political alliances

7717: 7550: 7302: 3933:

theatre. Women playing male role was a popular convention of the period

3876: 3849: 3638: 3615:

were recognized during the Tang and physicians document one similar to

3604: 3458:, reveals the political expectations placed on these female diplomats. 3016: 2883: 2879: 2707:

Women's status varied between regions during the Shang dynasty. While

2613: 1835: 1624: 721: 663: 658: 5278: 3607:

to poor families. On entering the brothel, the girls took the madam's

2503:

extended as far back into the past as possible. These texts, like the

8173: 8068: 7961: 7123: 4482: 4467: 4414: 4361: 4029: 3775: 3767: 3670: 3616: 3596: 3508: 3413: 3405: 3291: 2914: 2589: 2526: 2505: 2445: 7929:

Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: The Qing Period, 1644-1911

7542: 7115:

Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century

5882:

Sanctity and Self-Inflicted Violence in Chinese Religions, 1500-1700

2925:

The decline of the Zhou dynasty's power heralded a period where its

6068:

The land of the five flavors: a cultural history of Chinese cuisine

4477: 4315: 4069: 3942:

among elite dancers immediately before the Song dynasty during the

3798: 3783: 3429: 3421: 3408:

traded between states, the princesses were expected to act as Tang

3343: 3124: 3093: 3042: 2816: 123: 6732:

The Taiping Ideology: Its Sources, Interpretations, and Influences

5279:

William J. Duiker; Jackson J. Spielvogel, eds. (13 January 2006).

4737: 4266:

women were forbidden from binding their feet), doing so among the

4146:, which is distinct from the homophone term "exemplary women" 列女, 3757:, who was the only poetess to be included in the famous anthology 6728: 5045: 5033: 5009: 4997: 4421: 4323: 4303: 4288: 4235: 4150:), with the word "fierce" (烈) carrying connotation of martyrdom. 4099: 3815: 3666: 3608: 3394: 3366: 3247: 3215: 3050: 2975: 2803: 2717: 2672: 2656: 2633: 2566: 1978: 1829: 1823: 678: 633: 7889: 6902: 6313:

The Mandate of Heaven and The Great Ming Code (Asian Law Series)

5021: 3611:. A way out was to either marry a client or become a concubine. 7885: 7881: 7119: 7083: 7054: 5961:蘇軾《菩薩蠻》：「塗香莫惜蓮承步，長愁羅襪凌波去；只見舞回風，都無行處踪。偷穿宮樣穩，並立雙趺困，纖妙說應難，須從掌上看。」 5958: 5365: 4394: 4335: 4247: 4207: 4162: 4133: 4111: 4089: 3968: 3889: 3885: 3787: 3690: 3662: 3600: 3578: 3560: 3542: 3524: 3487: 3339: 3176: 3142: 3078: 3012: 3008: 2866: 2785: 2737: 2700: 2664: 2428: 194: 6818:. Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 8145: 6940:

American Doctors in Canton: Modernization in China, 1835–1935

5259:"Chinese Cultural Studies: Fu Xuan - Woman (c. 3rd Cent. CE)" 4251: 4098:) were commemorated by the construction of memorial chastity 3810: 3433: 3335: 3088: 2695: 128: 66: 2906: 2772:, with female and male social roles determined by a strict, 2499:

scholars in the 4th century BCE, who aimed to show that the

7152:. Colorado: University Press of Colorado. pp. 251–274. 4886: 4884: 4307: 4275:

who could not would be looked down upon by their husbands,

3929: 3806: 3251: 3166: 2967:

treated Chong'er with disrespect. After his reinstatement,

2853:

cast by a Marquis for his wife, Mengji (孟姬), a princess of

7657:. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 2–3. 7571:

Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century

6879:

Cinderella's Sisters: A Revisionist History of Footbinding

5529:

https://cbdb.fas.harvard.edu/cbdbapi/person.php?id=0093349

3353:

Painted female dancer with rings on the head. Tang dynasty

3037: 2959:

allowed his wife to observe a meeting between himself and

2833:

financially compensating the bride's family for losing her

7500:

In Pursuit of Gender: Worldwide Archaeological Approaches

2931:

emphasized women's inferiority to their male counterparts

2835:

can be traced back to the Zhou dynasty as set out in the

2409:), partitioned male and female histories as early as the 6814:

The Cross-cultural Study of Women: A Comprehensive Guide

6112: 5719:. State University of New York Press. pp. 132–133. 5285:. Vol. 1. Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc. p. 87. 4881: 4682: 4680: 3503:

painted on the walls of the 7th-century tomb of Li Shou.

6594: 6592: 6590: 5712: 5439: 5437: 5331: 5329: 4985: 4857: 4845: 4773: 4665: 6691: 6679: 6645: 6643: 6628: 6205:

Elliot, Jeannette Shambaugh; Shambaugh, David (2015).

5970: 5716:

Confucianism and Women: A Philosophical Interpretation

5227: 5193: 5191: 5166: 5164: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5108: 4896: 4632: 4598: 4547: 4545: 4543: 91:

Gender representation on corporate boards of directors

8405: 7873: 7696:(2001). "Arguments by women in early Chinese texts". 7079:

China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty

6038: 5583: 5461: 5149: 5120: 5086: 5084: 5057: 4833: 4821: 4809: 4797: 4761: 4677: 4653: 4348:

either his wives, concubines or unmarried daughters.

7877:

Chinese women in the imperial past: new perspectives

6903:

Vincent Goossaert; David A. Palmer (15 April 2011).

6896: 6616: 6604: 6587: 6563: 5434: 5413: 5401: 5353: 5326: 5215: 5203: 4920: 4908: 4785: 4749: 4557: 4364:, thus declined and, as the Qing stopped regulating 3770:, singing, dancing, acrobatics, street performance, 3507:

The Tang saw an increasing perception of women as a

3346:

were clearly emboldened by facing a female monarch.

