Wireless power transfer

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receiving electrodes in the air above 30,000 feet (9,100 m) in altitude, where he thought the pressure would allow him to send high voltages (millions of volts) long distances. To further study the conductive nature of low pressure air he set up a test facility at high altitude in Colorado Springs during 1899. Experiments he conducted there with a large coil operating in the megavolts range, as well as observations he made of the electronic noise of lightning strikes, led him to conclude incorrectly that he could use the entire globe of the Earth to conduct electrical energy. The theory included driving alternating current pulses into the Earth at its resonant frequency from a grounded Tesla coil working against an elevated capacitance to make the potential of the Earth oscillate. Tesla thought this would allow alternating current to be received with a similar capacitive antenna tuned to resonance with it at any point on Earth with very little power loss. His observations also led him to believe a high voltage used in a coil at an elevation of a few hundred feet would "break the air stratum down", eliminating the need for miles of cable hanging on balloons to create his atmospheric return circuit. Tesla would go on the next year to propose a "

1150: 1931:. Intervening materials between or near the electrodes can absorb the energy, in the case of humans possibly causing excessive electromagnetic field exposure. However capacitive coupling has a few advantages over inductive coupling. The field is largely confined between the capacitor plates, reducing interference, which in inductive coupling requires heavy ferrite "flux confinement" cores. Also, alignment requirements between the transmitter and receiver are less critical. Capacitive coupling has recently been applied to charging battery powered portable devices as well as charging or continuous wireless power transfer in biomedical implants, and is being considered as a means of transferring power between substrate layers in integrated circuits. 2858: 1123: 1896: 1687: 31: 1910: 2809:. In landmark 1975 experiments as technical director of a JPL/Raytheon program, Brown demonstrated long-range transmission by beaming 475 W of microwave power to a rectenna a mile away, with a microwave to DC conversion efficiency of 54%. At NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he and Robert Dickinson transmitted 30 kW DC output power across 1.5 km with 2.38 GHz microwaves from a 26 m dish to a 7.3 x 3.5 m rectenna array. The incident-RF to DC conversion efficiency of the rectenna was 80%. In 1983 Japan launched 1193: 1135: 2457: 477: 380:(1872) that were based on the erroneous belief that there was an electrified atmospheric stratum accessible at low altitude. Both inventors' patents noted this layer connected with a return path using "Earth currents"' would allow for wireless telegraphy as well as supply power for the telegraph, doing away with artificial batteries, and could also be used for lighting, heat, and motive power. A more practical demonstration of wireless transmission via conduction came in 43: 1184: 468: 2844: 9569: 393: 1162: 2730:

medical devices are designed for high efficiency using low power electronics while efficiently accommodating some misalignment and dynamic twisting of the coils. The separation between the coils in implantable applications is commonly less than 20 cm. Today resonant inductive energy transfer is regularly used for providing electric power in many commercially available medical implantable devices.

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transferred from a flat coil in the charger to a similar one in the device. In 2007, a team led by Marin Soljačić at MIT used a dual resonance transmitter with a 25 cm diameter secondary tuned to 10 MHz to transfer 60 W of power to a similar dual resonance receiver over a distance of 2 meters (6.6 ft) (eight times the transmitter coil diameter) at around 40% efficiency.

2339: 1782:). This is called "mid-range" transfer, in contrast to the "short range" of nonresonant inductive transfer, which can achieve similar efficiencies only when the coils are adjacent. Another advantage is that resonant circuits interact with each other so much more strongly than they do with nonresonant objects that power losses due to absorption in stray nearby objects are negligible. 844:, meaning the energy stays within a short distance of the transmitter. If there is no receiving device or absorbing material within their limited range to "couple" to, no power leaves the transmitter. The range of these fields is short, and depends on the size and shape of the "antenna" devices, which are usually coils of wire. The fields, and thus the power transmitted, decrease 2173:. A rotating armature embedded in a garage floor or curb would turn a receiver armature in the underside of the vehicle to charge its batteries. It is claimed that this technique can transfer power over distances of 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) with high efficiency, over 90%. Also, the low frequency stray magnetic fields produced by the rotating magnets produce less 85:. The technology of wireless power transmission can eliminate the use of the wires and batteries, thereby increasing the mobility, convenience, and safety of an electronic device for all users. Wireless power transfer is useful to power electrical devices where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or are not possible. 2008:, between the transmitter and receiver devices. For coupled resonators with same resonant frequencies, wireless power transfer between the transmitter and the receiver is spread over three regimes – under-coupled, critically coupled and over-coupled. As the critical coupling coefficient increases from an under-coupled regime ( 1984:). In contrast to inductive coupling systems which usually use high frequency magnetic fields, EWPT uses low-frequency magnetic fields (<1 kHz), which safely pass through conductive media and have higher human field exposure limits (~2 mTrms at 1 kHz), showing promise for potential use in wirelessly recharging 2726:, to eliminate the hazard of electric shock. One of the earliest proposed applications of inductive transfer was to power electric locomotives. In 1892 Maurice Hutin and Maurice Leblanc patented a wireless method of powering railroad trains using resonant coils inductively coupled to a track wire at 3 kHz. 2768:

inductive power standard published in August 2009 enables high efficiency charging and powering of portable devices of up to 5 watts over distances of 4 cm (1.6 inches). The wireless device is placed on a flat charger plate (which can be embedded in table tops at cafes, for example) and power is

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between the two electrodes. An example of this is natural lightning, where one electrode is a virtual point in a cloud and the other is a point on Earth. Laser Induced Plasma Channel (LIPC) research is presently underway using ultrafast lasers to artificially promote development of the plasma channel

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In 2015, researchers at the University of Washington introduced power over Wi-Fi, which trickle-charges batteries and powered battery-free cameras and temperature sensors using transmissions from Wi-Fi routers. Wi-Fi signals were shown to power battery-free temperature and camera sensors at ranges of

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A drawback of resonant coupling theory is that at close ranges when the two resonant circuits are tightly coupled, the resonant frequency of the system is no longer constant but "splits" into two resonant peaks, so the maximum power transfer no longer occurs at the original resonant frequency and the

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Resonant technology is currently being widely incorporated in modern inductive wireless power systems. One of the possibilities envisioned for this technology is area wireless power coverage. A coil in the wall or ceiling of a room might be able to wirelessly power lights and mobile devices anywhere

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Wireless power transfer may be used to power up wireless information transmitters or receivers. This type of communication is known as wireless powered communication (WPC). When the harvested power is used to supply the power of wireless information transmitters, the network is known as Simultaneous

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In the early 1960s resonant inductive wireless energy transfer was used successfully in implantable medical devices including such devices as pacemakers and artificial hearts. While the early systems used a resonant receiver coil, later systems implemented resonant transmitter coils as well. These

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This new process is being explored for use as a laser lightning rod and as a means to trigger lightning bolts from clouds for natural lightning channel studies, for artificial atmospheric propagation studies, as a substitute for conventional radio antennas, for applications associated with electric

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In atmospheric plasma channel coupling, energy is transferred between two electrodes by electrical conduction through ionized air. When an electric field gradient exists between the two electrodes, exceeding 34 kilovolts per centimeter at sea level atmospheric pressure, an electric arc occurs. This

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or a large passive electrode serves as the return path for the current. The transmitter oscillator is connected between an active and a passive electrode. The load is also connected between an active and a passive electrode. The electric field produced by the transmitter induces alternating charge

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For earthbound applications, a large-area 10 km diameter receiving array allows large total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1 mW/cm distributed across a 10 km diameter

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drives the transmitter plates in opposite phase (180° phase difference) by a high alternating voltage, and the load is connected between the two receiver plates. The alternating electric fields induce opposite phase alternating potentials in the receiver plates, and this "push-pull" action causes

1775:. Therefore, by using resonance, the same amount of power can be transferred at greater distances, using the much weaker magnetic fields out in the peripheral regions ("tails") of the near fields. Resonant inductive coupling can achieve high efficiency at ranges of 4 to 10 times the coil diameter ( 787:(AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric and magnetic fields in the space around them. These fields can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving "antenna", causing them to move back and forth. These represent alternating current which can be used to power a load. 2816:

In recent years a focus of research has been the development of wireless-powered drone aircraft, which began in 1959 with the Dept. of Defense's RAMP (Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform) project which sponsored Brown's research. In 1987 Canada's Communications Research Center developed a small

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In 2008 the team of Greg Leyh and Mike Kennan of Nevada Lightning Lab used a grounded dual resonance transmitter with a 57 cm diameter secondary tuned to 60 kHz and a similar grounded dual resonance receiver to transfer power through coupled electric fields with an earth current return

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was shown by Oruganti et al., where they demonstrated that it was possible to excite Zenneck wave type waves on flat metal-air interfaces and transmit power across metal obstacles. Here the idea is to excite a localized charge oscillation at the metal-air interface, the resulting modes propagate

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In 2017, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) certified the first mid-field radio frequency (RF) transmitter of wireless power. In 2021 the FCC granted a license to an over-the-air (OTA) wireless charging system that combines near-field and far-field methods by using a frequency of about

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An electrodynamic wireless power transfer (EWPT) system utilizes a receiver with a mechanically resonating or rotating permanent magnet. When subjected to a time-varying magnetic field, the mechanical motion of the resonating magnet is converted into electricity by one or more electromechanical

951:, meaning it leaves the antenna whether or not there is a receiver to absorb it. The portion of energy which does not strike the receiving antenna is dissipated and lost to the system. The amount of power emitted as electromagnetic waves by an antenna depends on the ratio of the antenna's size 8038: 498:

Tesla went on to develop a wireless power distribution system that he hoped would be capable of transmitting power long distance directly into homes and factories. Early on he seemed to borrow from the ideas of Mahlon Loomis, proposing a system composed of balloons to suspend transmitting and

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the goal is the transmission of information, so the amount of power reaching the receiver is not so important, as long as it is sufficient that the information can be received intelligibly. In wireless communication technologies only tiny amounts of power reach the receiver. In contrast, with

8169: 2476:(solar cells). This mechanism is generally known as 'power beaming' because the power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it to electrical energy. At the receiver, special photovoltaic laser power converters which are optimized for monochromatic light conversion are applied. 1201:

Left: modern inductive power transfer, an electric toothbrush charger. A coil in the stand produces a magnetic field, inducing an alternating current in a coil in the toothbrush, which is rectified to charge the batteries. Right: a light bulb powered wirelessly by induction, in

1149: 1008:), so if the receiving antenna is far away, only a small amount of the radiation will hit it. Therefore, these can be used for short range, inefficient power transmission but not for long range transmission. However, unlike fields, electromagnetic radiation can be focused by 6214:

A. A. Rendon-Hernandez, M. A. Halim, S. E. Smith and D. P. Arnold, "Magnetically Coupled Microelectromechanical Resonators for Low-Frequency Wireless Power Transfer," 2022 IEEE 35th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems Conference (MEMS), 2022, pp.

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Garraud, N.; Alabi, D.; Varela, J.D.; Arnold, D.P.; Garraud, A. Microfabricated Electrodynamic Wireless Power Receiver for Bio-implants and Wearables. In Proceedings of the 2018 Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA, 3–7 June 2018; pp.

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first discovered resonant coupling during his pioneering experiments in wireless power transfer around the turn of the 20th century, but the possibilities of using resonant coupling to increase transmission range has only recently been explored. In 2007 a team led by

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through the air, directing the electric arc, and guiding the current across a specific path in a controllable manner. The laser energy reduces the atmospheric dielectric breakdown voltage and the air is made less insulating by superheating, which lowers the density (

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S. E. Smith, M. A. Halim, A. A. Rendon-Hernandez and D. P. Arnold, "Dual-Transduction Electromechanical Receiver for Near-Field Wireless Power Transmission," 2021 IEEE 34th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), 2021, pp. 38–41, doi:

2678:, is the conversion of ambient energy from the environment to electric power, mainly to power small autonomous wireless electronic devices. The ambient energy may come from stray electric or magnetic fields or radio waves from nearby electrical equipment, light, 2559:, demonstrated in 2018, capable of delivering power to stationary and moving devices across a room. This wireless power system complies with safety regulations according to IEC 60825 standard. It is also approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA). 6123:

M. A. Halim, S. E. Smith, J. M. Samman and D. P. Arnold, "A High-Performance Electrodynamic Micro-Receiver for Low-Frequency Wireless Power Transfer," 2020 IEEE 33rd International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), 2020, pp. 590–593, doi:

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area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants. For comparison, a solar PV farm of similar size might easily exceed 10,000 megawatts (rounded) at best conditions during daytime.

