Wales in the early Middle Ages

992:, meaning a holy enclosure or church. The Welsh kingdoms arose in this period, in which the chieftains clashed with one another in internecine warfare, both in the territory that would become Wales (kingdoms such as Gwynedd) and across the Brittonic kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland (the Hen Ogledd).This was also a time of structural and linguistic divergence from the southwestern peninsula British kingdom of Dumnonia known to the Welsh as Cernyw prior to its eventual absorption into Wessex. Cernyw would become Cornwall and their language would become Cornish. The seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. That era of struggle saw the Welsh adopt their modern name for themselves, Cymry, meaning "fellow countrymen", and it also saw the demise of all but one of the kindred kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland at the hands of then-ascendant Northumbria. 976:

became isolated by the geography of the western peninsula, bounded by the sea and English neighbours. It was these English neighbours who named the land Wallia, and the people Welsh. The people of Wallia, medieval Wales, remained divided into separate kingdoms that fought with each other as much as they fought their English neighbours. Neither were the communities homogenously Welsh. Place name and archeological evidence point to Viking/Norse settlement in places such as Swansea, Fishguard and Anglesey, and Saxons settled amongst the Welsh in places such as Presteigne. It was the Norman invasion of England in 1066, which led soon after to incursions into Wales that overcame these rivalries, encouraging Welsh rulers to attempt to develop Wales into a unified state that could oppose this new threat. It was only in the final stages of conquest that Wales finally achieved this unity. It was the threat of invasion and conquest that created the nation of Wales.

70: 1516:

proficiency. A king had to be considered effective and be associated with wealth, either his own or by distributing it to others, and those considered to be at the top level were required to have wisdom, perfection, and a long reach. Literary sources stressed martial qualities such as military capability, bold horsemanship, leadership, the ability to extend boundaries and to make conquests, along with an association with wealth and generosity. Clerical sources stressed obligations such as respect for Christian principles, providing defence and protection, pursuing thieves and imprisoning offenders, persecuting evildoers, and making judgements.

64: 1793: 1339: 6130: 1427:(head of the family within four patrilinear generations) held special status, representing the family in transactions and having certain unique privileges under the law. Under extraordinary circumstances the genealogical interest could be stretched quite far: for the serious matter of homicide, all of the fifth cousins of a kindred (the seventh generation: the patrilinear descendants of a common great-great-great-great-grandfather) were ultimately liable for satisfying any penalty. 1020: 894:. The local landscape was controlled by a local aristocracy and ruled by a warrior aristocrat. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, over the people who lived on that land. Many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family (the 5726: 31: 6118: 4944: 1923: 804: 1143: 1027: 792: 1520:

There were at least two restraints on the limits of power: the combined will of the ruler's people (his "subjects"), and the authority of the Christian church. There is little to explain the meaning of "subject" beyond noting that those under a ruler owed an assessment (effectively, taxes) and military service when demanded, while they were owed protection by the ruler.

1397:

known how the ancient people of Wales determined the best use of the land for their particular circumstances, such as in their preference for wheat, oats, rye or barley depending on rainfall, growing season, temperature and the characteristics of the land on which they lived. Anglesey is the exception, historically producing more grain than any other part of Wales.

1726:(in 602–604) portrays the bishop of Canterbury as chosen by Rome to lead in Britain, while portraying the British clergy as being in opposition to Rome. He then adds a prophecy that the British church would be destroyed. His apocryphal prophecy of destruction is quickly fulfilled by the massacre of the Christian monks at Bangor Is Coed by the 1715:(in 664) as a set-piece battle between competing Celtic and Roman religious interests. While the synod was an important event in the history of England and brought finality to several issues in Anglo-Saxon Britain, Bede probably overemphasised its significance so as to stress the unity of the English Church. 1455:"). Welsh custom contrasted with many Irish and Anglo-Saxon contexts, where the territory was named for the people living there (Connaught for the Connachta, Essex for the East Saxons). This is aside from the origin of a territory's name, such as in the custom of attributing it to an eponymous founder ( 1682:

The records of transactions and legal references provide information on the status of the clergy and its institutions. Landed proprietorship was the basis of support and income for all clerical communities, exploiting agriculture (crops), herding (sheep, pigs, goats), infrastructure (barns, threshing

1528:

For much of the early medieval period kings had few functions except military ones. Kings made war and gave judgements (in consultation with local elders) but they did not govern in any sense of that word. From the sixth to the eleventh centuries the king moved about with an armed, mounted warband, a

1589:

except perhaps as a clerical self-description, as in the 'vassal of a saint'. The early existence of the concept suggests a stratum of bound dependents in the post-Roman era. The proportion of the medieval population that consisted of freemen or free peasant proprietors is undetermined, even for the

1519:

The relationship among people that is most appropriate to the warrior aristocracy is clientship and flexibility, and not one of sovereignty or absolute power, nor necessarily of long duration. Prior to the tenth century, power was held on a local level, and the limits of that power varied by region.