2195: 2117: 1997: 1930: 1860: 1734: 7413: 6667: 6655: 6640: 6575: 5691: 5643: 5631: 5619: 5607: 5595: 5389: 5377: 5341: 5188: 5176: 5161: 5132: 5051: 5039: 5027: 5015: 5003: 4973: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4743: 4586: 4540: 2951:watchful eye on events. In one case, a minister of 2815:Transmitted texts give a general impression of how 2557:societies becoming dominant later with the rise of 7226:. Asian voices. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 6882:. University of California Press. pp. 14–16. 6811: 6735:. University of Washington Press. pp. 27–29. 6211:. University of Washington Press. pp. 32–33. 6165:Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990, p. 14. 5977:. University of California Press. pp. 37–39. 5667: 5655: 5571: 5509: 5497: 5485: 5473: 5449: 5309:Cengage Advantage Books: Introduction to Sociology 5239: 5096: 5081: 5069: 4869: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4530: 4528: 2947:to thank him after he sent military aid to Zheng. 8140: 7333:and Three Daoist Priestess-Poets in Tang China". 6786:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History 5679: 5305: 3511:. Although previously only the upper classes had 8441: 7925: 7502:. California: Altaimira Press. pp. 257–288. 7111: 6381:The Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese History 5371: 4961: 4949: 4932: 3361:people. Tang society followed the traditions of 314:Science, technology, engineering and mathematics 6809: 6755: 6316:. University of Washington Press. p. 138. 6237: 6235: 6204: 4569: 4525: 4299:) to depend on within the patriarchal society. 8064:The Red Brush: Writing Women of Imperial China 7874:Harriet T. Zurndorfer (1999). "Introduction". 7493:. California: Altaimira Press. pp. 59–74. 6248:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 62–69. 6018:. University of California Press. p. 42. 5768: 4609:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZurndorfer1999 ( 4028:poems, whose compilers assumed that she was a 3657:and been so impressed with their knowledge of 3100:that she entrusted to her daughters, Xianjun ( 3053:, Jiangsu, unearthed the husband's, Zhu Ling ( 2878:There are records of women during this period 2549:Neolithic society in China is perceived to be 8126: 7472:China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty 6909:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 70–. 6208:The Odyssey of China's Imperial Art Treasures 6184:. Vol. II. Routledge. pp. 899–900. 5912: 5824: 5539: 3927:Two women playing male roles in Song dynasty 3748: 3738: 3728: 3718: 3463: 2880:advising male relatives on political strategy 2452:onward, which has been blamed on the rise of 2378: 1428: 6783:C Fred Blake (2008). Bonnie G. Smith (ed.). 6782: 6729:Vincent Yu-Chung Shih; Yu-chung Shi (1968). 6232: 6177: 4633:Patricia Buckley Ebrey (19 September 2002). 3302:, before declaring herself empress regnant ( 3154:The taxation systems during the Western and 7652: 7491:Ancient Queens: Archaeological Explorations 7150:Animals and Inequality in the Ancient World 6936: 6528:Women and Gender in Twentieth-Century China 6347:How Mongolia Matters: War, Law, and Society 4890: 3801:system calculated the amount owed by every 2901: 8133: 8119: 8089: 8057: 6875: 6842: 6520: 6518: 6418:. Columbia University Press. p. 418. 6178:Lee, Hong; Xiao, Lily; Wiles, Sue (2015). 6098:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6011: 5971:Patricia Buckley Ebrey (1 December 1993). 4604: 2385: 2371: 1435: 1421: 7728:Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance 7353: 7047:The Question of Women in Chinese Feminism 6448: 5708: 5706: 4851: 4712: 4659: 3015:. Hinsch has argued that the practice of 7834:Nandu Xuetan (Renwen Shehuikexue Xuebao) 7802:Chang'An Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban) 7514:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 7147: 7082:(Oxford University Paperback ed.). 7013: 6963: 6803: 6776: 6444: 6442: 6065: 6015:Every Step a Lotus: Shoes for Bound Feet 5908: 5906: 5904: 5902: 5878: 5794: 5792: 4863: 4354:cultivated during the Ming by courtesans 4218:The social position of women during the 4201: 4060: 4032:because she composed some erotic poems. 4010:was a Chinese poet who lived during the 3922: 3854: 3830: 3621: 3494: 3348: 3242: 3226: 3036: 2905: 2841: 2694: 2596:have been found at several sites of the 2536: 7953: 7846:10.16700/j.cnki.cn41-1157/c.2008.06.018 7771: 7734: 7716: 7692: 7616: 7573:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 7506: 7497: 7488: 7163:Cataloging and Classification Quarterly 6943:. Transaction Publishers. p. 257. 6515: 6241: 6173: 6171: 5964: 5885:. Oxford University Press. p. 94. 5842: 5840: 5838: 5836: 5233: 5126: 5114: 5063: 4902: 4839: 4827: 4815: 4803: 4767: 4686: 4671: 4636:Women and the Family in Chinese History 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4377:During the Qing dynasty, opposition to 3879:saw men and woman as being part of the 3837:Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk 2647:Women buried at sites belonging to the 8442: 8021: 7671: 7377: 7280: 7259: 7240: 7221: 7044: 6906:The Religious Question in Modern China 6709: 6697: 6685: 6524: 6474: 6472: 6275: 5703: 5419: 5221: 5209: 5197: 5182: 5170: 5155: 5143: 4926: 4914: 4791: 4779: 4592: 4563: 4551: 3665:nuns. Examples of such women included 3603:. The girls had often been beggars or 3231:A woman pushing a baby carriage, late 3033:Society and culture of the Han dynasty 3007:, then made to settle in areas around 2720:, contained precious jade objects and 8114: 7982: 7469: 7457:(Ph.D.). The University of Michigan. 7309: 7189: 6439: 6411: 6377: 6343: 6309: 5899: 5874: 5872: 5870: 5805:ASIANetwork Exchange, vol. XIV, no. 2 5798: 5789: 5455: 5443: 5407: 5359: 5347: 5335: 4222:has been characterized as subject to 3569:), with maids needing to be 'freed' ( 2588:Female figurines representing either 2440:Women had greater freedom during the 7852: 7812: 7790: 7587: 7565: 7245:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 7193:(1986). "Concubines in Sung China". 7156: 7075: 6673: 6661: 6649: 6634: 6581: 6168: 6127: 5846: 5833: 5739: 5697: 5685: 5673: 5661: 5649: 5637: 5625: 5613: 5601: 5589: 5577: 5540:Barnstone, Tony; Ping, Chou (2010). 5491: 5479: 5467: 5395: 5383: 5102: 5090: 5075: 4991: 4979: 4967: 4875: 4617: 4453:Timeline of women in ancient warfare 4310:, never marrying in order to uphold 3365:, which interacted closely with the 2545:decorated with a female-male figure. 587:Gender representation in video games 7831: 7528: 7452: 7328: 6836: 6622: 6610: 6598: 6569: 6469: 6059: 5991: 5825:Eva Shan Chou (February 20, 2014). 5515: 5503: 5245: 5052:Lee, Stefanowska & Wiles (2007) 5040:Lee, Stefanowska & Wiles (2007) 5028:Lee, Stefanowska & Wiles (2007) 5016:Lee, Stefanowska & Wiles (2007) 5004:Lee, Stefanowska & Wiles (2007) 4755: 4744:Lee, Stefanowska & Wiles (2007) 4698: 4580: 3637:The level of education required of 3389:, was instrumental in founding the 2398:Women in ancient and imperial China 13: 7919: 7799: 7112:Bennett Peterson, Barbara (2000). 6762:. Praeger Publishers. p. 57. 6531:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 18. 6478: 6282:. Hackett Publishing. p. 85. 5867: 4955: 4943: 4534: 3990:The role of women in Mongol-ruled 3330:famously told the ambassador from 14: 8476: 8217:Three Obediences and Four Virtues 6852:Southeast Review of Asian Studies 6113:Yu Dajun and Zhou Jianqi (1987). 5312:. Cengage Learning. p. 260. 3338:, reasoning that the kingdoms of 3210:After the Han dynasty during the 2981: 2825:Three Obediences and Four Virtues 8427: 8415: 7314:(2 ed.). London: Palgrave. 