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current to flow back and forth between the plates through the load. A disadvantage of this configuration for wireless charging is that the two plates in the receiving device must be aligned face to face with the charger plates for the device to work.

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Jiang, Hao; Zhang, Junmin; Lan, Di; Chao, Kevin K.; Liou, Shyshenq; Shahnasser, Hamid; Fechter, Richard; Hirose, Shinjiro; Harrison, Michael; Roy, Shuvo (2013). "A Low-Frequency Versatile Wireless Power Transfer Technology for Biomedical Implants".

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at MIT used two coupled tuned circuits each made of a 25 cm self-resonant coil of wire at 10 MHz to achieve the transmission of 60 W of power over a distance of 2 meters (6.6 ft) (8 times the coil diameter) at around 40% efficiency.

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Capacitive coupling has only been used practically in a few low power applications, because the very high voltages on the electrodes required to transmit significant power can be hazardous, and can cause unpleasant side effects such as noxious

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such as vibration or motion of the device. Although the efficiency of conversion is usually low and the power gathered often minuscule (milliwatts or microwatts), it can be adequate to run or recharge small micropower wireless devices such as

1103:. Unlike in a radiative system where the maximum radiation occurs when the dipole antennas are oriented transverse to the direction of propagation, with dipole fields the maximum coupling occurs when the dipoles are oriented longitudinally. 2412:. While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna has been widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless telecommunications industries due to its excellent performance characteristics. 328:

driving a current in a conductor loop by a time-varying magnetic flux. Transmission of electrical energy without wires was observed by many inventors and experimenters, but lack of a coherent theory attributed these phenomena vaguely to

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between the antennas greatly, allowing efficient transmission at somewhat greater distances, although the fields still decrease exponentially. Therefore the range of near-field devices is conventionally divided into two categories:

2284:) of any electromagnetic wave (such as a microwave or laser beam) will be reduced as the beam diverges over distance at a minimum rate inversely proportional to the aperture size. The larger the ratio of a transmitting antenna's 2358:

may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized. Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from orbiting

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Clerici, Matteo; Hu, Yi; Lassonde, Philippe; Milián, Carles; Couairon, Arnaud; Christodoulides, Demetrios N.; Chen, Zhigang; Razzari, Luca; Vidal, François; Légaré, François; Faccio, Daniele; Morandotti, Roberto (June 2015).

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Massa, A. Massa, G. Oliveri, F. Viani, and P. Rocca; Oliveri, Giacomo; Viani, Federico; Rocca, Paolo (June 2013). "Array designs for long-distance wireless power transmission – State-of-the-art and innovative solutions".

185:. The technologies differ in the distance over which they can transfer power efficiently, whether the transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of electromagnetic energy they use: time varying 2825:. Powered by a rectenna, it could fly at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and stay aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto University built a more advanced craft called MILAX (MIcrowave Lifted Airplane eXperiment). 2691:, which are proliferating in many fields. This new technology is being developed to eliminate the need for battery replacement or charging of such wireless devices, allowing them to operate completely autonomously. 288:(fraction of transmitted energy that is received) is the more significant parameter. For this reason, wireless power technologies are likely to be more limited by distance than wireless communication technologies. 1092:). or 60 dB per decade. In other words, if far apart, increasing the distance between the two antennas tenfold causes the power received to decrease by a factor of 10 = 1000000. As a result, inductive and 459:. Tesla failed to make a commercial product out of his findings but his resonant inductive coupling method is now widely used in electronics and is currently being applied to short-range wireless power systems. 3100:

Erfani, Reza; Marefat, Fatemeh; Sodagar, Amir M.; Mohseni, Pedram (May 2018). "Modeling and Characterization of Capacitive Elements With Tissue as Dielectric Material for Wireless Powering of Neural Implants".

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for a smartphone as an example of near-field wireless transfer. When the phone is set on the pad, a coil in the pad creates a magnetic field which induces a current in another coil, in the phone, charging its

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in miniature and demonstrated power transmission over 4 meters (13 ft) with a coil diameter of 10 centimetres (3.9 in) at a resonant frequency of 27.50 MHz, with an effective efficiency of 60%.

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propagation allows narrow beam cross-section area for transmission over large distances. As a result, there is little or no reduction in power when increasing the distance from the transmitter to the receiver.

6983: 2382:. These sizes can be somewhat decreased by using shorter wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have difficulties with atmospheric absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of the " 6114:

J. O. Mur-Miranda, S. Cheng and D. P. Arnold, "Improving the efficiency of electrodynamic wireless power transmission," 2013 7th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), 2013, pp. 2848–2852.

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since 2012. Other researchers, however, claim that the two energy conversions (electrical to mechanical to electrical again) make the system less efficient than electrical systems like inductive coupling.

985:, very little power is radiated. Therefore near-field devices, which use lower frequencies, radiate almost none of their energy as electromagnetic radiation. Antennas about the same size as the wavelength 3579:

Krikidis, Ioannis; Timotheou, Stelios; Nikolaou, Symeon; Zheng, Gan; Ng, Derrick Wing Kwan; Schober, Robert (2014). "Simultaneous wireless information and power transfer in modern communication systems".

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Truong, B.D.; Roundy, S. Wireless Power Transfer System with Center-Clamped Magneto-Mechano-Electric (MME) Receiver: Model Validation and Efficiency Investigation. Smart Mater. Struct. 2019, 28, 015004.

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from the antenna. The boundary between the regions is somewhat vaguely defined. The fields have different characteristics in these regions, and different technologies are used for transferring power:

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in recent decades is currently driving the development of mid-range wireless powering and charging technology to eliminate the need for these devices to be tethered to wall plugs during charging. The

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line, which converts the power to a time-varying electromagnetic field, and one or more "receiver" devices which receive the power and convert it back to DC or AC electric current which is used by an

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on the receiver armature, turning it. The magnetic field acts like a mechanical coupling between the armatures. The receiver armature produces power to drive the load, either by turning a separate

8593:. In J. Hadlaw, A. Herman, & T. Swiss (Eds.), Theories of the Mobile Internet. Materialities and Imaginaries. (pp. 126–154). London: Routledge. A short cultural history of wireless power 6171:

IEEE. Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz; IEEE Standard C95.1–2010; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2010; pp. 1–238.

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which could efficiently convert microwaves to DC power, and in 1964 demonstrated it with the first wireless-powered aircraft, a model helicopter powered by microwaves beamed from the ground.

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Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT); whereas when it is used to supply the power of wireless information receivers, it is known as a Wireless Powered Communication Network (WPCN).

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Forestier, B.; Houard, A.; Revel, I.; Durand, M.; André, Y. B.; Prade, B.; Jarnac, A.; Carbonnel, J.; Le Nevé, M.; de Miscault, J. C.; Esmiller, B.; Chapuis, D.; Mysyrowicz, A. (March 2012).

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Erfani, Reza; Marefat, Fatemeh; Sodagar, Amir M.; Mohseni, Pedram (July 2018). "Modeling and Experimental Validation of a Capacitive Link for Wireless Power Transfer to Biomedical Implants".

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In 2013, inventor Hatem Zeine demonstrated how wireless power transmission using phased array antennas can deliver electrical power up to 30 feet. It uses the same radio frequencies as WiFi.

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A study for the Swedish military found that 85 kHz systems for dynamic wireless power transfer for vehicles can cause electromagnetic interference at a radius of up to 300 kilometers.

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antennas or well-collimated laser light produce a beam of energy that can be made to match the shape of the receiving area. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by

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study of solar power satellites required a 1-kilometre-diameter (0.62 mi) transmitting antenna and a 10-kilometre-diameter (6.2 mi) receiving rectenna for a microwave beam at

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Transverse (bipolar) design: In this type of circuit, there are two transmitter plates and two receiver plates. Each transmitter plate is coupled to a receiver plate. The transmitter

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to nearby electronic devices than the high frequency magnetic fields produced by inductive coupling systems. A prototype system charging electric vehicles has been in operation at

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Experiment in resonant inductive transfer by Tesla at Colorado Springs 1899. The coil is in resonance with Tesla's magnifying transmitter nearby, powering the light bulb at bottom.

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has demonstrated a lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam. This proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasibility of periodic recharging using a laser beam system.

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Requires a direct line of sight with the target. (Instead of being beamed directly onto the receiver, the laser light can also be guided by an optical fiber. Then one speaks of

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Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer-distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the

1028:, to produce the narrow beams necessary to focus a significant amount of the energy on a distant receiver, an antenna must be much larger than the wavelength of the waves used: 2519:

Laser radiation is hazardous. Without a proper safety mechanism, low power levels can blind humans and other animals. High power levels can kill through localized spot heating.

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Liu, G.; Ci, P.; Dong, S. Energy Harvesting from Ambient Low-Frequency Magnetic Field using Magneto-Mechano-Electric Composite Cantilever. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2014, 104, 032908.

1401: 503:" that was to broadcast both information and power worldwide. In 1901, at Shoreham, New York he attempted to construct a large high-voltage wireless power station, now called 5499: 2440:

up to 20 feet. It was also shown that Wi-Fi can be used to wirelessly trickle-charge nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion coin-cell batteries at distances of up to 28 feet.

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and laser-based transfer of energy, especially for space and lunar missions. The demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in proposals for a laser-powered

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and the link efficiency approaches 100%. The greater the separation between the coils, the more of the magnetic field from the first coil misses the second, and the lower

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IEEE. Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields, 0–3 kHz; IEEE Standard C95.6-2002; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2002; pp. 1–43.

2265:. Electromagnetic radiation experiences less diffraction at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies); so, for example, a blue laser is diffracted less than a red one. 1296:

Inductive coupling is the oldest and most widely used wireless power technology, and virtually the only one so far which is used in commercial products. It is used in

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Talla, Vamsi; Kellogg, Bryce; Ransford, Benjamin; Naderiparizi, Saman; Gollakota, Shyamnath; Smith, Joshua R. (2015). "Powering the Next Billion Devices with Wi-Fi".

4991: 4065:. The 4th Annual IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE 2012). Raleigh, North Carolina: Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. pp. 3819–3821 2594:

Scientists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences have developed a proof-of-concept of utilizing a dual-wavelength laser to wirelessly charge portable devices or UAVs.

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Kurs, A.; Karalis, A.; Moffatt, R.; Joannopoulos, J. D.; Fisher, P.; Soljacic, M. (6 July 2007). "Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances".

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Kurs, A.; Karalis, A.; Moffatt, R.; Joannopoulos, J. D.; Fisher, P.; Soljacic, M. (6 July 2007). "Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances".

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Oruganti, Sai Kiran; Liu, Feifei; Paul, Dipra; Liu, Jun; Malik, Jagannath; Feng, Ke; Kim, Haksun; Liang, Yuming; Thundat, Thomas; Bien, Franklin (22 January 2020).

3371: 1630: 1350:. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) provided its first certification for a wireless transmission charging system in December 2017. 9096: 1583: 6201:

A.P. Sample, D.T. Meyer and J.R.Smith, "Analysis, Experimental Results, and Range Adaptation of Magnetically Coupled Resonators for Wireless Power Transfer", in

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Erfani, Reza; Marefat, Fatemeh; Sodagar, Amir M.; Mohseni, Pedram (2017). "Transcutaneous capacitive wireless power transfer (C-WPT) for biomedical implants".