1856:

shared a similar language, culture and heritage. Their histories are stories of warrior kings waging war, and they are intertwined in a way that is independent of physical location, in no way dissimilar to the way that the histories of neighboring Gwynedd and Powys are intertwined. Kings of Gwynedd

1400:

Animal husbandry included the raising of cattle, pigs, sheep and a lesser number of goats. Oxen were kept for ploughing, asses for beasts of burden and horses for human transport. The importance of sheep was less than in later centuries, as their extensive grazing in the uplands did not begin until

1396:

Much of the arable land is in the south, southeast, southwest, on Anglesey, and along the coast. However, specifying the ancient usage of land is problematic in that there is little surviving evidence on which to base the estimates. Forest clearance has taken place since the Iron Age, and it is not

1489:

Throughout the Middle Ages the Welsh used a variety of words for rulers, with the specific words used varying over time, and with literary sources generally using different terms than annalistic ones. Latin language texts used Latin language terms while vernacular texts used Welsh terms. Not only

1418:

The importance of blood relationships, particularly in relation to birth and noble descent, was heavily stressed in medieval Wales. Claims of dynastic legitimacy rested on it, and an extensive patrilinear genealogy was used to assess fines and penalties under Welsh law. Different degrees of blood

1059:

written c. 828 notes that a Welsh king had the power to settle foreigners and transfer tracts of land to them. That Roman-era regional rulers were able to exert such power is suggested by the Roman tolerance of native hill forts where there was local leadership under local law and custom. Whatever

979:

After the Roman withdrawal, Wales remained a rural landscape, controlled by warlords that formed a local aristocracy. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, over the people who lived on that land. Many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat

975:

Wales as a nation was defined in opposition to later English settlement and incursions into the island of Great Britain. In the early middle ages, the people of Wales continued to think of themselves as Britons, the people of the whole island, but over the course of time one group of these Britons

1683:

floors), and employing stewards to supervise the labour. Lands that were not adjacent to the communities provided income in the form of (in effect) a business of landlordship. Lands under clerical proprietorship were exempt from the fiscal demands of kings and secular lords. They had the power of

1515:

Wales in the early Middle Ages was a society with a landed warrior aristocracy, and after c. 500 Welsh politics were dominated by kings with territorial kingdoms. The legitimacy of the kingship was of paramount importance, the legitimate attainment of power was by dynastic inheritance or military

1150:

The exact origins and extent of the early kingdoms are speculative. The conjectured minor kings of the sixth century held small areas within a radius of perhaps 24 km (15 mi), probably near the coast. Throughout the era there was dynastic strengthening in some areas while new kingdoms

1619:

The religious culture of Wales was overwhelmingly Christian in the early Middle Ages. Pastoral care of the laity was necessarily rural in Wales, as it was in other Celtic regions. In Wales the clergy consisted of monks, orders and non-monastic clergy, all appearing in different periods and in

1482:, which referred to the "changeable, expandable, contractable sphere of any ruler's power". Rule tended to be defined in relation to a territory that might be held and protected, or expanded or contracted, though the territories themselves were specific pieces of land and not synonyms for the 2430:, Introduction (Fifth Century Britain). The inscription was "Cantiori Hic Jacit Venedotis Cive Fuit Consobrino Magli Magistrati", which he translated as "Cantiori lies here; he was a citizen of Gwynedd, a cousin of Maglus the magistrate". He dated the stone to the fifth or sixth century. 1370:, with warm summers and mild winters, much like the later medieval climate, though there was a significant change to cooler and much wetter conditions in the early part of the era. The southeastern coast was originally a wetland, but reclamation has been ongoing since the Roman era. 1677:

of England. The grave is lined with stones, there are no grave goods, they often have an east-west orientation, and they date from a time before churches were commonly attached to cemeteries. They contrast with Anglo-Saxon burials, which followed a different inhumation

1133:

has questioned the relevance of the debates themselves by noting that whatever Roman provincial administration might have survived in places, it eventually became a new system appropriate to the time and place, and not a "hangover of archaic practices".

1825:'s bard Afan Ferddig c. 633, and probably came into use a self-description before the seventh century. Historically the word applies to both the Welsh and the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland, the peoples of the 983:

The Roman era had brought Christianity, and the Celtic Britons living in the land that would become Wales, and elsewhere in Britain, were Christian throughout the era, and their legacy is found in the many place names of Wales that are prefixed by

1533:

that is described as a "small, swift-moving, and close-knit group". This military elite formed the core of any larger army that might be assembled. The relationships among the king and the members of his warband were personal, and the practice of

1550:(the penalty for insult) than the general populace, by the records of their transactions (such as land transfers) by their participation in local judgements and administration, and by their consultative role in judgements made by the king. 1011:, King of England. He thus took control of Gwynedd and Powys, making him ruler of all Wales except Morgannwg and Gwent. Hywel Dda instituted Welsh law, which was adopted across Wales, even after his kingdom was divided after his death. 1829:, and emphasises a perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people, exclusive of all others. Universal acceptance of the term as the preferred written one came slowly in Wales, eventually supplanting the earlier 4042: 980:

who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family (the tud) and individual status (braint).

1380:

Native fauna included large and small mammals, such as the brown bear, wolf, wildcat, rodents, several species of weasel, and shrews, voles and many species of bat. There were many species of birds, fish and shellfish.