7243:Masculinities in Chinese History 7037: 7007: 6984: 6957: 6930: 6869: 6749: 6722: 6703: 6545: 6405: 6371: 6337: 6303: 6269: 6198: 6155: 6121: 6106: 5799:Adler, Joseph A. (Winter 2006). 5713:Li-Hsiang Lisa Rosenlee (2007). 5548:Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group 5306:Henry L. Tischler (2013-02-01). 3641:, coupled with their frequently 3188: 2898:) as one of his nine ministers. 2768:, Chinese society was decidedly 2690: 2618:division between female and male 2482: 1466: 104:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 31: 6032: 6005: 5951: 5933: 5818: 5762: 5733: 5533: 5521: 5425: 5299: 5272: 5251: 4692: 4197: 4056: 3985: 3826: 3428:, is credited with introducing 3222: 2759: 2525:and were generally depicted as 8073:Harvard University Asia Center 7998:University of California Press 7966:Harvard University Asia Center 7815:Gender and Chinese Archaeology 7774:Gender and Chinese Archaeology 7381:Exemplary Women of Early China 6525:Bailey, Paul J. (2012-08-29). 6455:. Brill. pp. xii, 39–69. 6412:Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). 6242:Weidner, Marsha Smith (1990). 6039:Robert Hans van Gulik (1961). 4420:An early Chinese feminist was 4340: 4331: 4167: 4138: 4116: 4094: 3973: 3964: 3710: 3695: 3686: 3678: 3583: 3565: 3547: 3529: 3420:, who, along with her co-wife 3266:for women, in contrast to the 3147: 3133:, describes 'womanly virtue' ( 3083: 3026: 2991:Confucian teachings supported 2986: 2890:appointing his wife Yi Jiang ( 2638:both male and female genitalia 2518:Biographies of Exemplary Women 2433: 2325:Science and technology history 1: 8199:In ancient and imperial times 8025:Women in early imperial China 6970:. Routledge. pp. 90–96. 6789:. OUP USA. pp. 327–329. 6710:Perlez, Jane (28 July 2018). 6276:Tanner, Harold Miles (2009). 4639:. Routledge. pp. 10–38. 4514: 4258:, which prevented women from 3619:that was spread through sex. 3250:models of Tang women playing 3041:18th century illustration of 2501:dynastic system of government 1695: 1654: 1630: 1607: 1583: 1524: 8313:Traditional Chinese marriage 8169:All-China Women's Federation 7531:The Journal of Asian Studies 7378:Kinney, Anne Behnke (2014). 7262:Journal of Chinese Religions 7175:10.1080/01639374.2014.935543 6384:. BRILL. pp. 234, 239. 6070:. Karen Margolis. New York. 6066:Höllmann, Thomas O. (2014). 4519: 4385:as many its leaders were of 2886:. There is also a record of 2756:) was also the first wife. 2636:. The figure on the pot has 2532: 555:Portrayal in American comics 146:Heads of state or government 7: 7795:(in Chinese) (16): 266–267. 7678:. Oxford University Press. 7470:Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). 4435: 3892:and neo-Confucians such as 3533:) in addition to one wife ( 10: 8481: 8354:LGBTQ culture in Hong Kong 7867:10.1163/156852603100402403 7710:10.1163/156852601100402261 7310:Hwang, Kyung Moon (2017). 7274:10.1179/073776904804759978 7207:10.1177/036319908601100101 6843:Whitefield, Brent (2008). 5742:"Precepts for Family Life" 4458:Women in Confucian thought 4403:equality between the sexes 4326:on their husband's death ( 3904:, after her first husband 3294:rose from the position of 3030: 2740:was, thus, referred to as 8465:Women from Imperial China 8359:LGBTQ culture in Shanghai 8321: 8261:Chinese-foreign marriages 8250: 8159: 8152: 8093:Women of the Tang dynasty 7954:Bossler, Beverly (2013). 7749:10.1179/mon.2006.54.1.001 7390:Columbia University Press 7329:Jia, Jinhua (2011). "The 7195:Journal of Family History 7076:Benn, Charles D. (2004). 6992:Cixi Outlaws Foot Binding 5941:"Han Chinese Footbinding" 5861:10.1080/09612029400200060 4182: 4158: 4129: 4107: 4085: 3937:During the Song dynasty, 3866:During the Song dynasty, 3749: 3739: 3729: 3719: 3591:, such as those found in 3574: 3556: 3538: 3520: 3464: 3387:first emperor of the Tang 3307: 3138: 3113: 3105: 3074: 3058: 2895: 2798: 2753: 2684: 2651:are often accompanied by 2629: 2424: 2406: 2199: 2121: 2001: 1934: 1864: 1738: 8349:LGBTQ culture in Chengdu 8344:LGBTQ culture in Beijing 8293:Marriage in modern China 8266:Family planning policies 8096:. Odyssey Publications. 8090:Holdsworth, May (2000). 8034:Rowman & Littlefield 7629:Rowman & Littlefield 7510:; Chen, Xingcan (2012). 7347:10.1163/156852611X602629 7295:10.1163/1568532982630859 7045:Barlow, Tani E. (2004). 7020:. Routledge. p. 1. 7014:Hong Fan (1 June 1997). 6964:Hong Fan (1 June 1997). 6858:: 203–12. Archived from 6810:Mary I. Edwards (1986). 6756:Olivia Cox-Fill (1996). 6449:T'ien, Ju-k'ang (1988). 4723:10.1177/0192513x07308417 4701:Journal of Family Issues 4411:Anti-Footbinding Society 3782:alone reportedly had 27 3760:Three Hundred Tang Poems 3274:that saw practices like 3262:has been described as a 2902:Spring and Autumn period 2782:Spring and Autumn period 2677:Lower Xiajiadian culture 2563:social division of labor 8450:Social history of China 8194:Ideals of female beauty 8189:Globalization and women 8061:; Grant, Beata (2004). 7984:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley 7617:McMahon, Keith (2013). 7371:10.1163/156852699X00054 7224:Women in Imperial China 7088:Oxford University Press 6378:Birge, Bettine (2020). 6344:Birge, Bettine (2017). 6310:Jiang, Yonglin (2011). 6117:. Shangwu. p. 362. 5945:Textile Research Centre 5879:Jimmy Yu (2012-04-27). 5769:Anders Hansson (1996). 5431:Sima (1084), volume 246 5372:Bennett Peterson (2000) 3820:Emperor Gaozong of Tang 3488:mother of the khaganate 3332:Queen Seondeok of Silla 3021:improve their prospects 2565:. This originates from 2523:members of the nobility 141:Conservatives in the US 114:Explorers and travelers 8210:Good Wife, Wise Mother 8174:Female migrant workers 7602:10.1353/late.1992.0004 7453:Lee, Yun-Kuen (1993). 6350:. BRILL. p. 138. 6128:Wang, Jinping (2020). 5999:"Chinese Foot Binding" 5849:Women's History Review 5748:. Hackett Publishing. 4503:Homosexuality in China 4215: 4073: 4066:Lady in a Bamboo Grove 3977:), the earliest known 3934: 3898:cult of widow chastity 3863: 3852: 3651:Emperor Dezong of Tang 3634: 3504: 3493: 3450:Emperor Wuzong of Tang 3354: 3255: 3240: 3046: 2922: 2858: 2704: 2679:cemetery of Dadianzi ( 2571:historical materialism 2546: 2495:was edited heavily by 2489:Chinese historiography 2477:Chinese kinship system 444:In Shakespeare's works 8455:Ancient Chinese women 8022:Hinsch, Bret (2011). 7672:Powers, John (2004). 7241:Hinsch, Bret (2013). 7222:Hinsch, Bret (2016). 7059:Duke University Press 6134:. BRILL. p. 85. 5775:. Brill. p. 46. 4840:Sun & Yang (2004) 4828:Sun & Yang (2004) 4816:Sun & Yang (2004) 4804:Sun & Yang (2004) 4768:Liu & Chen (2012) 4391:Heavenly Foot Society 4283:. Letters written in 4205: 4064: 3926: 3859:Song dynasty poetess 3858: 3834: 3625: 3498: 3484:Grand Empress Dowager 3460: 3448:and made to petition 3352: 3254:and wearing trousers. 3246: 3230: 3040: 2909: 2845: 2722:ritual bronze vessels 2698: 2540: 2190:(mainland, 1912–1949) 200:Nobel Prize laureates 7157:Diao, Junli (2015). 6937:Guangqiu Xu (2011). 6161:Marsha Weidner, ed. 6045:Brill. p. 222. 5740:Wang, Robin (2003). 4488:Empress Dowager Cixi 4426:Empress Dowager Cixi 4372:Empress Dowager Cixi 3385:, a daughter of the 2969:Chong'er invaded Cao 2872:Zhou dynasty rituals 2624:site of Liupingtai ( 1357:United Arab Emirates 294:in the United States 109:Economic development 99:Diversity (politics) 85:Female entrepreneurs 7730:] (in Chinese). 7590:Late Imperial China 7355:Keightley, David N. 6876:Dorothy Ko (2008). 6493:10.1086/EMW23541507 6012:Dorothy Ko (2002). 5266:Columbia University 4994:, pp. 197–198. 4260:standing or walking 4244:divisions of labour 4017:Complete Tang Poems 3440:to the head of the 3214:period, the writer 3181:Emperor Yang of Sui 3005:Qin expansion south 2943:personally visited 2913:woodblock print of 2703:by a modern artist. 