343:, along with Wekau (or Wa-ni-ga, The Sun) and Chickhonsic (or Chic-hong-sic, Little Buffalo), went to Prairie du Chien to seek revenge for what they believed were the executions of the Ho-Chunk prisoners. Unable to locate their intended victim, they instead targeted the cabin of Registre Gagnier, the son of an esteemed African-American nurse and midwife named Aunt Mary Ann. Gagnier welcomed the three Ho-Chunks into his home for a meal. What happened inside varies according to sources. According to one account, Red Bird shot and killed Gagnier, while Chickhonsic shot and killed Solomon Lipcap, a hired man or friend of the family. Wekau tried to shoot Gagnier's wife, but she wrestled his gun away before escaping with her young son. Wekau had to settle for stabbing and
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settlers poured into the region in unprecedented numbers, and U.S. officials proved to be unable or unwilling to stem the tide. By
January 1828, there were as many as 10,000 illegal settlers on Ho-Chunk land, including militia general Henry Dodge, who established a mining camp after the war and boasted that the U.S. Army could not make him leave. Having no other options, on August 25, 1828, the Ho-Chunks signed a provisional treaty with the United States, agreeing to sell the land occupied by the miners in a more formal treaty to be held later.
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279:. Native Americans had mined this region for thousands of years, and exporting lead had become an important part of the Ho-Chunk economy. Ho-Chunks tried to drive away the trespassers, but they often suffered abuse at the hands of aggressive miners. Some U.S. officials, concerned that Ho-Chunk mining would delay what they saw as the inevitable American possession of the mining region, worked "to dissuade the Indians from their mining plans".
327:(Chippewas). The two Ho-Chunk prisoners were also moved to Fort Snelling. In May 1827, after Dakotas attacked an Ojibwe party near Fort Snelling, Colonel Snelling arrested four of the Dakotas and turned them over to the Ojibwes, who killed them. This angered some Dakotas, who encouraged the Ho-Chunks to help them strike at the Americans, falsely telling them that the Ho-Chunk prisoners had also been turned over to the Ojibwes for execution.
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Patrick Jung, it became clear during the trial that Red Bird had committed the murders at the
Gagnier cabin, and that there was not enough evidence to convict Wekau and Chickhonsic. Despite this, the white and métis jury found them guilty. Judge Doty sentenced them to hang, as he was required to do by law. Their lawyer filed a motion for a new trial, arguing that the jury had ignored the evidence, and so Doty suspended the death sentences.
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was the news that some Ho-Chunk women had been sexually assaulted by
American riverboat crews along the Mississippi River, although this story, like the one about the executions, may have been a false rumor. The Ho-Chunks broke off diplomatic relations with the United States by not showing up for a scheduled treaty conference, and prepared for war.
358:. Two Americans were killed and four were wounded in the skirmish; about seven Ho-Chunks died in the attack or later from their wounds. According to historian Patrick Jung, "The attack, while relatively small, was significant because it was the first act of war committed against the United States by Indians in the region since the War of 1812."
479:, surrendered Red Bird and Wekau to the Americans. Carymaunee asked the Americans not to put irons on Red Bird and Wekau; this request was granted. He then offered to give the Americans twenty horses in exchange for the prisoners, but this was declined. The Ho-Chunks turned in four more men involved in the uprising in the following weeks.
291:, about twelve miles north of Prairie du Chien, when they were murdered, apparently by a Ho-Chunk raiding party that had been passing through. The murderers evidently had no specific grievance with the victims, who were targets of opportunity. Two Ho-Chunk suspects were arrested by Prairie du Chien militiamen and taken to
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On July 4, 1826, the Ho-Chunks delivered six men to Morgan at Fort
Crawford. In accordance with Ho-Chunk custom, writes historian Martin Zanger, the six men were not all involved in the murders; they were surrendered to appease American anger and deflect punishment away from the tribe as a whole. The
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presiding. Wau-koo-kau and Man-ne-tah-peh-keh, the two warriors imprisoned for the 1826 murders of the
Methode family, were released due to a lack of witnesses, as were three Ho-Chunks held for the attack on the keelboats. Only two men, Wekau and Chickhonsic, were prosecuted. According to historian
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Eight Ho-Chunks were detained by the U.S. government at Fort
Crawford for trial after the war. American officials most wanted to convict Red Bird, believing that he had been the leader of the uprising. This belief, according to historian Martin Zanger, was based on an American failure to understand
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when they learned of the attacks. To discourage the spread of the uprising, Cass promptly invited Native
Americans in the region to come to the treaty grounds to receive gifts and food; more than 2,000 people eventually arrived. McKenney warned the Ho-Chunk chiefs in attendance that the only way to
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The false story of the execution of the Ho-Chunk prisoners, along with the incessant
American trespassing, convinced some Ho-Chunks to take up arms against the United States. The timing seemed right, since the evacuation of Fort Crawford appeared to be a sign of American weakness. Another grievance
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The conflict also helped to promote a change in U.S. policy regarding Native
Americans. Previously, many Americans had argued that Indians should be "civilized" and assimilated into white American society. But for some, the Winnebago War discredited the idea that Indians and Americans could live
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In diplomatic talks with the Ho-Chunks at the close of the war, General
Atkinson promised that the U.S. government would look into their grievances in the lead mining region. Thomas McKenney requested military aid to evict American miners who were trespassing on Ho-Chunk land, but after the war,
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Meanwhile, American officials scrambled to mobilize troops. Cass hurried to Prairie du Chien, where he organized the local militia. Colonel Snelling arrived at Prairie du Chien on July 10, bringing about 200 regulars from Fort Snelling to reoccupy Fort Crawford. He was joined there on July 29 by
377:. Many Ho-Chunks also distanced themselves from the actions of Red Bird and the Prairie La Crosse Ho-Chunks. Without allies, the effort to ignite a widespread war was doomed. By mid-July, writes historian Martin Zanger, "for all practical purposes the 'Red Bird Uprising' was over".