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applications. Also, it is applied for the powering of various kinds of sensors in industrial environments. Lately, it is developed for powering commercial and

1988:. For EWPT devices having identical resonant frequencies, the magnitude of power transfer is entirely dependent on critical coupling coefficient, denoted by 1790:

in the room, with reasonable efficiency. An environmental and economic benefit of wirelessly powering small devices such as clocks, radios, music players and

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The oscillating electric and magnetic fields surrounding moving electric charges in an antenna device can be divided into two regions, depending on distance

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Nikola Tesla on His Work with Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power: An Extended Interview

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Latest work on AirFuel Alliance class 2 and class 3 transmitters, adaptive tuning, radiated EMI, multi-mode wireless power systems, and control strategies.

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and the peak splits into two. This critical coupling coefficient is demonstrated to be a function of distance between the source and the receiver devices.

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Ordinary inductive coupling can only achieve high efficiency when the coils are very close together, usually adjacent. In most modern inductive systems

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Bett, Andreas W.; Dimroth, Frank; Lockenhoff, Rudiger; Oliva, Eduard; Schubert, Johannes (2008). "III–V solar cells under monochromatic illumination".

6864: 2397:, the idea of using microwaves to transfer power was researched. By 1964, a miniature helicopter propelled by microwave power had been demonstrated. 5020: 9117: 8504: 6419: 5986: 447:

and even incandescent light bulbs from across a stage. He found he could increase the distance at which he could light a lamp by using a receiving

2737:(Radio Frequency Identification) technologies were invented by Mario Cardullo (1973) and Koelle et al. (1975) and by the 1990s were being used in 295:

An important issue associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the exposure of people and other living beings to potentially injurious

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production. In addition, in contrast to magnetic fields, electric fields interact strongly with most materials, including the human body, due to

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Koelle, A. R.; Depp, S. W.; Freyman, R. W. (1975). "Short-range radio-telemetry for electronic identification, using modulated RF backscatter".

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device at the receiver converts the oscillating fields to an electric current. An important parameter that determines the type of waves is the

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Lu, Xiao; Wang, Ping; Niyato, Dusit; Dong in Kim; Han, Zhu (2018). "Maximizing Ergodic Throughput in Wireless Powered Communication Networks".

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Lu, X.; Wang, P.; Niyato, D.; Kim, D. I.; Han, Z. (2016). "Wireless Charging Technologies: Fundamentals, Standards, and Network Applications".

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between the plates, which is proportional to the area of the smaller plate and (for short distances) inversely proportional to the separation.

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beams. These techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type include

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also investigated wireless energy transmission using a directional array antenna that he designed. In February 1926, Yagi and his colleague

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methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the distance is much greater than the diameter of the device(s). High-

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A change to 24 GHz has been suggested as microwave emitters similar to LEDs have been made with very high quantum efficiencies using

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and the link efficiency are, approaching zero at large separations. The link efficiency and power transferred is roughly proportional to

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Karalis, Aristeidis; Joannopoulos, J. D.; Soljačić, Marin (January 2008). "Efficient wireless non-radiative mid-range energy transfer".

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Stark, Joseph C., Thesis (M. Eng.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2004,

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which concentrates the radiation into a narrow beam aimed at the receiver, it can be used for long range power transmission. From the

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Longitudinal (unipolar) design: In this type of circuit, the transmitter and receiver have only one active electrode, and either the

126:. Inductive coupling is the most widely used wireless technology; its applications include charging handheld devices like phones and 6105:

A. Garraud and D. P. Arnold, "Advancements in electrodynamic wireless power transmission", IEEE Sensors Conference, Oct. 2016, 82–84

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Power beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that, for most space applications, the required aperture sizes are very large due to

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Dickinson, R.M. (1976). "Performance of a High-Power, 2.388-GHZ Receiving Array in Wireless Power Transmission over 1.54 km".

7922:

Liu, Vincent; Parks, Aaron; Talla, Vamsi; Gollakota, Shyamnath; Wetherall, David; Smith, Joshua R. (2013). "Ambient backscatter".

7159: 5569: 2945:

Ibrahim, F.N.; Jamail, N.A.M.; Othman, N.A. (2016). "Development of wireless electricity transmission through resonant coupling".

2699:

Inductive power transfer between nearby wire coils was the earliest wireless power technology to be developed, existing since the

2415:

Wireless high power transmission using microwaves is well proven. Experiments in the tens of kilowatts have been performed at the

1725:(tuned circuits), one in the transmitter and one in the receiver. Each resonant circuit consists of a coil of wire connected to a 1269:, which creates an alternating current in the receiver. The induced alternating current may either drive the load directly, or be 8854: 7656: 6433:

Landis, G. A. (1994). "Applications for space power by laser transmission". In Walker, Jack V.; Montgomery Iv, Edward E. (eds.).

2818: 1060:

At large relative distance, the near-field components of electric and magnetic fields are approximately quasi-static oscillating

312:

The 19th century saw many developments of theories, and counter-theories on how electrical energy might be transmitted. In 1826,

6586: 6226: 5400: 1281:

in the receiver, which drives the load. A few systems, such as electric toothbrush charging stands, work at 50/60 Hz so AC

81:

that transmits power across space to a receiver device; the receiver device extracts power from the field and supplies it to an

9605: 9068: 8949: 5838:

Rozman, Matjaz; Fernando, Michael; Adebisi, Bamidele; Rabie, Khaled; Kharel, Rupak; Ikpehai, Augustine; Gacanin, Haris (2017).

5648: 7633: 2050:) to the critical coupled regime, the optimum voltage gain curve grows in magnitude (measured at the receiver) and peaks when 9103: 8285: 8138: 8036:, Maurice Hutin & Maurice Leblanc, "Transformer system for electric railways", issued 23 October 1894 7740: 7175: 6940: 6899: 6612: 5691: 5041: 4247: 4230:

Leyh, G. E.; Kennan, M. D. (2008). "Efficient wireless transmission of power using resonators with coupled electric fields".

3065: 2962: 895:. This is the range over which ordinary nonresonant capacitive or inductive coupling can transfer practical amounts of power. 783:

because they are static. However time-varying fields can carry power. Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in an

557:) methods practical for the first time, and the first long-distance wireless power transmission was achieved in the 1960s by 397: 7757: 9600: 9175: 8793: 5957: 2882: 2828:

In 2003 NASA flew the first laser powered aircraft. The small model plane's motor was powered by electricity generated by

2460:

A laser beam centered on a panel of photovoltaic cells provides enough power to a lightweight model airplane for it to fly.

1659:, usually within centimeters, with the coils' axes aligned. Wide, flat coil shapes are usually used, to increase coupling. 263:, another familiar technology that involves electrical energy transmitted without wires by electromagnetic fields, used in 8167:, Mario W. Cardullo & William L. Parks, "Transponder apparatus and system", issued 23 January 1973 7896: 7050: 5362: 5205: 9615: 9333: 8679: 7963:

Kang, X.; Ho, C. K.; Sun, S. (October 2015). "Full-Duplex Wireless-Powered Communication Network With Energy Causality".

5255:...strongly coupled magnetic resonance can work over the mid-range distance, defined as several times the resonator size. 3633:

Bi, Suzhi; Zeng, Yong; Zhang, Rui; Dong in Kim; Han, Zhu (2016). "Wireless powered communication networks: An overview".

3382: 3190:

Miguel Poveda-García; Jorge Oliva-Sanchez; Ramon Sanchez-Iborra; David Cañete-Rebenaque; Jose Luis Gomez-Tornero (2019).

1308:

and shavers, to reduce the risk of electric shock. Another application area is "transcutaneous" recharging of biomedical

8052:

Schuder, J. C. (2002). "Powering an artificial heart: Birth of the inductively coupled-radio frequency system in 1960".

8844: 8524: 8488: 8466: 8089:

Images of the Twenty-First Century. Proceedings of the Annual International Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society

8017: 7906: 7666: 7608: 7514: 5996: 5606: 5596: 5579: 5459: 5346: 5319: 5285: 4937: 4895: 4859: 4646: 4535: 4508: 4480: 4407: 4380: 4353: 4282: 4131: 4104: 3944: 3782: 3755: 3533: 3479: 3469: 3329: 3242: 1874:, which causes an alternating current to flow in the load circuit. The amount of power transferred increases with the 1741:. The resonance between the coils can greatly increase coupling and power transfer, analogously to the way a vibrating 7386: 7345: 6965: 4089:

Experiments with Alternate Currents of Very High Frequency and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination

9620: 9495: 9257: 9209: 9139: 8348: 7939: 6544: 5658: 4969: 4199: 3914: 3846: 3563: 2832:

from a beam of infrared light from a ground-based laser, while a control system kept the laser pointed at the plane.

2143: 345:, predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves as the "wireless" carrier of electromagnetic energy. Around 1884 181:

Wireless power transfer is a generic term for a number of different technologies for transmitting energy by means of

5674:

Beams, David M.; Nagoorkar, Varun (2013). "Design and simulation of networks for midrange wireless power transfer".

530:

intensifies a weak signal using energy from another source. For power transmission, efficient transmission required

8758: 1326:

However the fastest growing use is wireless charging pads to recharge mobile and handheld wireless devices such as

384:'s 1879 magneto electric telephone that used ground conduction to transmit over a distance of a quarter of a mile. 6718: 2857: 1513:

when L2 is open circuited. If the two coils are on the same axis and close together so all the magnetic flux from

1409: 862:

very little power will be received. Therefore, these techniques cannot be used for long range power transmission.

9610: 9149: 9031: 3189: 915:. This is the range over which resonant capacitive or inductive coupling can transfer practical amounts of power. 526:

spread out in all directions and little energy reached the receiver. In radio communication, at the receiver, an

7319: 7145: 5781:"Frequency Splitting Analysis and Compensation Method for Inductive Wireless Powering of Implantable Biosensors" 2522:

Conversion between electricity and light is limited. Photovoltaic cells achieve a maximum of 40%–50% efficiency.

1862:. An alternating voltage generated by the transmitter is applied to the transmitting plate, and the oscillating 1047:

devices require wavelengths in the centimeter region or lower, corresponding to frequencies above 1 GHz, in the

9480: 9326: 8859: 7804: 2426:

Under experimental conditions, microwave conversion efficiency was measured to be around 54% across one meter.

2178: 212:

In general a wireless power system consists of a "transmitter" device connected to a source of power such as a

17: 7095: 4756: 3699:

Bi, Suzhi; Ho, Chin Keong; Zhang, Rui (2015). "Wireless powered communication: Opportunities and challenges".

2269: 2243: 1822:

also referred to as electric coupling, makes use of electric fields for the transmission of power between two

1632:. In order to achieve high efficiency, the coils must be very close together, a fraction of the coil diameter 1025: 668:

Charging portable devices, power routing in large-scale integrated circuits, Smartcards, biomedical implants.

9573: 9460: 9190: 5922: 3192:"Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer for Cost-Effective Wireless Sensor Networks using Frequency-Scanned Beaming" 2876: 2765: 2588: 1289:

generates a higher frequency AC current which drives the coil, because transmission efficiency improves with

1266: 321: 6256:"Experimental Realization of Zenneck Type Wave-based Non-Radiative, Non-Coupled Wireless Power Transmission" 4495:

Cooper, Drury W., internal document of the law firm Kerr, Page & Cooper, New York City, 1916. (Cited in

2227:(from purpose-designed antennas) are the forms of electromagnetic radiation best suited to energy transfer. 1143:

inductive charging spots in a coffee shop. Customers can set their phones and computers on them to recharge.

519:

was developed for communication uses, but could not be used for power transmission since the relatively low-

9185: 9170: 9110: 8974: 2782: 2525:

Atmospheric absorption, and absorption and scattering by clouds, fog, rain, etc., causes up to 100% losses.