1342:Trinidad and Tobago 577:Speculative fiction 470:Theological figures 415:Feminist philosophy 215:Reproductive rights 21:Part of a series on 8308:Polyandry in Tibet 8281:Three-child policy 8240:Female infanticide 7312:A History of Korea 6997:2016-03-23 at the 6481:Early Modern Women 4891:Norden, van (2003) 4216: 4074: 3935: 3873:Female infanticide 3864: 3853: 3786:nunneries and six 3696:Yáochí xīn yǒng jí 3635: 3505: 3355: 3288:socially normative 3256: 3241: 3202:Admonitions Scroll 3047: 2923: 2921:on the succession. 2859: 2731:The topics of the 2716:, consort of King 2705: 2655:, suggesting that 2606:Xinglongwa culture 2547: 2471:in the context of 2205: 2015:Five Dynasties and 2007: 1942:Southern dynasties 1870: 1769:Chu–Han Contention 907:Dominican Republic 674:Mixed martial arts 644:Fastpitch softball 225:Violence and abuse 210:Positions of power 8403: 8402: 8399: 8398: 8103:978-962-217-644-7 8082:978-0-674-01393-3 8043:978-0-7425-6824-2 8007:978-0-520-91348-6 7975:978-0-674-06669-4 7939:978-0-7656-1827-6 7903:978-90-04-11065-6 7896:. pp. 1–18. 7824:978-0-7591-0409-9 7783:978-0-7591-0409-9 7685:978-0-19-803884-9 7664:978-0-87220-651-9 7638:978-1-4422-2290-8 7580:978-0-8047-2744-0 7521:978-0-521-64432-7 7481:978-0-674-03306-1 7425:978-0-7656-1750-7 7399:978-0-231-16309-5 7321:978-1-4039-3811-4 7285:. Second Series. 7252:978-1-4422-2234-2 7233:978-1-4422-7164-7 7133:978-0-7656-0504-7 7097:978-0-19-517665-0 7068:978-0-8223-8539-4 7027:978-0-7146-4633-6 6977:978-0-7146-4633-6 6950:978-1-4128-1829-2 6916:978-0-226-30416-8 6889:978-0-520-25390-2 6865:on 18 April 2016. 6829:978-0-935312-02-7 6796:978-0-19-514890-9 6769:978-0-275-95199-3 6742:978-0-295-73957-1 6538:978-1-137-02968-3 6462:978-90-04-08361-5 6391:978-1-68417-381-5 6357:978-90-04-34340-5 6323:978-0-295-99065-1 6289:978-0-87220-915-2 6255:978-0-8248-1149-5 6218:978-0-295-99755-1 6191:978-1-317-51561-6 6141:978-1-68417-100-2 6077:978-0-231-53654-7 6052:978-90-04-03917-9 6025:978-0-520-23284-6 5984:978-0-520-91348-6 5892:978-0-19-984488-3 5782:978-90-04-10596-6 5755:978-0-87220-651-9 5726:978-0-7914-6750-3 5557:978-0-307-48147-4 5319:978-1-133-58808-5 5292:978-0-495-05012-4 4782:, pp. 60–63. 4758:, pp. 62–63. 4674:, pp. 60–61. 4646:978-0-415-28822-4 4605:Zurndorfer (1999) 4463:Women in Buddhism 4430:Republic of China 4383:Taiping Rebellion 4050:levirate marriage 4034:Sengge Ragi of Lu 3974:Wushi Zhoungkuilu 3655:five Song sisters 3613:Venereal diseases 3418:Princess Wencheng 3400:The frequency of 3383:Princess Pingyang 3130:Lessons for Women 2945:King Cheng of Chu 2941:Duke Wen of Zheng 2919:King Cheng of Chu 2821:family collective 2726:worship ancestors 2604:, as well as the 2602:Liaoning province 2594:fertility symbols 2512:Classic of Poetry 2395: 2394: 2352:Transport history 2278:Education history 2250: 2249: 2245: 2244: 2231:Republic of China 2213:People's Republic 2186:Republic of China 2165: 2164: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2108: 1994: 1993: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1921: 1858: 1857: 1761:(206 BC – 220 AD) 1691:Spring and Autumn 1554:Liao civilization 1445: 1444: 649:Football / soccer 572:Fictional pirates 364:Art history field 240:Exchange of women 8472: 8432: 8431: 8430: 8420: 8419: 8418: 8411: 8303:New Marriage Law 8276:Two-child policy 8271:One-child policy 8157: 8156: 8135: 8128: 8121: 8112: 8111: 8107: 8086: 8054: 8052: 8050: 8030:Lanham, Maryland 8028:(2nd ed.). 8018: 8016: 8014: 7979: 7950: 7948: 7946: 7914: 7912: 7910: 7894:Brill Publishers 7870: 7849: 7828: 7809: 7796: 7787: 7768: 7737:Monumenta Serica 7731: 7718:Sima 司馬, Guang 光 7713: 7689: 7668: 7649: 7647: 7645: 7625:Lanham, Maryland 7613: 7584: 7562: 7537:(4): 1051–1084. 7525: 7503: 7494: 7485: 7466: 7449: 7444:has extra text ( 7443: 7439: 7437: 7429: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7374: 7350: 7325: 7306: 7277: 7256: 7237: 7218: 7186: 7153: 7144: 7142: 7140: 7108: 7106: 7104: 7072: 7032: 7031: 7011: 7005: 6988: 6982: 6981: 6961: 6955: 6954: 6934: 6928: 6927: 6925: 6923: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6873: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6849: 6840: 6834: 6833: 6817: 6807: 6801: 6800: 6780: 6774: 6773: 6753: 6747: 6746: 6726: 6720: 6719: 6707: 6701: 6695: 6689: 6683: 6677: 6671: 6665: 6659: 6653: 6647: 6638: 6637:, p. 23-24. 6632: 6626: 6620: 6614: 6608: 6602: 6596: 6585: 6579: 6573: 6567: 6561: 6560: 6549: 6543: 6542: 6522: 6513: 6512: 6476: 6467: 6466: 6446: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6432: 6409: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6364: 6341: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6307: 6301: 6300: 6298: 6296: 6279:China: A History 6273: 6267: 6266: 6264: 6262: 6239: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6225: 6202: 6196: 6195: 6175: 6166: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6148: 6125: 6119: 6118: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6097: 6089: 6063: 6057: 6056: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6009: 6003: 6002: 5995: 5989: 5988: 5968: 5962: 5955: 5949: 5948: 5937: 5931: 5930: 5917:. Third Series. 5910: 5897: 5896: 5876: 5865: 5864: 5844: 5831: 5830: 5822: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5811: 5796: 5787: 5786: 5766: 5760: 5759: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5710: 5701: 5695: 5689: 5683: 5677: 5671: 5665: 5659: 5653: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5629: 5623: 5617: 5611: 5605: 5599: 5593: 5592:, p. 98-99. 5587: 5581: 5575: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5537: 5531: 5525: 5519: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5470:, p. 64-65. 5465: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5432: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5387: 5381: 5375: 5369: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5333: 5324: 5323: 5303: 5297: 5296: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5263: 5255: 5249: 5243: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5186: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5079: 5073: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4977: 4971: 4965: 4959: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4879: 4873: 4867: 4861: 4855: 4852:Keightley (1999) 4849: 4843: 4837: 4831: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4795: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4716: 4696: 4690: 4684: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4660:Keightley (1999) 4657: 4651: 4650: 4630: 4615: 4614: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4538: 4532: 4498:History of China 4393:, was formed in 4342: 4333: 4272:Three Obediences 4240:agrarian economy 4206:Photograph of a 4186: 4169: 4160: 4140: 4131: 4118: 4109: 4096: 4087: 3975: 3966: 3956:Wushi Zhongkuilu 3868:neo-Confucianism 3844:in the style of 3840:, attributed to 3752: 3751: 3742: 3741: 3732: 3731: 3722: 3721: 3712: 3697: 3688: 3680: 3593:eastern Chang'an 3585: 3576: 3567: 3558: 3549: 3540: 3531: 3522: 3471:Uyghur Khaganate 3467: 3466: 3442:Uyghur Khaganate 3320:Princess Taiping 3316:Shangguan Wan'er 3309: 3268:Neo-Confucianism 3192: 3149: 3140: 3115: 3107: 3085: 3076: 3060: 2897: 2884:composing poetry 2863:Marquises of Jin 2800: 2755: 2686: 2649:Majiayao culture 2631: 2622:Majiayao culture 2598:Hongshan culture 2583:Yangshao culture 2575:Yangshao culture 2543:Majiayao culture 2541:Vessel from the 2454:neo-Confucianism 2435: 2426: 2408: 2387: 2380: 2373: 2315:Military history 2273:Economic history 2261:Related articles 2238: 2220: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2158: 2145: 2132: 2119: 2118: 2102: 2089: 2076: 2057: 2047: 2035: 2022: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1998: 1983: 1973: 1960: 1947: 1932: 1931: 1915: 1910:Sixteen Kingdoms 1893: 1883: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1851: 1817: 1804: 1794: 1784: 1774: 1762: 1749: 1736: 1735: 1714: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1687: 1677: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1632: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1609: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1585: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1526: 1470: 1460:History of China 1447: 1446: 1437: 1430: 1423: 1107:Marshall Islands 684:Paralympic Games 315: 92: 57: 35: 26:Women in society 18: 17: 8480: 8479: 8475: 8474: 8473: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8460:Women by period 8440: 8439: 8438: 8428: 8426: 8416: 8414: 8406: 8404: 8395: 8369:same-sex unions 8317: 8246: 8148: 8139: 8104: 8083: 8048: 8046: 8044: 8012: 8010: 8008: 7976: 7944: 7942: 7940: 7932:. M.E. Sharpe. 