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the decentralized nature of Ho-Chunk society. "Because Red Bird was well known to the white frontiersmen," writes Zanger, "they focused their resentment on him, mistakenly attributing to him a leadership role he did not deserve." Red Bird was never tried; he contracted
307:, reinforced the fort amid rumors that the Ho-Chunks were going to attempt to free the prisoners. Eventually, two Ho-Chunks, Wau-koo-kau (or Waukookah) and Man-ne-tah-peh-keh (or Mahnaatapakah), were turned over to the Americans and indicted for the murders.
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Most Native Americans in the region decided against joining the uprising, and so the conflict ended after U.S. officials responded with a show of military force. Ho-Chunk chiefs surrendered eight men who had participated in the violence, including
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Americans, however, wanted to punish those personally responsible for the killings. Colonel Morgan was unable to determine who was guilty, and so he detained all six and demanded that the Ho-Chunk chiefs identify the killers. Colonel
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and reoccupying two other abandoned forts. The conflict convinced some officials that Americans and Indians could not live peaceably together, and that the Natives should be compelled to move westward, a policy known as
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The attacks created panic among the American population of the area. Settlers, fearing the outbreak of a wider Indian war, fled to towns such as Galena and Chicago, or sought sanctuary in the abandoned Fort Crawford.
365:, and other Ho-Chunk bands. Most leaders of these tribes, while sympathetic to Ho-Chunk grievances, urged neutrality. Some Potawatomis participated by killing some American livestock, but Potawatomi leaders
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Hall, 78; Trask, 13. Hall and Trask say that there were five Methode children, and thus seven murder victims; Zanger, who consulted the trial archives, says that a total of five people were killed; Zanger,
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region. This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons: intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West, a policy known as
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Gagnier's infant daughter, who survived the attack. Another account says that only Red Bird committed the murders. Red Bird and his companions returned with the three scalps to their village at
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As a result of the war, the Ho-Chunk tribe was compelled to cede the lead mining region to the United States. The Americans also increased their military presence on the frontier, building
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The trials were delayed due to the difficulties in bringing together witnesses, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and interpreters. The proceedings finally began in August 1828, with Judge
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On June 30, 1827, the Prairie La Crosse Ho-Chunks struck again. About 150 Ho-Chunks, with a few Dakota allies, attacked two American keelboats on the Mississippi, near the mouth of the
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Hoping to prevent further uprisings, the United States decided to strengthen its military presence in the region after the Winnebago War. Fort Crawford was reoccupied, as was
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avoid an American military invasion of their homeland was to surrender those responsible for the attacks. Other American officials met with other native leaders, including
212:, whom American officials believed to be the ringleader. Red Bird died in prison in 1828 while awaiting trial; two other men convicted of murder were pardoned by President
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295:. After they escaped, U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby Morgan seized two Ho-Chunk hostages and demanded that the Ho-Chunk tribe turn over the murderers.
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The conflict has also been called the Winnebago Outbreak, the Red Bird War, the Red Bird Uprising, the Fever River War, and the Le Fèvre Indian War.
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miners trespassing on their lands, and to false rumors that the United States had sent two Ho-Chunk prisoners to a rival tribe for execution.
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and the Ho-Chunks formally ceded the lead mining region to the United States for annual payments of $ 16,000 and $ 18,000 respectively.
523:, having been told that the executions would likely spark another uprising, pardoned the prisoners in exchange for a land cession. In
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rode among the Potawatomi settlements and urged people to stay out of the war; they would do the same five years later during the
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arrived at Fort Crawford with 130 mounted militiamen, mostly miners. Governor
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in Chicago, which had been abandoned in 1823. A new outpost,
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of Illinois sent 600 mounted militiamen north to Wisconsin.
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militiamen from Green Bay, 60 New York Indians, and 120
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1208:, 64–87. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980.
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Zanger, Martin. "Red Bird." In R. David Edmunds, ed.,
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Uncommon Defense: Indian Allies in the Black Hawk War
460:. On August 29, Atkinson's force began moving up the
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Wars between the United States and Native Americans
1153:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007.
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200:tribe. The Ho-Chunks were reacting to a wave of
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507:(in yellow) and the Ho-Chunk tribe (in orange).