2351: 2174: 1959:

Resonance can also be used with capacitive coupling to extend the range. At the turn of the 20th century,

1664: 1316: 637: 139: 7598: 6014:"Wireless power transmission at rotating and sliding elements by using the capacitive coupling technology" 4690: 9595: 8773: 8609:, Solid state solar to microwave energy converter system and apparatus, Kenneth W. Dudley, et al. (1976). 8456: 8087:

SCHWAN, M. A.; Troyk, P.R. (November 1989). "High efficiency driver for transcutaneously coupled coils".

7167:

L. C. Andrews and R. L. Phillips, Laser Beam Propagation through Random Media, 2nd ed. (SPIE Press, 2005)

6683:

Brown, W.C.; Eves, E.E. (June 1992). "Beamed microwave power transmission and its application to space".

6660:

Lan Sun Luk, J. D.; Celeste, A.; Romanacce, P.; Chane Kuang Sang, L.; Gatina, J. C. (6–10 October 1997).

5164: 5055: 4453: 4092:, lecture before the American Inst. of Electrical Engineers, Columbia College, New York. Reprinted as a 3258: 2888: 1706: 1695: 1671: 867: 456: 439:, which generated high AC voltages. Early on he attempted to develop a wireless lighting system based on 7028: 5533: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 1667:

to nearby electronics, but they are heavy and bulky so small wireless devices often use air-core coils.

9201: 9058: 9001: 8942: 2169:

This device has been proposed as an alternative to inductive power transfer for noncontact charging of

1096:

can only be used for short-range power transfer, within a few times the diameter of the antenna device

1078:) Since power is proportional to the square of the field strength, the power transferred decreases as ( 931:) of the antenna, the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and propagate as an 7408: 1379: 9382: 9021: 8880: 8824: 8753: 8590: 3082: 2761: 2718:

devices, induction charging stands have been developed for appliances used in wet environments, like

2563: 1250: 1214: 837: 358: 330: 159: 8557: 8272:. NAPS 2008 40th North American Power Symposium, Calgary, 28–30 September 2008. IEEE. pp. 1–4. 8124: 7072: 5740: 5237: 4710: 2773:

circuit over a distance of 12 meters (39 ft). In 2011, Dr. Christopher A. Tucker and Professor

2386:", it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the beams of several smaller satellites. 2276:), although originally applied to image resolution, can be viewed in reverse, and dictates that the 2146:, one in the transmitter and one in the receiver, which rotate synchronously, coupled together by a 1635: 138:, and wirelessly charging or continuous wireless power transfer in implantable medical devices like 9531: 9526: 9397: 9195: 8748: 2822: 2813:(MINIX), a rocket experiment to test transmission of high power microwaves through the ionosphere. 2095: 2011: 6745: 9536: 9500: 9475: 9465: 9437: 9180: 8672: 7626:"LASER TYPE ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION FEASIBILITY FOR LIGHTNING AND ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION STUDIES" 6313:"Wireless Power-Data Transmission for Industrial Internet of Things: Simulations and Experiments" 6057: 5336: 5019:

Schantz, Hans G. (2007). "A real-time location system using near-field electromagnetic ranging".

2790: 2364: 1952: 1928: 1871: 1843: 1730: 1005: 829: 396:

Tesla demonstrating wireless transmission by "electrostatic induction" during an 1891 lecture at

313: 272: 8262: 7684:"Triggering, guiding and deviation of long air spark discharges with femtosecond laser filament" 7221: 6882:

Sahai, Aakash; Graham, David (2011). "Optical wireless power transmission at long wavelengths".

6746:"Cota By Ossia Aims To Drive A Wireless Power Revolution And Change How We Think About Charging" 2789:

A major motivation for microwave research in the 1970s and 1980s was to develop a satellite for

2261:

is also frequently used to determine an approximate spot size at an arbitrary distance from the

2053: 9505: 9272: 8885: 8783: 8552: 5735: 4705: 2643: 2577: 2537: 2464:

In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to the visible region of the spectrum (.2 to 2

1678:. This can achieve high efficiencies at greater distances than nonresonant inductive coupling. 1122: 871: 443:

inductive and capacitive coupling and conducted a series of public demonstrations where he lit

334: 256: 245: 228:" device. The word "antenna" is used loosely here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a 5840:"Combined Conformal Strongly-Coupled Magnetic Resonance for Efficient Wireless Power Transfer" 5401:"Investigation of near field inductive communication system models, channels, and experiments" 5309: 5275: 5258: 4959: 3934: 3523: 3232: 3012:"World's first!! Production starts for Capacitive Coupling Wireless Power Transmission Module" 2310:

Here, the power levels are calculated by combining the parameters together, and adding in the

428:

experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using spark-excited

9432: 9377: 9349: 9241: 9144: 9048: 8935: 6669: 6413: 5449: 5224: 4885: 4439: 3904: 3553: 2778: 2360: 2319: 1939: 1895: 1746: 1686: 1347: 1286: 1140: 715: 616:

Electric tooth brush and razor battery charging, induction stovetops and industrial heaters.

500: 362: 361:

and allow for a correct analysis of wireless power transfer systems. This was followed on by

354: 296: 221: 182: 171: 78: 74: 8514: 8478: 7777: 6668:. Turin, Italy: University of La Réunion – Faculty of Science and Technology. Archived from 5872: 4927: 4849: 4636: 4440:

Scientific American Supplement, Munn and Co., Vol. 57, No. 1483, 4 June 1904, p. 23760–23761

3319: 2393:

Following World War II, which saw the development of high-power microwave emitters known as

2299:

Microwave power beaming can be more efficient than lasers, and is less prone to atmospheric

1701: 8544: 8363: 8321: 7844: 7695: 7569: 7443: 7278: 7096:"Riding a Beam of Light: NASA's First Space Elevator Competition Proves Highly Challenging" 6692: 6438: 6324: 6267: 5792: 5727: 5311:

Energy Harvesting Autonomous Sensor Systems: Design, Analysis, and Practical Implementation

5120: 4601: 3599: 3203: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 2979: 2871: 2610: 2545: 1947: 1608: 1343: 1223: 1009: 1004:, radiate power efficiently, but the electromagnetic waves are radiated in all directions ( 932: 432: 111: 5886: 1909: 1663:"flux confinement" cores can confine the magnetic fields, improving coupling and reducing 30: 8: 9485: 9470: 9422: 9392: 9225: 9217: 9165: 9134: 8916: 8849: 8839: 8768: 4057: 3817: 2894: 2806: 2719: 2430: 2383: 2326:

of the medium through which the radiation passes. That process is known as calculating a

2323: 2224: 1981: 1839: 1819: 1814: 1757: 1562: 1305: 1258: 1235: 1093: 825: 784: 760: 346: 338: 325: 280: 127: 119: 8548: 8367: 8325: 8263:"Efficient wireless transmission of power using resonators with coupled electric fields" 7848: 7699: 7573: 7447: 7282: 7267:"Papers Relating to Space Photovoltaic Power, Power beaming, and Solar Power Satellites" 7266: 6840:"Energous Enables Wireless Power Transfer Solutions at any Distance for U.S. and Europe" 6696: 6442: 6328: 6271: 5796: 5731: 5124: 4605: 3603: 3207: 3137: 1539: 1516: 1493: 1470: 9063: 8665: 8642: 8578: 8498: 8112: 8100: 7990: 7972: 7945: 7865: 7832: 7459: 6946: 6905: 6771: 6550: 6499: 6454: 6401: 6342: 6288: 6255: 5815: 5780: 5761: 5697: 5136: 5110: 5047: 4804: 4617: 4253: 4167: 3726: 3708: 3679: 3660: 3642: 3615: 3589: 3437: 3419: 3172: 3126: 3071: 2642:

welding and machining, for diverting power from high-voltage capacitor discharges, for

2621: 2573: 2445: 2444:

900 MHz. Due to the radiated power of about 1 W this system is intended for small

2205: 2163: 1991: 1985: 1973: 1867: 1847: 1738: 1660: 1588: 1359: 1312: 1309: 1297: 1209: 1112: 833: 554: 504: 440: 373: 268: 107: 94: 89: 34: 7530: 6587:"Scanning the Past: A History of Electrical Engineering from the Past, Hidetsugu Yagi" 2408:

published their first paper on the tuned high-gain directional array now known as the

9264: 9233: 8727: 8722: 8570: 8520: 8484: 8462: 8379: 8281: 8214: 8069: 8065: 8013: 7935: 7902: 7870: 7736: 7662: 7604: 7510: 7463: 7294: 7171: 7006: 6936: 6895: 6590: 6540: 6503: 6458: 6346: 6293: 5992: 5820: 5753: 5687: 5654: 5602: 5575: 5455: 5423: 5342: 5315: 5281: 5037: 4965: 4933: 4891: 4855: 4796: 4642: 4531: 4504: 4476: 4403: 4376: 4349: 4278: 4243: 4195: 4127: 4100: 3940: 3910: 3842: 3778: 3751: 3559: 3529: 3475: 3325: 3238: 3118: 3061: 2958: 2764:

was established in 2008 to develop interoperable standards across manufacturers. Its

2708: 2704: 2666: 2659: 2613:

results in the flow of electric current along a random trajectory through an ionized

2567: 2494: 2473: 2154:

on the armatures. The transmitter armature is turned either by or as the rotor of an

1404: 1354: 1017: 845: 550: 284:

wireless power transfer the amount of energy received is the important thing, so the

135: 66: 8647: 8582: 8104: 6950: 6909: 6554: 5765: 5701: 5051: 4621: 4171: 3176: 3130: 3075: 9490: 9427: 9417: 9412: 9292: 8991: 8864: 8829: 8778: 8562: 8432: 8371: 8329: 8273: 8192: 8092: 8061: 7994: 7982: 7949: 7927: 7860: 7852: 7728: 7703: 7577: 7455: 7451: 7286: 6928: 6887: 6793:"First Demonstration of a Surveillance Camera Powered by Ordinary Wi-Fi Broadcasts" 6700: 6530: 6522: 6489: 6481: 6473: 6446: 6405: 6393: 6332: 6283: 6275: 5851: 5810: 5800: 5745: 5679: 5415: 5140: 5128: 5029: 4808: 4788: 4715: 4635:

Curty, Jari-Pascal; Declercq, Michel; Dehollain, Catherine; Joehl, Norbert (2006).

4609: 4257: 4235: 4159: 3861:

Christopher H. Sterling, Encyclopedia of Radio 3-Volume, Routledge – 2004, page 831

3834: 3730: 3718: 3664: 3652: 3619: 3607: 3441: 3429: 3211: 3164: 3110: 3053: 2950: 2548:. Wireless energy transfer systems using lasers for consumer space have to satisfy 2541: 2529: 2285: 2235: 2170: 2151: 1977: 1795: 1722: 1717:) is a form of inductive coupling in which power is transferred by magnetic fields 1675: 1323:

such as cars and to either charge or power transit vehicles like buses and trains.

1320: 997: 764: 752: 558: 342: 143: 8628: 8142: 7723:

Kasparian, Jérôme; Wolf, Jean-Pierre (2010). "On Lightning Control Using Lasers".

6616: 6517:

Landis, Geoffrey (2006). "RE-Evaluating Satellite Solar Power Systems for Earth".

4592:

Brown, W.C. (September 1984). "The History of Power Transmission by Radio Waves".

3043: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 9249: 9011: 8996: 8375: 8333: 7558:"Channeling the electrical breakdown of air by optically heated plasma filaments" 7504: 7165: 6081:"Device for transporting energy by partial influence through a dielectric medium" 4525: 4498: 4470: 4397: 4370: 4343: 4272: 4121: 4094: 2757: 2753: 2501: 2343: 2254: 2251: 1331: 1327: 1192: 429: 405: 350: 317: 237: 225: 217: 82: 7732: 7431: 7243: 6362:"Modelling of Zenneck Wave Transmission System in Super High Frequency spectrum" 6337: 6312: 5683: 3216: 3191: 1963:

did the first experiments with both resonant inductive and capacitive coupling.