7922: 7920:Further reading 7917: 7908: 7906: 7904: 7825: 7793:Fazhi Yu Shehui 7784: 7686: 7665: 7643: 7641: 7639: 7581: 7543:10.2307/2700020 7522: 7482: 7441: 7440: 7431: 7430: 7426: 7404: 7402: 7400: 7322: 7253: 7234: 7191:Ebrey, Patricia 7138: 7136: 7134: 7102: 7100: 7098: 7069: 7040: 7035: 7028: 7012: 7008: 7003:History Channel 6999:Wayback Machine 6989: 6985: 6978: 6962: 6958: 6951: 6935: 6931: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6901: 6897: 6890: 6874: 6870: 6862: 6847: 6841: 6837: 6830: 6808: 6804: 6797: 6781: 6777: 6770: 6754: 6750: 6743: 6727: 6723: 6716:The Independent 6708: 6704: 6696: 6692: 6684: 6680: 6672: 6668: 6660: 6656: 6648: 6641: 6633: 6629: 6625:, p. 1065. 6621: 6617: 6613:, p. 1063. 6609: 6605: 6601:, p. 1059. 6597: 6588: 6580: 6576: 6572:, p. 1058. 6568: 6564: 6551: 6550: 6546: 6539: 6523: 6516: 6477: 6470: 6463: 6447: 6440: 6430: 6428: 6426: 6410: 6406: 6396: 6394: 6392: 6376: 6372: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6342: 6338: 6328: 6326: 6324: 6308: 6304: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6274: 6270: 6260: 6258: 6256: 6240: 6233: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6203: 6199: 6192: 6176: 6169: 6160: 6156: 6146: 6144: 6142: 6126: 6122: 6111: 6107: 6091: 6090: 6078: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6037: 6033: 6026: 6010: 6006: 5997: 5996: 5992: 5985: 5969: 5965: 5956: 5952: 5939: 5938: 5934: 5911: 5900: 5893: 5877: 5868: 5845: 5834: 5823: 5819: 5809: 5807: 5797: 5790: 5783: 5767: 5763: 5756: 5738: 5734: 5727: 5711: 5704: 5696: 5692: 5684: 5680: 5672: 5668: 5660: 5656: 5648: 5644: 5636: 5632: 5624: 5620: 5612: 5608: 5600: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5576: 5572: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5550:. p. 206. 5538: 5534: 5526: 5522: 5514: 5510: 5502: 5498: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5454: 5450: 5442: 5435: 5430: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5394: 5390: 5382: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5346: 5342: 5334: 5327: 5320: 5304: 5300: 5293: 5277: 5273: 5261: 5257: 5256: 5252: 5244: 5240: 5232: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5208: 5204: 5196: 5189: 5181: 5177: 5169: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5089: 5082: 5074: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5050: 5046: 5038: 5034: 5026: 5022: 5014: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4978: 4974: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4933: 4925: 4921: 4913: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4889: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4864:Campbell (2014) 4862: 4858: 4850: 4846: 4838: 4834: 4826: 4822: 4814: 4810: 4802: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4714:10.1.1.562.2196 4697: 4693: 4685: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4647: 4631: 4618: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4579: 4570: 4562: 4558: 4550: 4541: 4533: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4508:Women in Taoism 4438: 4214:are very small. 4200: 4175:from the novel 4059: 3988: 3842:Emperor Huizong 3829: 3492: 3480:Emperor Taizong 3468: 3446:Yenisei Kirghiz 3406:passive objects 3375:Eurasian Steppe 3328:Emperor Taizong 3296:Emperor Gaozong 3225: 3208: 3207: 3206: 3198: 3193: 3035: 3029: 2989: 2984: 2961:Chong'er of Jin 2904: 2888:King Wu of Zhou 2804:Book of Changes 2762: 2736:male children. 2693: 2535: 2485: 2469:women's history 2464:became common. 2444:, and a woman, 2391: 2362: 2361: 2357:Women's history 2263: 2262: 2253: 2252: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2194: 2189: 2180: 2179: 2168: 2167: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2148: 2143: 2135: 2130: 2116: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2092: 2087: 2079: 2074: 2066: 2060: 2055: 2045: 2033: 2025: 2020: 2016: 1996: 1995: 1990: 1981: 1971: 1963: 1958: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1929: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1905: 1902: 1896: 1891: 1881: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1841: 1815: 1807: 1802: 1792: 1783:(202 BC – 9 AD) 1782: 1772: 1760: 1752: 1747: 1732: 1731: 1720: 1719: 1712: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1685: 1675: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1644: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1597: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1572: 1571: 1560: 1559: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1514: 1503: 1502: 1441: 1412: 1411: 747: 737: 736: 729: 717:Track and field 604: 594: 593: 545: 544:Popular culture 537: 536: 465: 464: 449: 448: 403:Science fiction 349: 348: 330: 329: 313: 264: 263: 245: 244: 220:Venture capital 185:Law enforcement 90: 75:Animal advocacy 71: 51: 48:Women's history 43: 12: 11: 5: 8478: 8468: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8437: 8436: 8424: 8401: 8400: 8397: 8396: 8394: 8393: 8388: 8387: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8325: 8323: 8319: 8318: 8316: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8298:Naked marriage 8295: 8290: 8288:Ghost marriage 8285: 8284: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8263: 8257: 8255: 8248: 8247: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8242: 8235:Son preference 8232: 8227: 8222: 8221: 8220: 8213: 8206: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8165: 8163: 8154: 8150: 8149: 8144:and gender in 8138: 8137: 8130: 8123: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8102: 8087: 8081: 8067:(. ed.). 8055: 8042: 8019: 8006: 7980: 7974: 7951: 7938: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7915: 7902: 7871: 7850: 7836:(in Chinese). 7829: 7823: 7810: 7804:(in Chinese). 7797: 7788: 7782: 7769: 7732: 7720:, ed. (1084). 7714: 7704:(2): 157–195. 7690: 7684: 7669: 7663: 7650: 7637: 7614: 7585: 7579: 7563: 7526: 7520: 7504: 7495: 7486: 7480: 7467: 7450: 7424: 7411: 7398: 7375: 7351: 7341:(2): 105–243. 7326: 7320: 7307: 7278: 7257: 7251: 7238: 7232: 7219: 7187: 7154: 7145: 7132: 7109: 7096: 7073: 7067: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7033: 7026: 7006: 6983: 6976: 6956: 6949: 6929: 6915: 6895: 6888: 6868: 6835: 6828: 6802: 6795: 6775: 6768: 6748: 6741: 6721: 6702: 6700:, p. 177. 6690: 6688:, p. 176. 6678: 6666: 6654: 6639: 6627: 6615: 6603: 6586: 6574: 6562: 6559:. 4 July 2022. 6544: 6537: 6514: 6468: 6461: 6438: 6424: 6404: 6390: 6370: 6356: 6336: 6322: 6302: 6288: 6268: 6254: 6231: 6217: 6197: 6190: 6167: 6154: 6140: 6120: 6105: 6076: 6058: 6051: 6031: 6024: 6004: 5990: 5983: 5963: 5950: 5932: 5921:(2): 107–146. 5898: 5891: 5866: 5855:(3): 347–383. 5832: 5817: 5788: 5781: 5761: 5754: 5732: 5725: 5702: 5700:, p. 106. 5690: 5678: 5666: 5654: 5652:, p. 137. 