1636:

Monasticism is known in Britain in the fifth century though its origins are obscure. The Church seemed episcopally dominated and largely consisting of monasteries. The size of the religious communities is unknown

1695:

place" or sanctuary). Clerical power was moral and spiritual, and this was sufficient to enforce recognition of their status and to demand compensation for any infringement on their rights and privileges.

1082:

Forts and roads are the most visible physical signs of a past Roman presence, along with the coins and Roman-era Latin inscriptions that are associated with Roman military sites. There is a legacy of

1501:

Kings are sometimes described as overkings, but the definition of what that meant is unclear, whether referring to a king with definite powers, or to ideas of someone considered to have high status.

1653:, within physical proximity of the communities). The known sites are mostly coastal, situated on good land. There are passing references to monks and monasteries in the sixth century (for example, 1669:

Archaeological evidence consists partly of the ruined remains of institutions, and in finds of inscriptions and the long cyst burials that are characteristic of post-Roman Christian Britons.

445: 2148:, "The Development of the Provinces". The inscriptions better indicate military rather than civilian presence. For example, there are more inscriptions found at the Roman fort complex at 1053:. It is possible that they were invited to settle by the Welsh. There is no evidence of warfare, a bilingual regional heritage suggests peaceful coexistence and intermingling, and the 1129:

There is ongoing debate as to the extent of a lasting Roman influence being applicable to the early Middle Ages in Wales, and while the conclusions about Welsh history are important,

735: 1401:

the thirteenth century. The animals were tended by swineherds and herdsmen, but they were not confined, even in the lowlands. Instead open land was used for feeding, and seasonal

724: 2003:, 2003): water level rise along NW coast of Europe, wetter conditions in Scandinavia and retreat of farming in Norway after 400, cooler climate in Scotland; Louwe Kooijmans' 1760:

was the promotion of the idea of a 'Celtic' church that was different from and at odds with the 'Roman' church, and that held to certain offensive customs, especially in the

2011:(PhD thesis, 1974): rising water levels along the NW coast of Europe, and in the Fens and Humber Estuary. Abundant material from other sources portrays the same information. 1597:. Slaves might form part of the payment in a transaction made between those of higher rank. It was possible for them to buy their freedom, and an example of manumission at 1165:'s map c. 150 during the Roman era. The fourth century arrival of Irish settlers intertwined the royal genealogies of Wales and Ireland, with Dyfed's rulers appearing in 720: 6044: 1649:

suggest they were small, but these are not considered credible sources on the matter). The different communities were pre-eminent within small spheres of influence (

6022: 5158: 4808: 855:

c. 383 until the middle of the 11th century. In that time there was a gradual consolidation of power into increasingly hierarchical kingdoms. The end of the early

3761:

are everywhere consistent with the historical record and nowhere inconsistent, and likely a product of the 6th century, a view shared by notable skeptics such as

1110:) in the mid-second century, with the rest of Wales being under military administration throughout the Roman era. There are a number of borrowings from the Latin 6049: 1553:

References to the social stratification that defines an aristocracy are widely found in Welsh literature and law. A man's privilege was assessed in terms of his

1573:. Early sources stressed birth and function as the determinators of nobility, and not by the factor of wealth that later became associated with an aristocracy. 5597: 1546:

Power was held at a local level by families who controlled the land and the people who lived on that land. They are differentiated legally by having a higher

4705: 1585:("servant", boy) referred to a dependent in perpetual servitude, but who was not bound to labour service (i.e., serfdom). Nor can the person be considered a 69: 2780:, Terms for Rulers. The text includes a large number of examples, with some examples of Latin language terms, including the eras of their applicability. 1593:

Slavery existed in Wales as it did elsewhere throughout the era. Slaves were in the bottom stratum of society, with hereditary slavery more common than

1661:

had originally intended to be a monk). From the seventh century onward there are few references to monks but more frequent references to 'disciples'.

4247: 917:

The semi-legendary founding of Gwynedd in the fifth century was followed by internecine warfare in Wales and with the kindred Brittonic kingdoms of

1845:, who share a similar heritage, culture and language with the Welsh and the Men of the North. Rhys adds that the Bretons sometimes give the simple 1282:

is not certainly used before the ninth century, but its earlier existence (perhaps under a different name) is reasonably inferred by the fact that

739: 4980: 754: 1979:

in "Quaternary International", Vol. 105 (2003): Scandinavia, 500AD wetter and rapidly cooling climate and the retreat of agriculture; Ejstrud's

420: 270: 266: 1324:; but the poem's geography probably reflects the time of its composition, around the ninth or tenth century rather that Cynddylan's own time. 1377:, especially so in the Roman era. In the Roman era some granite was quarried, as was slate in the north and sandstone in the east and south. 1857:

campaigned against Brythonic opponents in the north. Sometimes the kings of different kingdoms acted in concert, as is told in the literary

4262: 765: 750: 1730:(c. 615), shortly after the meeting with Saint Augustine. Bede describes the massacre immediately following his delivery of the prophecy. 943:. The seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding 4688: 716: 499: 6032: 1151:

emerged and then disappeared in others. There is no reason to suppose that every part of Wales was part of kingdom even as late as 700.