9510: 9452: 9407: 9302: 8911: 8788: 8707: 8436: 7290: 6891: 6884:

2011 International Conference on Space Optical Systems and Applications (ICSOS)

6397: 6279: 5676:

2013 IEEE 56th International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems (MWSCAS)

4792: 4552: 4424: 4217:

The Truth About Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in the History of Innovation

4087: 4028:

The Truth About Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in the History of Innovation

3992:

The Truth About Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in the History of Innovation

3962:

The Truth About Tesla: The Myth of the Lone Genius in the History of Innovation

3433: 3168: 3114: 3057: 3030: 2863: 2738: 2723: 2683: 2679: 2646:

applications employing electrical conduction through a ground return path, and

2614: 2581: 2456: 2433:, i.e., Gunn or IMPATT diodes, and this would be viable for short range links. 2420: 2401: 2155: 2147: 1863: 1791: 1335: 1274: 1243: 1227: 1021: 1001: 821: 817: 780: 772: 768: 748: 744: 233: 229: 190: 186: 175: 115: 103: 8613: 8605: 8597: 8405: 8277: 7199: 6932: 6639: 6526: 6080: 5132: 4613: 4328: 4239: 3873:

Innovation as a Social Process: Elihu Thomson and the Rise of General Electric

3722: 3611: 515:

Before World War II, little progress was made in wireless power transmission.

476: 9589: 9442: 9043: 9038: 8712: 8632: 8096: 7986: 7007:"Laser weapons: A distant target, CNET news August 23, 2008 1:41 pm PDT" 5887:"Reconsideration of Wireless Power Transfer principle which presented by MIT" 5338:

The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. 1: Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat

5033: 4150:

Wheeler, L. P. (August 1943). "II — Tesla's contribution to high frequency".

3813: 3809: 3805: 3797: 3656: 2849: 2821:(SHARP) to relay telecommunication data between points on earth similar to a 2774: 2688: 2647: 1772: 1464: 444: 413: 377: 372:

During the same period two schemes of wireless signaling were put forward by

206: 8566: 7931: 7582: 7557: 6535: 6494: 5749: 4163: 1771:

exchange energy at a much higher rate than they lose energy due to internal

1319:, to avoid having wires passing through the skin. It is also used to charge 467: 408:

alternating current. An oscillating electric field between the sheets

9402: 9297: 8984: 8958: 8702: 8574: 8383: 8196: 8164: 8073: 7874: 7856: 7349: 7298: 6659: 6361: 6297: 5824: 5757: 4800: 3830: 3801: 3122: 2794: 2749: 2603: 2555:

The first wireless power system using lasers for consumer applications was

2549: 2409: 2405: 2346:

that could send energy by microwaves to a space vessel or planetary surface

2311: 2191: 1960: 1752: 1168: 706: 640:), biomedical implants, electric vehicles, powering buses, trains, MAGLEV, 425: 381: 8033: 5419: 4689:

Valtchev, Stanimir S.; Baikova, Elena N.; Jorge, Luis R. (December 2012).

4005: 3234:

Smart Grid: Communication-Enabled Intelligence for the Electric Power Grid

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The development of microwave technology during World War II, such as the

531: 392: 213: 9318: 6485: 6227:"ELIX Wireless Rolls Out A 10kW Wireless EV Charger With 92% Efficiency" 5115: 4455:

Wireless telegraphy: its origins, development, inventions, and apparatus

2891: – Formula in telecommunications engineering of antenna performance 1183: 1128:

Prototype inductive electric car charging system at 2011 Tokyo Auto Show

507:, but by 1904 investment dried up and the facility was never completed. 42: 9541: 9307: 9016: 8890: 8834: 8798: 8716: 7727:. Springer Series in Chemical Physics. Vol. 98. pp. 109–122. 7051:"White Sands testing new laser weapon system, US Army.mil, 30 Jan 2009" 5856: 5839: 5335:

Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1963).

4300:

Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla : Biography of a Genius

2798: 2483: 2289: 2277: 2273: 2239: 2220: 1859: 1339: 1013: 944: 936: 809: 523: 448: 436: 417: 401: 366: 285: 194: 7708: 7683: 6704: 6450: 5805: 5387: 2805:

to huge rectennas, which would convert it to electrical energy on the

2230:

The dimensions of the components may be dictated by the distance from

2166:

or by using the receiver armature itself as the rotor in a generator.

9006: 8743: 8688: 7323: 6190: 5907:

Interference Risks from Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicles

5779:

Schormans, Matthew; Valente, Virgilio; Demosthenous, Andreas (2016).

2829: 2802: 2748:

The proliferation of portable wireless communication devices such as

2742: 2556: 2487: 2394: 2293: 2258: 1875: 1855: 1854:

such as metal plates. The transmitter and receiver electrodes form a

1851: 1823: 1768: 1737:

with internal capacitance. The two are tuned to resonate at the same

1734: 1726: 1290: 1278: 1270: 1048: 940: 863: 645: 546: 535: 527: 520: 452: 333:. A concise explanation of these phenomena would come from the 1860s 264: 249: 198: 163: 123: 8308:

Tucker, Christopher A.; Warwick, Kevin; Holderbaum, William (2013).

7556:

Scheller, Maik; Born, Norman; Cheng, Weibo; Polynkin, Pavel (2014).

4021: 4019: 3975:

Rappaport, Theodore S.; Woerner, Brian D.; Reed, Jeffrey H. (2012).

1764:

The concept behind resonant inductive coupling systems is that high

1376:

between the coils, which depends on their geometry and the distance

1285:

is applied directly to the transmitter coil, but in most systems an

220:. At the transmitter the input power is converted to an oscillating 8309: 7632:. LIGHTNING AND TRANSIENTS RESEARCH INST ST PAUL MN. Archived from 7478: 6776: 5623:"FCC approves first wireless 'power-at-a-distance' charging system" 3684: 3647: 3424: 2715: 2379: 2355: 2262: 1765: 1301: 756: 710: 562: 542: 202: 7977: 5988:

Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems

5022:

2007 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium

3713: 3594: 3103:

IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering

2419:

in California in 1975 and more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin on

341:, establishing a theory that unified electricity and magnetism to 9387: 8163: 7160:

Propagation Characteristics of Laser Beams – Melles Griot catalog

4016: 3829: 3050:

2017 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS)

2843: 2304: 1831: 1262: 1167:

GM EV1 and Toyota RAV4 EV inductively charging at a now-obsolete

1161: 824:

are separate and power can be transferred via electric fields by

365:' 1888 validation of the theory, which included the evidence for 7371: 6769: 6662:"POINT-TO-POINT WIRELESS POWER TRANSPORTATION IN REUNION ISLAND" 6519:

2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference

4887:

Plug in Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids: Integration Techniques

73:

as a physical link. In a wireless power transmission system, an

8927: 8906: 8008:

Rudnev, Valery; Loveless, Don; Cook, Raymond L (14 July 2017).

6021:

2014 ANSYS Electronic Simulation Expo October 9–10, 2014, Tokyo

4823:"Israeli startup turns luminaires into wireless power chargers" 3525:

Wearable Sensors: Fundamentals, Implementation and Applications

2423:. These methods achieve distances on the order of a kilometer. 2159: 1061: 776: 409: 8617:, Microwave power receiving antenna, Carroll C. Dailey (1970). 8534: 8314:

International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems

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Bolic, Miodrag; Simplot-Ryl, David; Stojmenovic, Ivan (2010).

3578: 2511:

Access control: only receivers hit by the laser receive power.

2448:

devices as various sensors, trackers, detectors and monitors.

2292:

of radiation, the more can the radiation be concentrated in a

1786:

oscillator frequency must be tuned to the new resonance peak.

974:

where the antenna is much smaller than the size of the waves,

9078: 8763: 7432:"A coupled model on energy conversion in laser power beaming" 6640:"Wireless Power Transmission for Solar Power Satellite (SPS)" 4884:

Rajakaruna, Sumedha; Shahnia, Farhad; Ghosh, Arindam (2014).

4691:"Electromagnetic field as the wireless transporter of energy" 2505: 2469: 2468:), power can be transmitted by converting electricity into a 1924: 1827: 848:

with distance, so if the distance between the two "antennas"

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Wu, Chen-Wu; Wang, Jyhwen; Huang, Chen-Guang (15 May 2018).

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IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs

2980:"Wireless Power Transmission for Power Supply: State of Art" 5447: 5100: 4634: 3154: 3099: 3047: 2734: 2375: 2338: 1690:

Generic block diagram of an inductive wireless power system

1463:. This dimensionless parameter is equal to the fraction of 641: 538:, which can be focused in narrow beams towards a receiver. 276: 131: 88:

Wireless power techniques mainly fall into two categories:

70: 7778:"U.S. Army weapon shoots lightning bolts down laser beams" 7681: 6922: 5837: 5571:

Omnidirectional Inductive Powering for Biomedical Implants

5341:. California Institute of Technology. pp. 30.6–30.7. 4992:"Understanding Low Frequency Non-radiative Power Transfer" 3979:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 211–215. 3747:

CMOS Integrated Circuit Design for Wireless Power Transfer

2947:

4th IET Clean Energy and Technology Conference (CEAT 2016)

2142:

In this method, power is transmitted between two rotating

1064:

fields. These fields decrease with the cube of distance: (

416:

in his hands, causing them to glow in a manner similar to

307: 8215:"Wireless Power Consortium to Unleash Electronic Gadgets" 7924:

Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM 2013 conference on SIGCOMM

7555: 6719:"Cota system transmits power wirelessly at up to 30 feet" 6649:(Second Draft ed.). Georgia Institute of Technology. 1966: 357:, which describe the flow of power across an area within 102:

techniques, power is transferred over short distances by

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The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla

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Baarman, David W.; Schwannecke, Joshua (December 2009).

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Wireless Personal Communications: Trends and Challenges

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2374:

limiting antenna directionality. For example, the 1978

1674:

is used, in which the efficiency is increased by using

1353:

The power transferred increases with frequency and the

1055: 8310:"A contribution to the wireless transmission of power" 7921: 6382: 5277:

An Introduction to Classical Electromagnetic Radiation

4883: 3632: 2597: 832:) between metal electrodes, or via magnetic fields by 316:

discovered a connection between current and magnets.

7658:

Laser Surface Engineering: Processes and Applications

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Microwave Ionosphere Nonlinear Interaction Experiment

2624: 2504:

interference to existing radio communication such as

2098: 2056: 2014: 1994: 1638: 1611: 1591: 1565: 1542: 1519: 1496: 1473: 1412: 1382: 1362: 1230:. The transmitter and receiver coils together form a 718:, powering drone aircraft, charging wireless devices 6685:

IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques

6569:"Experimental Airborne Microwave Supported Platform" 6311:

Oruganti, S. K.; Khosla, A.; Thundat, T. G. (2020).

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IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems

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IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques

4059:

Recent Progress in Mid-Range Wireless Power Transfer

3974: 2839: 2707:

has been used since the early 1900s and is used for

738:

Charging portable devices, powering drone aircraft.