5642: 5640:, p. 169. 5630: 5628:, p. 164. 5618: 5616:, p. 159. 5606: 5604:, p. 136. 5594: 5582: 5570: 5556: 5532: 5520: 5518:, p. 205. 5508: 5506:, p. 213. 5496: 5484: 5472: 5460: 5448: 5446:, p. 187. 5433: 5424: 5412: 5410:, p. 181. 5400: 5398:, p. 224. 5388: 5386:, p. 218. 5376: 5374:, p. 179. 5364: 5362:, p. 180. 5352: 5340: 5338:, p. 179. 5325: 5318: 5298: 5291: 5271: 5250: 5248:, p. 1-2. 5238: 5236:, p. 161. 5234:Raphals (2001) 5226: 5214: 5202: 5187: 5175: 5160: 5158:, p. 5-6. 5148: 5131: 5127:Sterckx (2006) 5119: 5117:, p. 166. 5115:Raphals (2001) 5107: 5095: 5080: 5068: 5064:McMahon (2013) 5056: 5044: 5032: 5020: 5008: 4996: 4984: 4982:, p. 164. 4972: 4960: 4948: 4931: 4919: 4907: 4905:, p. 265. 4903:Linduff (2002) 4895: 4880: 4868: 4866:, p. 257. 4856: 4844: 4832: 4820: 4808: 4796: 4784: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4746:, p. vii. 4736: 4707:(5): 663–691. 4691: 4687:Linduff (2003) 4676: 4672:Linduff (2003) 4664: 4652: 4645: 4616: 4597: 4585: 4568: 4566:, p. xxv. 4556: 4539: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4443:Women in China 4439: 4437: 4434: 4285:women's script 4232:patrilineality 4226:principles of 4199: 4196: 4192:Hongwu Emperor 4117:zhēnjiépáifāng 4058: 4055: 4012:Zhizheng reign 3987: 3984: 3906:Zhao Mingcheng 3828: 3825: 3809:or 25 feet of 3792:Buddhist relic 3589:brothel madams 3486:! You are the 3461: 3455:Zizhi Tongjian 3438:Princess Taihe 3363:Northern China 3284:widow chastity 3224: 3221: 3212:Three Kingdoms 3195: 3194: 3187: 3186: 3185: 3108:) and Ruojun ( 3063:patrilineality 3028: 3025: 2993:patrilineality 2988: 2985: 2983: 2982:Imperial China 2980: 2903: 2900: 2761: 2758: 2714:tomb of Fu Hao 2692: 2689: 2653:spindle whorls 2610:Inner Mongolia 2561:and the first 2534: 2531: 2484: 2481: 2473:imperial China 2462:widow chastity 2393: 2392: 2390: 2389: 2382: 2375: 2367: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2311: 2310: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2288:Jewish history 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2264: 2260: 2259: 2258: 2255: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2239: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2221: 2219:(1949–present) 2208: 2206: 2200: 2193: 2192: 2181: 2175: 2174: 2173: 2170: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2160: 2159: 2147: 2146: 2134: 2133: 2122: 2112: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2104: 2103: 2093: 2090: 2080: 2077: 2067: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2058: 2048: 2037: 2036: 2024: 2023: 2010: 2008: 2002: 1992: 1991: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1984: 1962: 1961: 1949: 1948: 1935: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1917: 1916: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1894: 1884: 1873: 1871: 1865: 1856: 1855: 1853: 1852: 1840: 1839: 1819: 1818: 1812:Three Kingdoms 1806: 1805: 1795: 1785: 1775: 1764: 1763: 1751: 1750: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1716: 1715: 1710:Warring States 1707: 1678: 1667: 1666: 1643: 1642: 1620: 1619: 1615: 1046 BC 1596: 1595: 1591: 1600 BC 1573: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1537: 1536: 1532: 2000 BC 1513: 1512: 1504: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1490: 1488:Historiography 1485: 1480: 1472: 1471: 1463: 1462: 1456: 1455: 1443: 1442: 1440: 1439: 1432: 1425: 1417: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1362:United Kingdom 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1009: 1004: 999: 994: 989: 984: 979: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 748: 743: 742: 739: 738: 734:List of sports 731: 730: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 605: 600: 599: 596: 595: 592: 591: 590: 589: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 558: 557: 546: 543: 542: 539: 538: 535: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 508: 507: 502: 497: 487: 482: 477: 472: 466: 463: 462: 456: 455: 454: 451: 450: 447: 446: 441: 440: 439: 434: 424: 419: 418: 417: 407: 406: 405: 395: 390: 389: 388: 386:"Chick flicks" 378: 373: 372: 371: 369:Women's cinema 361: 356: 350: 347: 346: 343: 337: 336: 335: 332: 331: 328: 327: 322: 317: 310: 305: 300: 299: 298: 297: 296: 281: 276: 271: 265: 262: 261: 258: 252: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 166: 165: 164: 163: 153: 148: 143: 133: 132: 131: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 95: 94: 87: 77: 70: 69: 63: 62: 59: 58: 44: 41: 40: 37: 36: 28: 27: 23: 22: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8477: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8435: 8425: 8423: 8413: 8412: 8409: 8392: 8389: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8366: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8334:Homosexuality 8332: 8330: 8327: 8326: 8324: 8320: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8268: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8249: 8241: 8238: 8237: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8225:Missing women 8223: 8218: 8214: 8211: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8201: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8166: 8164: 8162: 8158: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8136: 8131: 8129: 8124: 8122: 8117: 8116: 8113: 8105: 8099: 8095: 8094: 8088: 8084: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8065: 8060: 8056: 8045: 8039: 8035: 8031: 8027: 8026: 8020: 8009: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7990: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7959: 7958: 7952: 7941: 7935: 7931: 7930: 7924: 7923: 7905: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7878: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7856: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7830: 7826: 7820: 7816: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7798: 7794: 7789: 7785: 7779: 7775: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7724: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7694:Raphals, Lisa 7691: 7687: 7681: 7677: 7676: 7670: 7666: 7660: 7656: 7651: 7640: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7621: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7586: 7582: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7527: 7523: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7496: 7492: 7487: 7483: 7477: 7473: 7468: 7464: 7460: 7456: 7451: 7447: 7442:|volume= 7435: 7427: 7421: 7417: 7412: 7401: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7382: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7332: 7327: 7323: 7317: 7313: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7289:(1/3): 1–20. 7288: 7284: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7258: 7254: 7248: 7244: 7239: 7235: 7229: 7225: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7155: 7151: 7146: 7135: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7116: 7110: 7099: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7080: 7074: 7070: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7043: 7042: 7038:Sources cited 7029: 7023: 7019: 7018: 7010: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6987: 6979: 6973: 6969: 6968: 6960: 6952: 6946: 6942: 6941: 6933: 6918: 6912: 6908: 6907: 6899: 6891: 6885: 6881: 6880: 6872: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6846: 6839: 6831: 6825: 6821: 6816: 6815: 6806: 6798: 6792: 6788: 6787: 6779: 6771: 6765: 6761: 6760: 6752: 6744: 6738: 6734: 6733: 6725: 6717: 6713: 6706: 6699: 6698:Hinsch (2016) 6694: 6687: 6686:Hinsch (2016) 6682: 6676:, p. 26. 6675: 6670: 6664:, p. 25. 6663: 6658: 6652:, p. 24. 6651: 6646: 6644: 6636: 6631: 6624: 6619: 6612: 6607: 6600: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6584:, p. 27. 