5590: 5190: 2510: 1628:) and deacons, as well as several minor ones. Bishops had some temporal authority, but not necessarily in the sense of a full diocese. 1218:

was Cereticiaun, who died in 807, and none of the mid-Welsh kingdoms can be evidenced before the eighth century. There are mentions of

835: 451: 5148: 5539: 1557:(status), of which there were two kinds (birth and office), and in terms of his superior's importance. Two men might each be an 6094: 5950: 4069: 695: 6160: 5583: 4593: 3915: 3896: 3878: 3815: 3565: 3521: 3446: 2000: 1988: 1478:("country") and it expressed the notion of a "sphere of rule" with a territorial component. The Latin equivalent seems to be 657: 405: 128: 5793: 5986: 5842: 5263: 4803: 4344: 769: 632: 879:. Successful unification into something recognisable as a Welsh state would come in the next era under the descendants of 6165: 5969: 5267: 4973: 3188:

had referred to non-noble freemen. Davies notes that the subject needs to be fully addressed in a pre-Conquest framework.

1060:

the circumstances, there is nothing known to connect these settlers either to Roman policy, or to the Irish raiders (the

565: 510: 5997: 1146:

Medieval kingdoms of Wales are shown within the boundaries of the present-day country of Wales and not inclusive of all.

6150: 6056: 5981: 5932: 5734: 5184: 5180: 5068: 4371: 3990: 1259: 1191: 622: 570: 394: 1346:

The total area of Wales is 20,779 km (8,023 sq mi). Much of the landscape is mountainous with treeless

6061: 5927: 5878: 5461: 5153: 5083: 5064: 4489: 4026: 3960: 3933: 3857: 3836: 1972: 1778:, which also explains that the Britons using the 'Celtic Rite' in the early Middle Ages were in communion with Rome. 5939: 5922: 5888: 5883: 5807: 5102: 5091: 5087: 5060: 4188: 4183: 775: 486: 181: 172: 5782: 5866: 5861: 5040: 5036: 4989: 4494: 1878:, and their histories are now mostly a footnote in the histories of those later kingdoms, though vestiges of the 730: 4710: 1230:) in that era, but for the latter it is difficult to say whether it had either an earlier or a later existence. 1198:

While the better documented southeast shows a long and slow acquisition of property and power by the dynasty of

5900: 5856: 5111: 5032: 4966: 4730: 4014: 1884: 1214:, there is a near-complete absence of information about many other areas. The earliest known name of a king of 828: 433: 362: 187: 17: 2007:(in Archaeology and Coastal Change, 1980): rising water levels along the NW coast of Europe; Louwe Kooijmans' 999:,(translating to 'Howel The Good' in English) came close to uniting Wales as a single nation. He was king of 6006: 5910: 5905: 5665: 5623: 5119: 5115: 4915: 4168: 4163: 4113: 1435:

The Welsh referred to themselves in terms of their territory and not in the sense of a tribe. Thus there was

681: 598: 162: 146: 142: 94: 4823: 1167: 5974: 5826: 5633: 5614: 5606: 5547: 5543: 5414: 4843: 4813: 4469: 4381: 1581:

The populace included a hereditary tenant peasantry who were not slaves or serfs, but were less than free.

1077: 745: 652: 646: 555: 410: 177: 63: 1104:, are the only "urbanised" Roman sites in Wales. This region was placed under Roman civil administration ( 1049:

participation uncertain), arriving under unknown circumstances but leaving a lasting legacy especially in

5873: 5684: 5079: 4873: 4735: 4573: 4419: 4279: 3762: 760: 661: 616: 549: 318: 88: 1490:

did the specific terms vary, the meaning of those specific terms varied over time as well. For example,

6155: 6108: 5917: 5851: 5696: 5457: 5195: 5138: 5028: 4479: 4062: 636: 400: 113: 5513: 5343: 5200: 5046: 4890: 4569: 4523: 4414: 4339: 4108: 3789:, and elsewhere. Page 164 shows Item 7 of Chapter 36, "7 Item, LE CRO, & Galnes & Enach ...". 1941: 821: 685: 675: 667: 612: 608: 353: 343: 338: 109: 84: 43: 5895: 5107: 5097: 5074: 5051: 5023: 4715: 4678: 4588: 4549: 4274: 4252: 4237: 4158: 4128: 1991:, 2008): p28, from the 6th century onwards farmlands in Denmark and Norway were abandoned; Issar's 1373:

There are deposits of gold, copper, lead, silver and zinc, and these have been exploited since the

1359: 876: 868: 711: 560: 493: 415: 372: 366: 357: 152: 134: 124: 5748: 4668: 2215:("witness") is an anecdotal exception. Medieval Welsh law used native terms and concepts such as 2081:

Coplestone-Crow, Bruce (1981), "The Dual Nature of Irish Colonization of Dyfed in the Dark Ages",

1975:, 1992): cooler, wetter climate and abandonment of British uplands and marginal lands; Berglund's 6037: 5821: 5817: 5479: 5445: 4868: 4700: 4695: 4673: 4499: 4361: 4349: 4329: 4269: 4257: 2100: 1787: 1719: 1707:

The notion of a separate Anglo-Saxon and British approach to Christianity dates back at least to