8643:

The Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP)

7142:"Free-Space Laser Propagation: Atmospheric Effects" 5500:"Wireless power minimizes interconnection problems" 4638:

Design and Optimization of Passive UHF RFID Systems

4425:"The Transmission of Electric Energy Without Wires" 2944: 2479:Advantages compared to other wireless methods are: 2198: 2092:and then enters into the over-coupled regime where 1850:, energy is transmitted by electric fields between 1403:between them. A widely used figure of merit is the 855:is much larger than the diameter of the "antennas" 27:

Electrical transmission without physical connection

8997:Alternating-current commutatorless induction motor 8007: 7121:"Wi-Charge Wins CES 2018 Best of Innovation Award" 6925:2008 33rd IEEE Photovolatic Specialists Conference 6359: 6253: 5196: 2630: 2126: 2084: 2042: 2000: 1794:is that it could drastically reduce the 6 billion 1651: 1624: 1597: 1577: 1551: 1528: 1505: 1482: 1455: 1395: 1368: 8254: 8182: 7197: 4777: 816:) of the antenna. In this region the oscillating 688:Charging electric vehicles, biomedical implants. 255:Wireless power uses the same fields and waves as 9587: 9118:My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla 8261:Leyh, G. E.; Kennan, M. D. (28 September 2008). 8240:"Global Qi Standard Powers Up Wireless Charging" 5598:Wireless Power Transfer for Medical Microsystems 4530:. Princeton University Press. pp. 302–367. 4402:. Princeton University Press. pp. 209–211. 4191:Wireless Power Transfer for Medical Microsystems 3837:; Salazar-Palma, M.; Sengupta, Dipak L. 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(1997). 5034:10.1109/APS.2007.4396365 4997:. Fulton Innovation, Inc 4298:Seifer, Marc J. (1996). 4099:. Wildside Press. 2006. 4096:book of the same name by 3657:10.1109/MWC.2016.7462480 2823:communications satellite 2497:fit into small products. 2259:Airy's diffraction limit 2250:limit, used in standard 1220:inductive power transfer 154:techniques, also called 9537:Hybrid electric vehicle 9466:Flywheel energy storage 9438:Space-based solar power 9181:IEEE Nikola Tesla Award 8809:Wireless power transfer 8567:10.1126/science.1143254 8480:Wireless Power Transfer 8458:Wireless Power Handbook 8185:Proceedings of the IEEE 7932:10.1145/2486001.2486015 7583:10.1364/OPTICA.1.000125 7537:. Conjecture Corp. 2015 7198:Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta. 6386:Proceedings of the IEEE 5750:10.1126/science.1143254 5650:Wireless Power Transfer 5308:Tan, Yen Kheng (2013). 5261:Wireless Power Transfer 4961:Wireless Power Transfer 4929:Wireless Power Transfer 4641:. Springer. p. 4. 4194:. Springer. p. 3. 4188:Sun; Xie; Wang (2013). 4164:10.1109/EE.1943.6435874 3381:: 52–56. Archived from 2793:. Conceived in 1968 by 2791:space-based solar power 2694: 2138:Magnetodynamic coupling 1953:electrostatic induction 1929:dielectric polarization 1872:electrostatic induction 1866:induces an alternating 1844:electrostatic induction 1711:electrodynamic coupling 1242:creates an oscillating 1016:into beams. By using a 830:electrostatic induction 771:, DC) creates a static 673:Magnetodynamic coupling 273:television broadcasting 51:Wireless power transfer 9611:Microwave transmission 9506:Thermal energy storage 9273:Tesla: Man Out of Time 9082: 8886:Optical neural network 8784:Photonic-crystal fiber 8197:10.1109/proc.1975.9928 8165:United States 3713148A 8091:. pp. 1403–1404. 7857:10.1126/sciadv.1400111 7411:. Nasa.gov. 7 May 2008 6744:Etherington, Darrell. 6521:. pp. 1939–1942. 5927:wipo-wirelesspower.com 5232:Cite journal requires 5028:. pp. 3792–3795. 4152:Electrical Engineering 2644:directed-energy weapon 2632: 2578:solar power satellites 2562:Other details include 2461: 2361:solar power satellites 2347: 2274:Abbe diffraction limit 2128: 2086: 2044: 2002: 1691: 1653: 1626: 1599: 1579: 1553: 1530: 1507: 1484: 1457: 1397: 1370: 1348:video game controllers 970:. At low frequencies 665:Metal plate electrodes 421: 297:electromagnetic fields 257:wireless communication 183:electromagnetic fields 172:solar power satellites 47: 39: 35:Inductive charging pad 9433:Photovoltaic pavement 9378:Airborne wind turbine 9350:Emerging technologies 9242:The Tesla World Light 9186:Tesla Satellite Award 9145:World Wireless System 9140:Westinghouse Electric 9081: 8614:U.S. patent 3,535,543 8606:U.S. patent 3,933,323 8598:U.S. patent 4,955,562 8589:Thibault, G. (2014). 8034:United States 527857A 6986:. Laserfocusworld.com 5420:10.2528/pierb12120512 5376:(4): 166. August 1937 3263:Encyclopedia of terms 2949:. pp. 33 (5 .). 2779:University of Reading 2720:electric toothbrushes 2633: 2459: 2341: 2129: 2087: 2045: 2003: 1747:sympathetic vibration 1700:Further information: 1689: 1654: 1627: 1625:{\displaystyle k^{2}} 1600: 1580: 1554: 1531: 1508: 1485: 1458: 1398: 1371: 1344:digital media players 1306:electric toothbrushes 1287:electronic oscillator 716:Solar power satellite 511:Post-war developments 501:World Wireless System 433:resonant transformers 424:After 1890, inventor 395: 363:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 222:electromagnetic field 174:and wireless powered 128:electric toothbrushes 79:electromagnetic field 45: 33: 8483:. River Publishers. 7374:. The Space Elevator 6886:. pp. 164–170. 6818:Energous Corporation 6030:on 25 September 2015 5678:. pp. 509–512. 5163:Wong, Elvin (2013). 4720:10.2298/FUEE1203171V 4313:Uth, Robert (1999). 4010:earlyradiohistory.us 3833:; Mailloux, Robert; 2955:10.1049/cp.2016.1290 2872:Beam Power Challenge 2622: 2611:dielectric breakdown 2546:consumer electronics 2400:Japanese researcher 2096: 2054: 2012: 1992: 1846:), the conjugate of 1636: 1609: 1589: 1563: 1540: 1517: 1494: 1471: 1410: 1405:coupling coefficient 1380: 1360: 933:electromagnetic wave 75:electrically powered 9501:Silicon–air battery 9486:Molten-salt battery 9476:Lithium–air battery 9471:Grid energy storage 9423:Molten salt reactor 9393:Carbon-neutral fuel 9260:" (2020 TV episode) 9226:Tower to the People 9166:Nikola Tesla Museum 9135:War of the currents 8917:Solid-state physics 8850:Holographic grating 8840:Diffraction grating 8769:Optical interleaver 8549:2007Sci...317...83K 8368:1968Sci...162..857G 8326:2013IJEPE..47..235T 8145:on 24 December 2008 7849:2015SciA....1E0111C 7700:2012AIPA....2a2151F 7574:2014Optic...1..125S 7503:Ray, Subir (2009). 7448:2018JPS...393..211W 7283:2001AsBio...1..161L 6725:. 30 September 2013 6697:1992ITMTT..40.1239B 6672:on 23 October 2005. 6486:10.2514/6.1992-3213 6472:Landis, G. (1992). 6443:1994SPIE.2121..252L 6435:Laser Power Beaming 6329:2020IEEEA...8r7965O 6272:2020NatSR..10..925O 5797:2016Senso..16.1229S 5732:2007Sci...317...83K 5125:2008AnPhy.323...34K 4606:1984ITMTT..32.1230B 3839:History of Wireless 3818:David Edward Hughes 3604:2014arXiv1409.0261K 3208:2019IEEEA...7.8081P 2895:Thinned array curse 2807:electric power grid 2714:With the advent of 2515:Drawbacks include: 2431:negative resistance 2384:thinned-array curse 2272:(also known as the 1986:biomedical implants 1840:capacitive coupling 1820:Capacitive coupling 1815:Capacitive coupling 1809:Capacitive coupling 1578:{\displaystyle k=1} 1236:alternating current 1094:capacitive coupling 870:, can increase the 826:capacitive coupling 785:alternating current 779:, but cannot carry 761:electrostatic field 653:Capacitive coupling 575: 347:John Henry Poynting 339:James Clerk Maxwell 335:Maxwell's equations 326:electromotive force 281:radio communication 120:capacitive coupling 9596:Energy development 9229:(2015 documentary) 9150:In popular culture 9083: 9064:Wardenclyffe Tower 9049:Tesla's oscillator 7926:. pp. 39–50. 7636:on 26 January 2016 7202:. Rp-photonics.com 7148:on 23 October 2008 6619:on 22 January 2022 6260:Scientific Reports 6060:on 11 October 2016 5857:10.3390/en10040498 5568:Puers, R. (2008). 3903:Shinohara (2014). 3552:Shinohara (2014). 3388:on 19 January 2015 2733:The first passive 2648:electronic jamming 2628: 2495:solid state lasers 2474:photovoltaic cells 2462: 2348: 2303:caused by dust or 2244:Rayleigh criterion 2223:(from lasers) and 2192:Zenneck type waves 2164:electric generator 2124: 2082: 2040: 1998: 1915:Monopolar coupling 1848:inductive coupling 1739:resonant frequency 1692: 1649: 1622: 1595: 1575: 1552:{\displaystyle L2} 1549: 1529:{\displaystyle L1} 1526: 1506:{\displaystyle L2} 1503: 1483:{\displaystyle L1} 1480: 1453: 1393: 1366: 1317:cardiac pacemakers 1310:prosthetic devices 1298:inductive charging 1210:inductive coupling 1113:Inductive charging 1107:Inductive coupling 1026:Rayleigh criterion 834:inductive coupling 755:in matter such as 705:Parabolic dishes, 601:Inductive coupling 573: 553:, made radiative ( 551:parabolic antennas 505:Wardenclyffe Tower 422: 374:William Henry Ward 355:Poynting's theorem 314:André-Marie Ampère 108:inductive coupling 90:Near and far field 48: 40: 9583: 9582: 9559: 9558: 9555: 9554: 9316: 9315: 8925: 8924: 8728:Silicon photonics 8723:Optical computing 8648:Marin Soljačić's 8362:(3856): 857–861. 8287:978-1-4244-4283-6 8054:Artificial Organs 7971:(10): 5539–5551. 7742:978-3-642-03824-2 7709:10.1063/1.3690961 7477:Nawaz, Suddiyas. 7177:978-0-8194-5948-0 6942:978-1-4244-1640-0 6901:978-1-4244-9686-0 6705:10.1109/22.141357 6451:10.1117/12.174188 6323:: 187965–187974. 6085:Google.ch/Patents 5806:10.3390/s16081229 5693:978-1-4799-0066-4 5103:Annals of Physics 5043:978-1-4244-0877-1 4829:. 15 January 2018 4249:978-1-4244-4283-6 3835:Oliner, Arthur A. 3067:978-1-4673-6853-7 3018:. 27 October 2011 2964:978-1-78561-238-1 2926:. How-To Geek LLC 2709:induction cooking 2705:Induction heating 2676:energy scavenging 2667:energy harvesting 2660:Energy harvesting 2654:Energy harvesting 2631:{\displaystyle p} 2395:cavity magnetrons 2363:to Earth and the 2171:electric vehicles 2152:permanent magnets 2001:{\displaystyle k} 1723:resonant circuits 1676:resonant circuits 1646: 1598:{\displaystyle k} 1451: 1390: 1369:{\displaystyle M} 1355:mutual inductance 1321:electric vehicles 1018:high-gain antenna 1006:omnidirectionally 753:charged particles 742: 741: 224:by some type of " 144:electric vehicles 136:induction cooking 67:electrical energy 16:(Redirected from 9628: 9571: 9570: 9491:Nanowire battery 9418:Methanol economy 9413:Hydrogen economy 9368: 9367: 9361: 9360: 9343: 9336: 9329: 9320: 9319: 9196:New Yorker Hotel 8992:Polyphase system 8952: 8945: 8938: 8929: 8928: 8865:Photon diffusion 8830:Atomic coherence 8779:Photonic crystal 8682: 8675: 8668: 8659: 8658: 8616: 8608: 8600: 8586: 8560: 8531:Engineering text 8530: 8508: 8502: 8494: 8472: 8441: 8440: 8424: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8413: 8401: 8395: 8394: 8392: 8390: 8353: 8344: 8338: 8337: 8305: 8299: 8298: 8296: 8294: 8267: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8227: 8225: 8210: 8201: 8200: 8191:(8): 1260–1261. 