6583: 6578: 6571: 6566: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6540: 6534: 6530: 6529: 6521: 6519: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6473: 6464: 6458: 6454: 6453: 6445: 6443: 6427: 6425:0-231-08855-8 6421: 6417: 6416: 6408: 6393: 6387: 6383: 6382: 6374: 6359: 6353: 6349: 6348: 6340: 6325: 6319: 6315: 6314: 6306: 6291: 6285: 6281: 6280: 6272: 6257: 6251: 6247: 6246: 6238: 6236: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6209: 6201: 6193: 6187: 6183: 6182: 6174: 6172: 6164: 6158: 6143: 6137: 6133: 6132: 6124: 6116: 6109: 6101: 6095: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6073: 6069: 6062: 6054: 6048: 6044: 6043: 6035: 6027: 6021: 6017: 6016: 6008: 6000: 5994: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5967: 5960: 5954: 5946: 5942: 5936: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5903: 5894: 5888: 5884: 5883: 5875: 5873: 5871: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5843: 5841: 5839: 5837: 5828: 5821: 5806: 5802: 5795: 5793: 5784: 5778: 5774: 5773: 5765: 5757: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5736: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5717: 5709: 5707: 5699: 5694: 5687: 5682: 5676:, p. 63. 5675: 5670: 5664:, p. 59. 5663: 5658: 5651: 5646: 5639: 5634: 5627: 5622: 5615: 5610: 5603: 5598: 5591: 5586: 5580:, p. 54. 5579: 5574: 5559: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5544: 5536: 5530: 5524: 5517: 5512: 5505: 5500: 5494:, p. 47. 5493: 5488: 5482:, p. 66. 5481: 5476: 5469: 5464: 5457: 5452: 5445: 5440: 5438: 5428: 5422:, p. 35. 5421: 5420:Powers (2004) 5416: 5409: 5404: 5397: 5392: 5385: 5380: 5373: 5368: 5361: 5356: 5350:, p. 20. 5349: 5344: 5337: 5332: 5330: 5321: 5315: 5311: 5310: 5302: 5294: 5288: 5284: 5283: 5282:World History 5275: 5267: 5260: 5254: 5247: 5242: 5235: 5230: 5224:, p. 12. 5223: 5222:Hinsch (1998) 5218: 5212:, p. 11. 5211: 5210:Hinsch (1998) 5206: 5199: 5198:Hinsch (1998) 5194: 5192: 5184: 5183:Hinsch (1998) 5179: 5172: 5171:Hinsch (1998) 5167: 5165: 5157: 5156:Hinsch (1998) 5152: 5145: 5144:Hinsch (1998) 5140: 5138: 5136: 5129:, p. 37. 5128: 5123: 5116: 5111: 5105:, p. 16. 5104: 5099: 5093:, p. 15. 5092: 5087: 5085: 5078:, p. 13. 5077: 5072: 5066:, p. 17. 5065: 5060: 5054:, p. 16. 5053: 5048: 5042:, p. 12. 5041: 5036: 5029: 5024: 5018:, p. 18. 5017: 5012: 5006:, p. 15. 5005: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4981: 4976: 4969: 4964: 4958:, p. 88. 4957: 4952: 4946:, p. 87. 4945: 4940: 4938: 4936: 4929:, p. 17. 4928: 4927:Hinsch (2013) 4923: 4917:, p. 14. 4916: 4915:Hinsch (2013) 4911: 4904: 4899: 4892: 4887: 4885: 4878:, p. 75. 4877: 4872: 4865: 4860: 4854:, p. 27. 4853: 4848: 4842:, p. 40. 4841: 4836: 4830:, p. 39. 4829: 4824: 4818:, p. 38. 4817: 4812: 4806:, p. 37. 4805: 4800: 4794:, p. 71. 4793: 4792:Hinsch (2004) 4788: 4781: 4780:Hinsch (2004) 4776: 4770:, p. 11. 4769: 4764: 4757: 4752: 4745: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4695: 4689:, p. 61. 4688: 4683: 4681: 4673: 4668: 4661: 4656: 4648: 4642: 4638: 4637: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4612: 4606: 4601: 4595:, p. 20. 4594: 4593:Barlow (2004) 4589: 4582: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4565: 4564:Kinney (2014) 4560: 4554:, p. 16. 4553: 4552:Hinsch (2013) 4548: 4546: 4544: 4537:, p. 86. 4536: 4531: 4529: 4524: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4448:Four Beauties 4446: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4433: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4375: 4373: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4289:blood sisters 4286: 4282: 4278: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4228:patrilocality 4225: 4221: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4195: 4193: 4188: 4185: 4180: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4156: 4151: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4135: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4113: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4054: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4024:anthology of 4023: 4019: 4018: 4013: 4009: 4008:Zhao Luanluan 4005: 4004:Guan Daosheng 4000: 3998: 3993: 3983: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3957: 3951: 3949: 3945: 3944:Southern Tang 3940: 3932: 3931: 3925: 3921: 3919: 3915: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3862: 3857: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3838: 3833: 3824: 3821: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3746: 3736: 3726: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3698: 3692: 3684: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3580: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3502: 3497: 3491: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3476:Emperor Gaozu 3472: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3351: 3347: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3280:widow suicide 3277: 3273: 3270:of the later 3269: 3265: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3234: 3229: 3220: 3217: 3213: 3204: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3163: 3157: 3152: 3150: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3111: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3056: 3052: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2997:patrilocality 2994: 2979: 2977: 2972: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2936:Book of Rites 2932: 2928: 2927:feudal states 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2899: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2850: 2844: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2811: 2806: 2805: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2757: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2709:Shang dynasty 2702: 2697: 2691:Shang dynasty 2688: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2661:Qijia culture 2658: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2544: 2539: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2519: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2493:ancient China 2490: 2483:Ancient China 2480: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2467:The study of 2465: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2438: 2436: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2417: 2416:Rites of Zhou 2412: 2404: 2399: 2388: 2383: 2381: 2376: 2374: 2369: 2368: 2366: 2365: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2327: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2320:Naval history 2318: 2316: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2303:Music history 2301: 2299: 2298:Media history 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2283:Legal history 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2257: 2256: 2237:1949–present) 2233: 2232: 2228: 2227: 2225: 2217: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2198: 2188: 2187: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2155: 2154: 2150: 2149: 2142: 2141: 2137: 2136: 2129: 2128: 2124: 2123: 2120: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2078: 2073: 2072: 2068: 2065: 2064: 2062: 2054: 2053: 2052:Southern Song 2049: 2044: 2043: 2042:Northern Song 2039: 2038: 2032: 2031: 2027: 2026: 2019: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2000: 1980: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1965: 1964: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1951: 1944: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1890: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1879: 1875: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1863: 1848: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1838: 1837: 1832: 1831: 1826: 1825: 1821: 1820: 1814: 1813: 1809: 