1083: 671: 348: 333: 215: 197: 192: 5392: 5812: 5532: 5528: 5440: 5307: 4474: 4429: 4242: 4123: 3803: 3509: 2485: 1749: 1727: 1384:

The early medieval human population has always been considered relatively low in comparison to

1073: 964: 948: 701: 119: 3659: 2321: 2302: 1494:

was one of the terms used for a king in the twelfth century. The earlier, original meaning of

929:) and structural and linguistic divergence from the southwestern peninsula British kingdom of 4878: 4793: 4725: 4683: 4645: 4613: 4434: 4210: 4055: 3776: 3694: 3639: 2340: 1800:

The early Middle Ages saw the creation and adoption of the modern Welsh name for themselves,

1774: 1246: 1215: 469: 227: 4043:

Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales pages on Early Middle Ages

2107:, Session 1895–1896, vol. I, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 55–86 6079: 5959: 5758: 5753: 5487: 5298: 4920: 4659: 4464: 2161: 1813: 1287: 1177: 1172: 691: 627: 276: 103: 4178: 1772:. Scholars have noted the partisan motives and inaccuracy of the characterisation, as has 167: 8: 5777: 5743: 5712: 5702: 5650: 5645: 5638: 5383: 5378: 5367: 5347: 5317: 4903: 4755: 4720: 4376: 4173: 3754: 3238:

Looking backwards to the early medieval past: Wales and England, a contrast in approaches

3178:

Looking backwards to the early medieval past: Wales and England, a contrast in approaches

3062: 2618:

Looking backwards to the early medieval past: Wales and England, a contrast in approaches

1875: 1863:. Much of the early Welsh poetry and literature was written in the Old North by northern 1822: 1739: 1423:(kindred). The nuclear family (parents and children) was especially important, while the 313: 5214: 3437:(2006), "The Venerable Bede and the 'Church of the English'", in Baxter, Stephen (ed.), 6134: 6084: 5763: 5691: 5660: 5628: 5509: 5408: 5373: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5329: 5325: 5288: 5259: 5206: 5056: 4898: 4765: 4630: 4622: 4554: 4509: 4324: 4198: 4138: 1871: 1792: 1761: 1333: 1264: 1234: 1055: 580: 575: 541: 480: 262: 5321: 2367:, vol. II (Second ed.), Oxford: W. Baxter (published 1854), pp. 246–279 1870:

All of the northern kingdoms and people were eventually absorbed into the kingdoms of

1358:

deposits. There is approximately 1,200 km (746 mi) of coastline and some 50

1298:, where he is described as leading successful raids throughout Wales. Seventh-century 1118:, and while there are Latin-derived words with legal meaning in popular usage such as 5831: 5770: 5707: 5655: 5559: 5524: 5520: 5498: 5475: 5471: 5404: 5400: 5339: 5303: 5293: 5283: 5278: 5255: 4833: 4828: 4785: 4484: 4391: 4366: 4311: 4293: 4118: 4022: 3969: 3956: 3929: 3911: 3892: 3874: 3853: 3832: 3811: 3730: 3561: 3517: 3442: 1996: 1984: 1968: 1936: 1890: 1607: 1388:, but efforts to reliably quantify it have yet to provide widely acceptable results. 1199: 425: 99: 6027: 5672: 5494: 5483: 5453: 5432: 5313: 5218: 5169: 5163: 5143: 5018: 4853: 4848: 4603: 4536: 4504: 4452: 4334: 4319: 4302: 4232: 4227: 4143: 4100: 4090: 3489: 3465: 2880:(1989), p. 38, where she notes that the power to rule was transmitted dynastically. 2385: 1805: 1440: 1374: 1367: 1338: 1279: 1207: 1154: 1038: 918: 706: 603: 545: 522: 281: 252: 237: 202: 52: 3738: 5555: 5467: 5335: 4958: 4798: 4747: 4354: 4004: 3984: 3973: 3493: 3469: 3434: 2389: 2362: 1712: 1658: 1250: 441: 328: 285: 3743:, vol. XXVIII, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 209–222 1673:

These long cyst burials occur in the southern Scottish lowlands, Wales, and the

5575: 5551: 5505: 5173: 4838: 4635: 4598: 4583: 4578: 4220: 4215: 4153: 1838: 1317: 1283: 1242: 1115: 1086:

along the coast of southeastern Wales. In that region are found the remains of

985: 911: 872: 860: 796: 642: 505: 390: 156: 3978:, vol. I (2nd ed.), London: Longmans, Green, and Co (published 1912) 3757:

and his death there in battle. Morris-Jones notes that the particulars of the

1565:(a regional leader), so legal compensation for the loss to a king's bondsman ( 6144: 6089: 6017: 6012: 5802: 5210: 4908: 4640: 4564: 3951:

Laing, Lloyd; Laing, Jennifer (1990), "The non-Romanized zone of Britannia",

3607: 3581: 2531: 2309:, vol. XIV, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 101–135 1753: 1723: 1594: 1510: 955:. That era of struggle saw the Welsh adopt their modern name for themselves, 907: 474: 323: 1993:

Climate changes during the holocene and their impact on Hydrological systems

1419:

relationship were important for different circumstances, all based upon the

959:, meaning "fellow countrymen", and it also saw the demise of all but one of 6129: 6122: 5964: 5677: 5273: 4948: 4925: 4655: 4396: 3866: 3845: 3824: 1928: 1674: 1642: 1402: 1291: 1223: 1130: 1019: 944: 903: 880: 808: 518: 514: 1882:

past are occasionally visible. In Scotland the fragmentary remains of the

4863: 3180:(2004). Thomas Charles-Evans implied that the ancestors of the bondsmen ( 2149: 1743: 1620:

different contexts. There were three major orders consisting of bishops (

1452: 1304: 1219: 1182: 1033:

In the late fourth century there was an influx of settlers from southern

963:

of northern England and southern Scotland at the hands of then-ascendant

856: 429: 289: 222: 2322:"The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859" 1405:

was practised. In addition, bees were kept for the production of honey.

1233:

The early history in the north and east are somewhat better known, with

5388: 4559: 4148: 3498:, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1863), p. 179 3474:, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1863), p. 177 2542: 2536: 2298: 2157: 2096: 1859: 1826: 1464: 1313: 1309: 1268: 1097: 1004: 1000: 960: 926: 887: 232: 1977:

Human impact and climate changes—synchronous events and a causal link?

5725: 4760: 4544: 4424: 4406: 4000: 2153: 1960: 1905: 1895: 1598: 1535: 1456: 1321: 1203: 1123: 996: 864: 863:

transitioned from the Primitive Welsh spoken throughout the era into

437: 295: 247: 3975:

A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest

2568:

Wales in the Early Middle Ages", "Land, Landscape and Environment".

2347:, vol. VIII, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 83–92 2328:, vol. IX, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 141–183 1290:

as the family of the known later kings of Powys, and Selyf's father

3750: 1363: 1347: 1299: 1295: 1272: 1101: 1093: 935: 930: 922: 257: 30: 3944:

The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD

3184:) had been non-noble freemen. Others have suggested that the term 1046: 5250: 4047: 4009:(3rd ed.), London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge 1900: 1888:

show Brythonic influence, and some of these were copied into the

1842: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1385: 1238: 1162: 1158: 1142: 1111: 1106: 1034: 1026: 1122:("people"), the technical words and concepts used in describing 4386: 3946:, Frome: Book Club Associates (published 1977), pp. 89–119 2473:

Early Welsh Saga Poetry: A Study and Edition of the ‘Englynion’

1654: 1586: 1254: 1227: 1211: 1186: 1042: 1008: 952: 940: 242: 1611:. Their relative numbers is a matter of guess and conjecture. 1126:

in the Middle Ages are native Welsh, and not of Roman origin.

890:

throughout the era, characterised by small settlements called

5396: 4078: 2489: 2370: 1796:

The peoples of Britain according to medieval Welsh tradition.

1351: 1263:, c. 540. There may also have been sixth-century kingdoms in 1249:

records the earliest known mention of the kingdom). Its king

1088: 1061: 1050: 852: 2123: 2070:, vol. 12, Cardiff: University of Wales, pp. 33–61 914:

living in and near Wales were Christian throughout the era.

3871:

Welsh History in the Early Middle Ages: Texts and Societies

3485: 3461: 2085:, vol. 16, Cardiff: University of Wales, pp. 1–24 1959:

The same change in climate was occurring around the entire

1708: 1638: 1569:) was higher than the equivalent loss to the bondsman of a 1355: 871:

would take its near-final form, a line broadly followed by

3061:. Davies says that this is most obviously associated with 3395: 3383: 3371: 4021:, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 3699: 1981:

The Migration Period, Southern Denmark and the North Sea

1302:

is associated with the later Powys through the poems of

4019:

An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600

3983:

Phillimore, Egerton (1891), Phillimore, Egerton (ed.),

1722:'s meeting with seven British bishops and the monks of 3516:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 241, 3512:(2000), "The organisation of the early Irish Church", 2105:

Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion

2023: 6106: 3359: 2511:"Review and evaluation of heritage coasts in England" 3910:, Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007), 3852:, Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 1990), 2152:

near the coast of northwestern Wales than at either

2111: 1918: 3711: 3556:Koch, John T., ed. (2005), "Christianity, Celtic", 2035: 4988: 3942:Laing, Lloyd (1975), "Wales and the Isle of Man", 2986: 2984: 2982: 2066:Miller, Mollie (1977), "Date-Guessing and Dyfed", 2047: 3955:, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 96–123, 3097:. The transactions included hereditary tenancies. 2404: 2402: 2005:Archaeology and Coastal Change in the Netherlands 1237:having a semi-legendary origin in the arrival of 851:covers the time between the Roman departure from 6142: 5605: 3614:, vol. 9, New York: Robert Appleton Company 3588:, vol. 3, New York: Robert Appleton Company 1699: 3802: 3560:, ABL-CLIO (published 2006), pp. 431–435, 3508: 2979: 2423: 2080: 1752:and subsequent ethnic and religious discord in 3905: 2629: 2594: 2578: 2399: 2189: 2173: 2141: 1781: 1430: 5591: 4974: 4063: 3441:, Malden: Blackwell Publishing, p. 211, 1811:, meaning "fellow-countrymen". It appears in 1687:(protection, as from legal process) and were 829: 3729: 1733: 1320:in lamenting the demise of Pengwern's king 5598: 5584: 4981: 4967: 4070: 4056: 3982: 3950: 3686: 3631: 3573: 2520:. naturalengland.org.uk. 10 February 2012. 2338: 2319: 2129: 2101:"Early Relations Between Gael and Brython" 1474:The Welsh term for a political entity was 836: 822: 3831:, Leicester: Leicester University Press, 3605: 3558:Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia 3495:The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede 3471:The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede 2524: 2380: 2378: 2356: 2354: 1894:, the oldest surviving written digest of 3781:Traités sur les Coutumes Anglo-Normandes 1791: 1561:(high man), but a king is higher than a 1337: 1286:(d. 616) and his grandfather are in the 1141: 1096:and three small urban sites, along with 1025: 1018: 29: 3928:(Revised ed.), London: Routledge, 3906:Jones, Barri; Mattingly, David (1990), 3806:(2003), Charles-Edwards, Thomas (ed.), 3433: 1443:" with a group-identifying suffix) and 1342:Ancient land cover of southern Britain. 14: 6143: 4013: 3953:Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 200–800 3886: 3865: 3844: 3823: 3783:, vol. II, Rouen, pp. 38–269 3774: 3695:Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany 3640:Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany 3579: 3535: 3413: 3401: 3389: 3377: 3365: 3349: 3333: 3317: 3301: 3285: 3265: 3249: 3229: 3213: 3197: 3169: 3153: 3138: 3122: 3106: 3090: 3074: 3054: 3038: 3022: 3006: 2990: 2969: 2953: 2937: 2921: 2905: 2889: 2869: 2853: 2837: 2821: 2805: 2789: 2773: 2757: 2741: 2725: 2709: 2693: 2677: 2661: 2645: 2609: 2563: 2475:(Cambridge: Brewer, 1990), pp. 120-41. 2455: 2439: 2408: 2375: 2351: 2282: 2267: 2252: 2117: 2065: 2041: 2029: 939:prior to its eventual absorption into 5579: 4962: 4051: 3968: 3941: 3923: 3810:, New York: Oxford University Press, 3705: 3671: 2876:, Kings, Law and Order. See also her 2532:"Met Office: Regional Climate: Wales" 2384: 2360: 2341:"Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20" 2297: 2204: 2095: 2053: 1007:of Gwynedd was defeated in battle by 3999: 3753:tells of a campaign in the north by 3717: 3651: 3555: 2684:, "Land, Landscape and Environment". 2652:, "Land, Landscape and Environment". 2394:, London: James Bohn, pp. 27–28 1963:perphery at this time. See Higham's 1137: 6045:Post-war period (political history) 3484: 3460: 2180:, The Development of the Provinces. 1898:, where can be found the 'galnes' ( 1538:strengthened those personal bonds. 1529:personal military retinue called a 1202:in connection with the kingdoms of 1067: 1014: 511:Council for Wales and Monmouthshire 24: 4077: 3991:Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion 1965:Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons 1837:. The term was not applied to the 1260:De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae 1253:was one of the kings condemned by 1247:inscribed sixth century gravestone 1192:De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae 1185:was one of the kings condemned by 27:Aspect of Welsh history (383–1066) 25: 6177: 4036: 2490:European Land Information Service 2339:Phillimore, Egerton, ed. (1887), 1413: 1366:. The present climate is wet and 6128: 6116: 6050:Post-war period (social history) 5724: 4942: 4184:Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 3850:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 3202:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 3158:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 3059:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2974:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2958:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2942:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2910:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2842:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2826:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2810:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2794:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2778:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2762:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2746:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 2324:, in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), 2257:Patterns of Power in Early Wales 1921: 802: 790: 487:Council of Wales and the Marches 68: 62: 3873:, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 3768: 3737:", in Evans, E. Vincent (ed.), 3723: 3680: 3665: 3645: 3625: 3599: 3549: 3529: 3502: 3478: 3454: 3427: 3407: 3343: 3327: 3311: 3295: 3279: 3259: 3243: 3223: 3207: 3191: 3163: 3147: 3132: 3116: 3100: 3084: 3068: 3048: 3032: 3016: 3000: 2963: 2947: 2931: 2915: 2899: 2883: 2863: 2847: 2831: 2815: 2799: 2783: 2767: 2751: 2735: 2719: 2703: 2687: 2671: 2655: 2639: 2623: 2603: 2588: 2572: 2557: 2503: 2478: 2465: 2449: 2433: 2417: 2391:The Works of Gildas and Nennius 2361:Giles, John Allen, ed. (1847), 2332: 2313: 2291: 2276: 2261: 2246: 2198: 2183: 2167: 1953: 1664: 1614: 1498:was simply a person of status. 1294:appears in poems attributed to 1275:, all associated with Gwynedd. 