8180: 8174: 8173: 8172: 8168: 8161: 8155: 8154: 8152: 8150: 8135: 8129: 8128: 8122: 8118: 8116: 8108: 8084: 8078: 8077: 8049: 8043: 8042: 8041: 8037: 8030: 8024: 8023: 8005: 7999: 7998: 7980: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7892: 7879: 7878: 7868: 7837:Science Advances 7827: 7821: 7820: 7818: 7816: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7789: 7784:. Gizmag Limited 7773: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7753: 7747: 7746: 7720: 7714: 7713: 7711: 7679: 7673: 7672: 7652: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7641: 7621: 7615: 7614: 7594: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7553: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7535:WiseGeek website 7527: 7521: 7520: 7500: 7494: 7493: 7491: 7489: 7474: 7468: 7467: 7427: 7421: 7420: 7418: 7416: 7405: 7399: 7398: 7396: 7394: 7383: 7381: 7379: 7368: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7342: 7336: 7335: 7333: 7331: 7316: 7310: 7309: 7307: 7305: 7262: 7256: 7255: 7253: 7251: 7240: 7234: 7233: 7231: 7229: 7218: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7207: 7195: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7184: 7157: 7155: 7153: 7138: 7132: 7131: 7129: 7127: 7117: 7111: 7110: 7108: 7106: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7082: 7080: 7069: 7063: 7062: 7060: 7058: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7036: 7025: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7014: 7002: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6991: 6980: 6974: 6973: 6961: 6955: 6954: 6927:. pp. 1–5. 6920: 6914: 6913: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6865:"Power-by-Light" 6861: 6855: 6854: 6852: 6850: 6835: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6824: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6788: 6782: 6781: 6779: 6767: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6741: 6735: 6734: 6732: 6730: 6715: 6709: 6708: 6691:(6): 1239–1250. 6680: 6674: 6673: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6644: 6635: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6583: 6577: 6576: 6575:on 2 March 2010. 6571:. 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Archived from 6052:Liu, Na (2010). 6049: 6040: 6039: 6037: 6035: 6029: 6018: 6009: 6003: 6002: 5982: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5962: 5953: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5893:. 30 March 2017. 5883: 5877: 5876: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5818: 5808: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5743: 5715: 5706: 5705: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5647:Agbinya (2012). 5644: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5565: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5529: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5511: 5495: 5466: 5465: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5429:on 3 August 2016 5428: 5422:. Archived from 5405: 5396: 5390: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5367: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5332: 5326: 5325: 5305: 5292: 5291: 5271: 5265: 5251: 5242: 5241: 5235: 5230: 5228: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5210: 5203: 5194: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5160: 5145: 5144: 5118: 5098: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5066: 5060: 5054:. 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Brown 479: 470: 398:Columbia College 343:electromagnetism 322:law of induction 21: 9636: 9635: 9631: 9630: 9629: 9627: 9626: 9625: 9586: 9585: 9584: 9579: 9551: 9515: 9447: 9352: 9347: 9317: 9312: 9298:SI derived unit 9250:The Current War 9154: 9123: 9084: 9073: 9012:Telegeodynamics 8967: 8961: 8956: 8926: 8921: 8895: 8869: 8813: 8732: 8691: 8686: 8625: 8620: 8612: 8604: 8596: 8558:10.1.1.418.9645 8543:(5834): 83–86. 8527: 8496: 8495: 8491: 8469: 8450: 8448:Further reading 8445: 8444: 8425: 8421: 8411: 8409: 8402: 8398: 8388: 8386: 8351: 8345: 8341: 8306: 8302: 8292: 8290: 8288: 8265: 8259: 8255: 8245: 8243: 8238: 8237: 8233: 8223: 8221: 8211: 8204: 8181: 8177: 8170: 8162: 8158: 8148: 8146: 8137: 8136: 8132: 8120: 8119: 8110: 8109: 8085: 8081: 8060:(11): 909–915. 8050: 8046: 8039: 8031: 8027: 8020: 8006: 8002: 7961: 7957: 7942: 7920: 7916: 7909: 7893: 7882: 7843:(5): e1400111. 7828: 7824: 7814: 7812: 7801: 7797: 7787: 7785: 7774: 7770: 7762: 7754: 7750: 7743: 7721: 7717: 7680: 7676: 7669: 7653: 7649: 7639: 7637: 7622: 7618: 7611: 7595: 7591: 7554: 7550: 7540: 7538: 7529: 7528: 7524: 7517: 7501: 7497: 7487: 7485: 7475: 7471: 7428: 7424: 7414: 7412: 7407: 7406: 7402: 7392: 7390: 7385: 7384: 7377: 7375: 7370: 7369: 7365: 7355: 7353: 7352:on 24 July 2009 7344: 7343: 7339: 7329: 7327: 7318: 7317: 7313: 7303: 7301: 7263: 7259: 7249: 7247: 7242: 7241: 7237: 7227: 7225: 7224:. 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InfoSpace LLC 5538:How Stuff Works 5530: 5519: 5509: 5507: 5496: 5469: 5462: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5403: 5397: 5393: 5379: 5377: 5365: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5306: 5295: 5288: 5272: 5268: 5259:Agbinya (2012) 5252: 5245: 5233: 5231: 5222: 5221: 5214: 5212: 5211:on 9 April 2011 5208: 5201: 5195: 5184: 5174: 5172: 5161: 5148: 5116:physics/0611063 5099: 5074: 5064: 5062: 5058: 5044: 5025: 5017: 5010: 5000: 4998: 4994: 4988: 4979: 4972: 4956: 4947: 4940: 4924: 4905: 4898: 4882: 4869: 4862: 4846: 4842: 4832: 4830: 4821: 4820: 4816: 4776: 4772: 4762: 4760: 4753: 4734: 4724: 4722: 4711:10.1.1.693.1938 4693: 4687: 4656: 4649: 4633: 4629: 4590: 4571: 4561: 4559: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4522: 4518: 4511: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4467: 4463: 4450: 4446: 4437:, reprinted in 4421: 4417: 4410: 4394: 4390: 4383: 4367: 4363: 4356: 4340: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4311: 4307: 4296: 4292: 4285: 4269: 4265: 4250: 4228: 4224: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4186: 4179: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4093: 4085: 4078: 4068: 4066: 4062: 4054: 4035: 4024: 4017: 4004: 4003: 3999: 3988: 3984: 3973: 3969: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3931: 3924: 3917: 3901: 3880: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3828: 3824: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3769: 3765: 3758: 3742: 3738: 3697: 3693: 3676: 3672: 3631: 3627: 3588:(11): 104–110. 3577: 3573: 3566: 3550: 3543: 3536: 3520: 3489: 3482: 3466: 3449: 3408: 3401: 3391: 3389: 3385: 3374: 3368: 3339: 3332: 3316: 3297: 3282: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3257: 3256: 3252: 3245: 3229: 3225: 3188: 3184: 3153: 3138: 3098: 3083: 3068: 3046: 3031: 3021: 3019: 3010: 3009: 2998: 2982: 2976: 2972: 2965: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2898: 2862: 2855: 2848: 2841: 2838: 2739:proximity cards 2724:electric razors 2697: 2662: 2656: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2606: 2600: 2574:Geoffrey Landis 2502:radio-frequency 2454: 2344:solar satellite 2336: 2252:radio frequency 2201: 2188: 2140: 2109: 2105: 2097: 2094: 2093: 2067: 2063: 2055: 2052: 2051: 2025: 2021: 2013: 2010: 2009: 1993: 1990: 1989: 1969: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1904: 1903: 1902: 1899: 1890: 1889: 1817: 1811: 1792:remote controls 1781: 1704: 1698: 1684: 1643: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1616: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1606: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1536:passes through 1518: 1515: 1514: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1445: 1441: 1435: 1431: 1429: 1424: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1387: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1361: 1358: 1357: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1188: 1187: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1172: 1165: 1157: 1156: 1153: 1145: 1144: 1138: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1115: 1109: 1102: 1091: 1084: 1077: 1070: 1058: 1051:range or above. 1034: 1002:dipole antennas 991: 980: 957: 935:; examples are 914: 907: 894: 887: 861: 854: 822:magnetic fields 796: 751:are created by 749:magnetic fields 571: 513: 496: 495: 494: 493: 482: 481: 480: 472: 471: 430:radio frequency 406:radio frequency 390: 351:Poynting vector 318:Michael Faraday 310: 305: 218:electrical load 191:magnetic fields 187:electric fields 116:electric fields 104:magnetic fields 83:electrical load 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9634: 9624: 9623: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9603: 9598: 9581: 9580: 9578: 9577: 9564: 9561: 9560: 9557: 9556: 9553: 9552: 9550: 9549: 9547:Wireless power 9544: 9539: 9534: 9529: 9523: 9521: 9517: 9516: 9514: 9513: 9511:Ultracapacitor 9508: 9503: 9498: 9493: 9488: 9483: 9478: 9473: 9468: 9463: 9457: 9455: 9449: 9448: 9446: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9408:Home fuel cell 9405: 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9374: 9372: 9365: 9358: 9354: 9353: 9346: 9345: 9338: 9331: 9323: 9314: 9313: 9311: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9283: 9276: 9269: 9261: 9254: 9246: 9238: 9230: 9222: 9214: 9206: 9198: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9162: 9160: 9156: 9155: 9153: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9131: 9129: 9125: 9124: 9122: 9121: 9114: 9107: 9100: 9092: 9090: 9086: 9085: 9076: 9074: 9072: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9035: 9034: 9029: 9027:Wireless power 9024: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8988: 8987: 8977: 8971: 8969: 8963: 8962: 8955: 8954: 8947: 8940: 8932: 8923: 8922: 8920: 8919: 8914: 8912:Quantum optics 8909: 8903: 8901: 8897: 8896: 8894: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8877: 8875: 8871: 8870: 8868: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8821: 8819: 8815: 8814: 8812: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8789:Slot-waveguide 8786: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8740: 8738: 8734: 8733: 8731: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8710: 8708:Microphotonics 8705: 8699: 8697: 8693: 8692: 8685: 8684: 8677: 8670: 8662: 8654: 8653: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8624: 8623:External links 8621: 8619: 8618: 8610: 8602: 8594: 8587: 8532: 8526:978-1118862964 8525: 8510: 8490:978-8792329233 8489: 8474: 8468:978-0996649216 8467: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8419: 8396: 8339: 8300: 8286: 8253: 8231: 8202: 8175: 8156: 8130: 8121:|journal= 8079: 8044: 8025: 8019:978-1351643764 8018: 8000: 7955: 7940: 7914: 7908:978-1596937192 7907: 7880: 7822: 7795: 7768: 7748: 7741: 7715: 7674: 7668:978-1782420798 7667: 7647: 7616: 7610:978-0521035415 7609: 7589: 7568:(2): 125–128. 7548: 7531:"Electrolaser" 7522: 7516:978-8120324176 7515: 7495: 7469: 7422: 7400: 7363: 7337: 7326:on 29 May 2016 7311: 7257: 7235: 7213: 7190: 7176: 7170:. SPIE Press. 