1808: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1765: 1759: 1758: 1754: 1753: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1737: 1730: 1724: 1723: 1711: 1708: 1703: 476 BC 1692: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1676:(1046–771 BC) 1674: 1673: 1669: 1668: 1662: 256 BC 1651: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1627: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1598: 1580: 1579: 1575: 1574: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1556: 1555: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1543: 1539: 1538: 1521: 1520: 1516: 1515: 1511: 1510: 1506: 1505: 1501: 1495: 1494: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1448: 1438: 1433: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1419: 1418: 1416: 1415: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1367:United States 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1003: 1000: 998: 995: 993: 990: 988: 985: 983: 980: 978: 975: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 937:FS Micronesia 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 892: 888: 885: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 749: 746: 741: 740: 735: 728: 727:Winter sports 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 606: 603: 598: 597: 588: 585: 584: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 562:Film industry 560: 556: 553: 552: 551: 548: 547: 541: 540: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 492: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 467: 461: 458: 457: 453: 452: 445: 442: 438: 435: 433: 430: 429: 428: 425: 423: 422:Photographers 420: 416: 413: 412: 411: 408: 404: 401: 400: 399: 396: 394: 391: 387: 384: 383: 382: 379: 377: 374: 370: 367: 366: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 351: 344: 342: 339: 338: 334: 333: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 311: 309: 306: 304: 303:Organizations 301: 295: 292: 291: 290: 287: 286: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 266: 259: 257: 254: 253: 249: 248: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 230:Voting rights 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 162: 159: 158: 157: 156:Queen regnant 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 138: 137: 134: 130: 127: 126: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 93: 88: 86: 83: 82: 81: 78: 76: 73: 72: 68: 65: 64: 61: 60: 55: 49: 46: 45: 39: 38: 34: 30: 29: 25: 24: 20: 19: 16: 8230:Prostitution 8204:Foot binding 8198: 8092: 8063: 8047:. Retrieved 8024: 8011:. Retrieved 7988: 7956: 7943:. Retrieved 7928: 7907:. Retrieved 7876: 7858: 7854: 7837: 7833: 7814: 7805: 7801: 7792: 7773: 7740: 7736: 7727: 7722: 7701: 7697: 7674: 7654: 7642:. Retrieved 7619: 7596:(1): 40–62. 7593: 7589: 7570: 7534: 7530: 7511: 7499: 7490: 7471: 7454: 7415: 7403:. Retrieved 7380: 7362: 7358: 7338: 7334: 7330: 7311: 7286: 7282: 7268:(1): 47–82. 7265: 7261: 7242: 7223: 7198: 7194: 7169:(1): 71–87. 7166: 7162: 7149: 7137:. Retrieved 7114: 7101:. Retrieved 7078: 7046: 7016: 7009: 7002: 6986: 6966: 6959: 6939: 6932: 6920:. Retrieved 6905: 6898: 6878: 6871: 6860:the original 6855: 6851: 6838: 6813: 6805: 6785: 6778: 6758: 6751: 6731: 6724: 6715: 6705: 6693: 6681: 6669: 6657: 6630: 6618: 6606: 6577: 6565: 6556: 6547: 6527: 6484: 6480: 6451: 6429:. Retrieved 6414: 6407: 6395:. Retrieved 6380: 6373: 6361:. Retrieved 6346: 6339: 6327:. Retrieved 6312: 6305: 6293:. Retrieved 6278: 6271: 6259:. Retrieved 6244: 6222:. Retrieved 6207: 6200: 6180: 6162: 6157: 6145:. Retrieved 6130: 6123: 6115:Shi Ji Vol.1 6114: 6108: 6067: 6061: 6041: 6034: 6014: 6007: 5993: 5973: 5966: 5953: 5944: 5935: 5918: 5914: 5881: 5852: 5848: 5820: 5808:. Retrieved 5804: 5771: 5764: 5745: 5735: 5715: 5693: 5688:, p. 3. 5681: 5669: 5657: 5645: 5633: 5621: 5609: 5597: 5585: 5573: 5563:18 September 5561:. Retrieved 5542: 5535: 5523: 5511: 5499: 5487: 5475: 5463: 5458:, p. 6. 5456:Ebrey (1986) 5451: 5444:Lewis (2009) 5427: 5415: 5408:Lewis (2009) 5403: 5391: 5379: 5367: 5360:Lewis (2009) 5355: 5348:Hwang (2017) 5343: 5336:Lewis (2009) 5308: 5301: 5281: 5274: 5265: 5253: 5241: 5229: 5217: 5205: 5200:, p. 8. 5185:, p. 7. 5178: 5173:, p. 6. 5151: 5146:, p. 5. 5122: 5110: 5098: 5071: 5059: 5047: 5035: 5030:, p. 9. 5023: 5011: 4999: 4987: 4975: 4963: 4951: 4922: 4910: 4898: 4893:, p. 3. 4871: 4859: 4847: 4835: 4823: 4811: 4799: 4787: 4775: 4763: 4751: 4739: 4704: 4700: 4694: 4667: 4662:, p. 2. 4655: 4635: 4607:, p. 4. 4600: 4588: 4583:, p. 2. 4559: 4493:Nüshu script 4419: 4409:founded the 4405:. In 1883, 4399:missionaries 4379:foot binding 4376: 4370: 4358:Dong Xiaowan 4350: 4339: 4312:filial piety 4301: 4256:foot-binding 4220:Qing dynasty 4217: 4212:unbound feet 4198:Qing dynasty 4189: 4178:Jin Ping Mei 4176: 4166: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4122:Yuan dynasty 4115: 4093: 4078:Ming dynasty 4075: 4065: 4057:Ming dynasty 4046: 4042:Song dynasty 4026:Tang dynasty 4022:Qing dynasty 4015: 4001: 3992:Yuan dynasty 3989: 3986:Yuan dynasty 3972: 3954: 3952: 3948:art of dance 3939:foot binding 3936: 3928: 3918:Yuan dynasty 3913: 3910: 3881:yin and yang 3865: 3846:Tang dynasty 3835: 3827:Song dynasty 3802: 3796: 3772:storytelling 3765: 3758: 3725:Song Ruoxian 3715:Song Ruozhao 3703:Song Ruoshen 3701: 3694: 3659:the Classics 3636: 3628:Tang dynasty 3626:Portrait of 3582: 3564: 3546: 3528: 3506: 3499:A troupe of 3462: 3453: 3399: 3391:Tang dynasty 3371:Central Asia 3356: 3312:Zhou dynasty 3276:foot-binding 3272:Song dynasty 3260:Tang dynasty 3257: 3233:Tang dynasty 3223:Tang dynasty 3209: 3200: 3171: 3161: 3153: 3146: 3128: 3127:, author of 3123:The scholar 3122: 3082: 3048: 2990: 2973: 2949: 2934: 2924: 2911:Qing dynasty 2877: 2860: 2848: 2829:filial piety 2814: 2802: 2778:Eastern Zhou 2766:Zhou dynasty 2763: 2760:Zhou dynasty 2733:oracle bones 2730: 2706: 2646: 2644:philosophy. 2642:yin and yang 2587: 2569:theories of 2548: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2486: 2466: 2450:Song dynasty 2442:Tang dynasty 2439: 2432: 2414: 2411:Zhou dynasty 2397: 2396: 2356: 2293:LGBT history 2229: 2211: 2184: 2151: 2138: 2125: 2095: 2082: 2069: 2050: 2040: 2028: 2017:Ten Kingdoms 2013: 1966: 1953: 1940:Northern and 1938: 1908: 1886: 1876: 1844: 1834: 1828: 1822: 1816:(220–280 AD) 1810: 1797: 1787: 1777: 1773:(206–202 BC) 1767: 1755: 1748:(221–207 BC) 1742: 1713:(475–221 BC) 1686:(771–256 BC) 1682:Eastern Zhou 1680: 1672:Western Zhou 1670: 1647: 1623: 1600: 1576: 1552: 1546: 1540: 1517: 1507: 1387:Vatican City 1332:Turkmenistan 1262:South Africa 1242:Sierra Leone 1227:Saudi Arabia 692:Roller derby 490:Christianity 475:Baháʼí Faith 354:Architecture 54:legal rights 15: 8391:Transgender 8059:Idema, Wilt 7909:15 February 7861:(1): 1–42. 7808:(3): 86–92. 7644:28 February 7567:Mann, Susan 7405:15 February 7365:(1): 1–63. 7201:(1): 1–24. 6674:Mann (1997) 6662:Mann (1997) 6650:Mann (1997) 6635:Mann (1997) 6582:Mann (1997) 6487:: 183–187. 5698:Benn (2004) 5686:Benn (2004) 5674:Benn (2004) 5662:Benn (2004) 5650:Benn (2004) 5638:Benn (2004) 5626:Benn (2004) 5614:Benn (2004) 5602:Benn (2004) 5590:Benn (2004) 5578:Benn (2004) 5492:Mann (1992) 5480:Benn (2004) 5468:Benn (2004) 5396:Benn (2004) 5384:Benn (2004) 5103:Zhou (2003) 5091:Zhou (2003) 5076:Zhou (2003) 4992:Yong (2004) 4980:Yong (2004) 4968:Wang (2015) 4876:Diao (2015) 4473:Li Qingzhao 4407:Kang Youwei 4401:to promote 4366:prostitutes 4320:Ming period 4268:Han Chinese 4173:Pan Jinlian 4076:During the 4072:(1494–1552) 4038:calligraphy 3902:Li Qingzhao 3861:Li Qingzhao 3755:Du Qiuniang 3745:Song Ruoxun 3735:Song Ruolun 3632:Du Qiuniang 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Women in ancient and imperial China

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