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1144:0-674-03518-6
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:
1119:
1110:
1103:
1097:
1090:
1084:
1075:
1068:
1062:
1053:
1044:
1035:
1026:
1017:
1008:
999:
992:
986:
977:
968:
961:
955:
946:
939:
933:
924:
915:
908:
902:
895:
889:
880:
871:
862:
853:
844:
837:
831:
829:
819:
810:
808:
806:
796:
787:
778:
769:
760:
751:
742:
733:
724:
717:
711:
702:
700:
690:
681:
679:
671:
665:
655:
646:
637:
628:
622:Hall, 55, 95.
619:
610:
601:
597:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
569:
563:
561:
557:
553:
547:
545:
541:
540:Fort Dearborn
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
517:
514:
506:
501:
497:
495:
489:
480:
478:
474:
469:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
446:
444:
440:
436:
432:
426:
424:
420:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
392:
387:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
359:
357:
356:Bad Axe River
352:
350:
346:
342:
332:
328:
326:
322:
318:
317:Fort Snelling
308:
306:
302:
296:
294:
293:Fort Crawford
290:
280:
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
233:
231:
227:
222:
217:
215:
211:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
174:Winnebago War
166:
157:
154:
153:
148:
145:
140:
137:
135:
132:
131:
126:
120:
115:
112:
108:
107:
102:
94:
91:
86:
85:
81:
78:
77:
73:
69:
65:
62:
61:
57:
54:
53:
49:
45:
40:
35:
32:
27:
24:Winnebago War
22:
19:
1326:
1205:
1190:
1175:
1168:
1150:
1135:
1118:
1109:
1101:
1096:
1088:
1083:
1074:
1066:
1061:
1052:
1043:
1034:
1025:
1016:
1011:Hall, 87–88.
1007:
998:
990:
985:
976:
967:
959:
954:
945:
937:
932:
923:
914:
906:
901:
893:
888:
879:
870:
861:
856:Hall, 85–86.
852:
843:
835:
818:
795:
786:
777:
768:
759:
750:
741:
736:Hall, 79–80.
732:
723:
715:
710:
689:
669:
664:
654:
645:
640:Hall, 75–76.
636:
627:
618:
609:
600:
548:
537:
518:
510:
490:
486:
470:
447:
427:
423:Wabokieshiek
400:
396:
360:
353:
338:
329:
314:
297:
286:
266:
239:
218:
206:
177:
173:
171:
104:Belligerents
29:Part of the
18:
1322:War of 1812
1302:Beaver Wars
1038:Zanger, 78.
980:Zanger, 77.
949:Zanger, 74.
874:Zanger, 72.
822:Zanger, 71.
745:Zanger, 70.
705:Zanger, 82.
693:Zanger, 69.
529:August 1829
450:Fort Howard
439:Henry Dodge
363:Potawatomis
335:Hostilities
242:War of 1812
144:Henry Dodge
87:Territorial
1362:Categories
1129:References
1102:Black Hawk
1089:Black Hawk
1067:Black Hawk
991:Black Hawk
960:Black Hawk
938:Black Hawk
907:Black Hawk
894:Black Hawk
836:Black Hawk
790:Trask, 14.
716:Black Hawk
670:Black Hawk
477:Carymaunee
458:Menominees
402:Lewis Cass
323:) and the
236:Background
1122:Hall, 94.
1113:Hall, 93.
1091:, 34, 46.
1078:Hall, 91.
1056:Hall, 92.
1002:Hall, 83.
971:Hall, 82.
865:Hall, 81.
772:Hall, 80.
684:Hall, 78.
631:Hall, 70.
494:dysentery
483:Aftermath
414:Green Bay
190:Wisconsin
111:Ho-Chunks
93:Ho-Chunks
1378:Ho-Chunk
1307:Fox Wars
1242:Archived
1230:Archived
962:, 44–45.
909:, 43–44.
566:See also
464:towards
371:Shaubena
345:scalping
341:Red Bird
269:Ho-Chunk
210:Red Bird
194:Ho-Chunk
155:7 killed
134:Red Bird
68:Illinois
63:Location
44:Red Bird
325:Ojibwes
248:in the
184:in the
89:changes
1289:, and
1212:
1197:
1182:
1157:
1142:
1100:Jung,
1065:Jung,
989:Jung,
958:Jung,
936:Jung,
905:Jung,
892:Jung,
834:Jung,
714:Jung,
668:Jung,
419:Keokuk
408:, and
79:Result
1104:, 46.
993:, 45.
940:, 44.
838:, 42.
593:Notes
454:métis
321:Sioux
1210:ISBN
1195:ISBN
1180:ISBN
1155:ISBN
1140:ISBN
527:and
525:July
475:and
421:and
289:Iowa
273:lead
202:lead
182:1827
172:The
70:and
55:Date
659:68.
260:at
1364::
1285:,
827:^
804:^
698:^
677:^
562:.
196:)
1274:e
1267:t
1260:v
1216:.
1201:.
1186:.
1161:.
1146:.
141:,
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