7133: 7112: 7086: 7064: 7042: 7020: 6997: 6975: 6956: 6941: 6915: 6900: 6874: 6869:Fraunhofer ISE 6856: 6830: 6805: 6783: 6762: 6736: 6710: 6675: 6652: 6638:Shinohara, N. 6630: 6604: 6578: 6560: 6545: 6509: 6464: 6425: 6375: 6352: 6303: 6243: 6225:Shahan, Zach. 6217: 6207: 6194: 6182: 6173: 6164: 6154: 6145: 6136: 6126: 6116: 6107: 6098: 6071: 6041: 6004: 5998:978-1596932470 5997: 5977: 5939: 5913: 5896: 5878: 5863: 5830: 5771: 5707: 5692: 5666: 5659: 5639: 5614: 5608:978-1461477020 5607: 5587: 5581:978-1402090752 5580: 5551: 5517: 5467: 5461:978-0470975664 5460: 5440: 5391: 5354: 5348:978-0465024933 5347: 5327: 5321:978-1439892732 5320: 5293: 5287:978-0521586986 5286: 5266: 5243: 5234:|journal= 5182: 5146: 5072: 5061:on 3 June 2016 5042: 5008: 4977: 4970: 4945: 4939:978-8792329233 4938: 4903: 4897:978-9812872999 4896: 4867: 4861:978-1139452304 4860: 4840: 4814: 4787:(4): 526–535. 4770: 4732: 4704:(3): 171–181. 4654: 4648:978-0387447100 4647: 4627: 4569: 4543: 4537:978-1400846559 4536: 4516: 4510:978-1893817012 4509: 4488: 4482:978-1400846559 4481: 4461: 4444: 4435:: 23760–23761. 4415: 4409:978-1400846559 4408: 4388: 4382:978-1400846559 4381: 4361: 4355:978-1400846559 4354: 4334: 4320: 4305: 4290: 4284:978-1400846559 4283: 4263: 4248: 4222: 4207: 4200: 4177: 4158:(8): 355–357. 4139: 4133:978-1400846559 4132: 4112: 4106:978-0809501625 4105: 4076: 4033: 4015: 3997: 3982: 3967: 3952: 3946:978-1438110189 3945: 3922: 3915: 3878: 3863: 3854: 3847: 3822: 3790: 3784:978-1461477020 3783: 3763: 3757:978-9811026157 3756: 3736: 3707:(4): 117–125. 3691: 3670: 3625: 3571: 3564: 3541: 3535:978-0124186668 3534: 3487: 3481:978-1461477020 3480: 3447: 3399: 3337: 3331:978-1118862964 3330: 3295: 3276: 3250: 3244:978-1118820230 3243: 3223: 3182: 3163:(7): 923–927. 3136: 3081: 3066: 3029: 2996: 2970: 2963: 2937: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2903: 2902: 2901: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2864:Physics portal 2853: 2837: 2834: 2696: 2693: 2689:remote sensors 2684:kinetic energy 2680:thermal energy 2670:, also called 2658:Main article: 2655: 2652: 2627: 2615:plasma channel 2599: 2596: 2582:space elevator 2534: 2533: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2498: 2493:Compact size: 2491: 2486:monochromatic 2453: 2450: 2421:Reunion Island 2402:Hidetsugu Yagi 2335: 2332: 2270:Rayleigh limit 2200: 2197: 2187: 2184: 2156:electric motor 2148:magnetic field 2139: 2136: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2017: 1997: 1968: 1965: 1957: 1956: 1944: 1914: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1887: 1886: 1885: 1884: 1864:electric field 1813:Main article: 1810: 1807: 1779: 1758:Marin Soljačić 1733:coil or other 1694:Main article: 1683: 1680: 1642: 1619: 1615: 1594: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1548: 1545: 1525: 1522: 1502: 1499: 1479: 1476: 1448: 1444: 1438: 1434: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1386: 1365: 1336:computer mouse 1275:direct current 1244:magnetic field 1228:magnetic field 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K. 3826: 3819: 3815: 3814:Thomas Edison 3811: 3810:Elihu Thomson 3807: 3806:Edwin Houston 3803: 3799: 3798:Luigi Galvani 3794: 3786: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3767: 3759: 3753: 3749: 3748: 3740: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3695: 3686: 3681: 3674: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3567: 3565:9781118862964 3561: 3557: 3556: 3548: 3546: 3537: 3531: 3527: 3526: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3483: 3477: 3473: 3472: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3404: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3322: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3291: 3290:New Scientist 3287: 3280: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3246: 3240: 3236: 3235: 3227: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3202:: 8081–8094. 3201: 3197: 3193: 3186: 3178: 3174: 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1793: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1767: 1762: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1731:self-resonant 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1697: 1688: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1640: 1617: 1613: 1592: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1546: 1543: 1523: 1520: 1500: 1497: 1477: 1474: 1466: 1465:magnetic flux 1446: 1442: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1406: 1384: 1363: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1283:mains current 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1224:coils of wire 1221: 1217: 1216: 1211: 1194: 1185: 1170: 1163: 1151: 1142: 1136: 1124: 1114: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1088: 1081: 1074: 1067: 1063: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 988: 984: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 919: 911: 904: 900: 897: 891: 884: 880: 877: 876: 873: 869: 865: 858: 851: 847: 846:exponentially 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 800: 799: 798: 793: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 721: 717: 714: 712: 708: 707:phased arrays 704: 701: 698: 695: 692: 691: 687: 684: 681: 678: 675: 672: 671: 667: 664: 661: 658: 655: 652: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 632: 629: 626: 623: 620: 619: 615: 612: 609: 606: 603: 600: 599: 595: 592: 589: 587: 584: 581: 578: 577: 569:Field regions 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 539: 537: 533: 529: 525: 522: 518: 508: 506: 502: 491: 487: 478: 469: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 435:, now called 434: 431: 427: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 385: 383: 379: 378:Mahlon Loomis 375: 370: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 327: 323: 319: 315: 300: 298: 293: 289: 287: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 259:devices like 258: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 210: 208: 207:visible light 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 179: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 156:power beaming 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 112:coils of wire 109: 105: 101: 100:non-radiative 97: 96: 91: 86: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 44: 36: 32: 19: 9572: 9546: 9403:Fusion power 9303:Lunar crater 9285: 9278: 9271: 9263: 9248: 9240: 9232: 9224: 9218:The Prestige 9216: 9213:(2003 opera) 9208: 9200: 9116: 9102: 9095: 8985:plasma globe 8959:Nikola Tesla 8874:Applications 8808: 8703:Biophotonics 8655: 8649: 8540: 8536: 8515: 8479: 8457: 8428: 8422: 8410:. Retrieved 8399: 8387:. Retrieved 8359: 8355: 8342: 8317: 8313: 8303: 8291:. Retrieved 8269: 8256: 8244:. Retrieved 8234: 8222:. Retrieved 8218: 8188: 8184: 8178: 8159: 8147:. Retrieved 8143:the original 8133: 8088: 8082: 8057: 8053: 8047: 8028: 8009: 8003: 7968: 7964: 7958: 7923: 7917: 7897: 7840: 7836: 7825: 7813:. Retrieved 7808: 7798: 7786:. Retrieved 7781: 7771: 7758: 7751: 7724: 7718: 7691: 7688:AIP Advances 7687: 7677: 7657: 7650: 7638:. Retrieved 7634:the original 7629: 7619: 7599: 7592: 7565: 7561: 7551: 7539:. Retrieved 7534: 7525: 7505: 7498: 7486:. Retrieved 7482: 7472: 7439: 7435: 7425: 7413:. Retrieved 7403: 7391:. Retrieved 7376:. Retrieved 7366: 7354:. Retrieved 7350:the original 7340: 7328:. Retrieved 7324:the original 7314: 7302:. Retrieved 7277:(2): 161–4. 7274: 7271:Astrobiology 7270: 7260: 7248:. Retrieved 7238: 7226:. Retrieved 7216: 7204:. Retrieved 7193: 7181:. Retrieved 7166: 7150:. Retrieved 7146:the original 7136: 7124:. Retrieved 7115: 7103:. Retrieved 7099: 7089: 7077:. Retrieved 7067: 7055:. Retrieved 7045: 7033:. Retrieved 7023: 7011:. Retrieved 7000: 6988:. Retrieved 6978: 6970:The Observer 6969: 6959: 6924: 6918: 6883: 6877: 6868: 6859: 6847:. Retrieved 6843: 6833: 6821:. Retrieved 6817: 6808: 6798:28 September 6796:. Retrieved 6786: 6765: 6753:. Retrieved 6749: 6739: 6727:. Retrieved 6723:newatlas.com 6722: 6713: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6670:the original 6665: 6655: 6646: 6633: 6621:. Retrieved 6617:the original 6607: 6595:. Retrieved 6591:the original 6581: 6573:the original 6563: 6518: 6512: 6477: 6467: 6434: 6428: 6414:cite journal 6389: 6385: 6378: 6369: 6365: 6355: 6320: 6316: 6306: 6263: 6259: 6234:. Retrieved 6230: 6220: 6210: 6202: 6197: 6185: 6176: 6167: 6157: 6148: 6139: 6129: 6119: 6110: 6101: 6089:. Retrieved 6084: 6074: 6062:. Retrieved 6058:the original 6032:. Retrieved 6025:the original 6020: 6007: 5987: 5980: 5968:. Retrieved 5965:EETimes-Asia 5964: 5930:. Retrieved 5926: 5916: 5906: 5899: 5890: 5881: 5871:smith, K.J. 5866: 5847: 5843: 5833: 5788: 5784: 5774: 5723: 5719: 5675: 5669: 5649: 5642: 5630:. Retrieved 5626: 5617: 5597: 5590: 5570: 5542:. Retrieved 5537: 5508:. Retrieved 5503: 5450: 5443: 5431:. Retrieved 5424:the original 5411: 5407: 5394: 5378:. Retrieved 5373: 5369: 5357: 5337: 5330: 5310: 5276: 5269: 5260: 5254: 5225:cite journal 5213:. Retrieved 5206:the original 5173:. Retrieved 5168: 5109:(1): 34–48. 5106: 5102: 5063:. Retrieved 5056:the original 5021: 4999:. Retrieved 4960: 4928: 4886: 4850: 4843: 4831:. Retrieved 4826: 4817: 4784: 4780: 4773: 4761:. Retrieved 4723:. Retrieved 4701: 4697: 4637: 4630: 4597: 4593: 4560:. Retrieved 4556: 4546: 4526: 4519: 4499: 4491: 4471: 4464: 4454: 4447: 4438: 4432: 4428: 4418: 4398: 4391: 4371: 4364: 4344: 4337: 4323: 4314: 4308: 4299: 4293: 4273: 4266: 4231: 4225: 4216: 4210: 4190: 4155: 4151: 4122: 4115: 4095: 4088: 4067:. Retrieved 4058: 4027: 4009: 4000: 3991: 3985: 3976: 3970: 3961: 3955: 3935: 3905: 3872: 3866: 3857: 3838: 3825: 3802:Joseph Henry 3793: 3773: 3766: 3746: 3739: 3704: 3700: 3694: 3673: 3641:(2): 10–18. 3638: 3634: 3628: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3554: 3524: 3470: 3415: 3411: 3390:. Retrieved 3383:the original 3378: 3320: 3289: 3279: 3267:. Retrieved 3262: 3253: 3233: 3226: 3199: 3195: 3185: 3160: 3156: 3106: 3102: 3049: 3020:. Retrieved 3016:ECN Magazine 3015: 2990: 2986: 2973: 2946: 2940: 2928:. Retrieved 2923: 2913: 2827: 2815: 2795:Peter Glaser 2788: 2771: 2747: 2732: 2728: 2713: 2698: 2675: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2640: 2609:atmospheric 2607: 2604:Electrolaser 2593: 2586: 2572: 2561: 2554: 2550:laser safety 2535: 2532:technology.) 2514: 2478: 2463: 2442: 2438: 2435: 2428: 2425: 2414: 2410:Yagi antenna 2406:Shintaro Uda 2399: 2392: 2388: 2369: 2349: 2320:transparency 2309: 2298: 2294:compact beam 2281: 2267: 2229: 2219:In general, 2218: 2204: 2202: 2189: 2168: 2141: 1970: 1961:Nikola Tesla 1958: 1933: 1921: 1834:) forming a 1818: 1804: 1788: 1784: 1776: 1763: 1753:Nikola Tesla 1751: 1721:between two 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1669: 1665:interference 1352: 1325: 1295: 1254: 1251:Ampere's law 1246: 1239: 1219: 1213: 1207: 1169:Magne Charge 1097: 1086: 1079: 1072: 1065: 1059: 1044: 1043:. 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