1064:) of classical Roman accounts. 867:, and the time when the modern 4990:European Middle Ages by region 3829:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3354:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3338:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3322:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3306:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3290:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3254:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3218:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3143:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3127:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3111:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3095:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3079:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3043:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3027:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 3011:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2995:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2926:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2894:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2874:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2858:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2730:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2714:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2698:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2682:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2666:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2650:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2460:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2444:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2413:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2364:History of the Ancient Britons 2287:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2272:Wales in the Early Middle Ages 2135: 2103:, in Evans, E. Vincent (ed.), 2089: 2074: 2059: 1631: 1541: 1391: 1354:, and having large areas with 1003:but in 942 he intervened when 849:Wales in the early Middle Ages 13: 1: 4820:Non-Christian belief systems 3887:Johnes, Martin (2019-08-25). 3795: 3544:The Myth of the Celtic Church 3422:The Myth of the Celtic Church 3274:The Myth of the Celtic Church 3065:in the early seventh century. 1885:Laws of the Bretts and Scotts 1645:suggest they were large, the 6161:Early Middle Ages by country 5607:History of the British Isles 5415:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 3735:Marwnad Rhun (Elegy of Rhun) 2320:Phillimore, Egerton (1888), 2303:"The Expulsion of the Dessi" 2211:, "Wales Under Roman Rule". 2017: 1601:is given in a ninth-century 1327: 1078:End of Roman rule in Britain 746:History of Cardiff City F.C. 7: 3775:Hoüard, David, ed. (1776), 1914: 1782:Cymry: Welsh identity forms 1718:Bede's characterisation of 1576: 1504: 1431:Land and political entities 906:had been introduced in the 10: 6182: 6166:Christianization of Europe 4916:Prince of Wales's feathers 3926:The Earliest English Kings 3676:The Earliest English Kings 3606:Fortescue, Adrian (1910), 2630:Jones & Mattingly 1990 2595:Jones & Mattingly 1990 2579:Jones & Mattingly 1990 2190:Jones & Mattingly 1990 2174:Jones & Mattingly 1990 2142:Jones & Mattingly 1990 1785: 1737: 1508: 1408: 1362:, the largest of which is 1331: 1168:The Expulsion of the Déisi 1071: 970: 500:United Kingdom (1801–1922) 173:Settlement in the Americas 34:Post-Roman Welsh kingdoms. 6151:Medieval history of Wales 6071: 5996: 5949: 5841: 5792: 5733: 5722: 5613: 5514:Principality of Chernigov 5423: 5344:Principality of Catalonia 5241: 5232: 5129: 5009: 4996: 4938: 4889: 4784: 4746: 4654: 4621: 4612: 4535: 4531: 4522: 4460: 4451: 4405: 4310: 4301: 4292: 4206: 4197: 4099: 4086: 3908:An Atlas of Roman Britain 3612:The Catholic Encyclopedia 3586:The Catholic Encyclopedia 3488:(731), "B. II C. II", in 3464:(731), "B. II C. II", in 2636:, "The Physical Context". 2194:An Atlas of Roman Britain 2178:An Atlas of Roman Britain 2146:An Atlas of Roman Britain 1942:Medieval Welsh literature 1849:the sense of compatriot. 1775:The Catholic Encyclopedia 1734:'Celtic' vs. 'Roman' myth 1245:in the fifth century (an 898:) and individual status ( 354:Titles of the Welsh Court 5493:Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 4490:Housing and construction 3989:, vol. XI, London: 3889:Wales: England's Colony? 1947: 1804:, a word descended from 1523: 1308:, which name sites from 1157:is the same land of the 875:, a late eighth-century 494:Kingdom of Great Britain 5879:Early medieval Scotland 5424:Central, Eastern Europe 5130:Central, Eastern Europe 4874:1904–1905 Welsh revival 4869:Welsh Methodist revival 3808:After Rome: c.400-c.800 3804:Charles-Edwards, Thomas 3755:Rhun ap Maelgwn Gwynedd 3514:Early Christian Ireland 2896:, Kings, Law and Order. 2428:After Rome: c.400-c.800 1788:Welsh national identity 1748:One consequence of the 776:Early modern Witchcraft 662:1904–1905 Welsh revival 334:List of rulers in Wales 5923:Early medieval Ireland 5889:Late medieval Scotland 5884:High medieval Scotland 5857:Early medieval England 5308:Burgundian Netherlands 5149:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4015:Snyder, Christopher A. 3580:Jenner, Henry (1908), 3510:Charles-Edwards, T. M. 2634:Atlas of Roman Britain 2599:Atlas of Roman Britain 2583:Atlas of Roman Britain 2130:Laing & Laing 1990 1904:) that is familiar to 1819:In Praise of Cadwallon 1797: 1750:Protestant Reformation 1702:Ecclesiastical History 1680: 1343: 1147: 1074:Wales in the Roman era 1030: 1023: 989: 933:known to the Welsh as 859:was the time that the 438:contemporary Welsh law 35: 5970:Early modern Scotland 5933:Late medieval Ireland 5928:High medieval Ireland 5867:Late medieval England 5862:High medieval England 5818:Protohistoric Ireland 5185:Late Medieval Kingdom 5181:High Medieval Kingdom 4879:Welsh Church Act 1914 4646:British Sign Language 3924:Kirby, D. P. (2000), 2396:— English translation 2009:The Rhine/Meuse Delta 1821:), a poem written by 1795: 1671: 1590:pre-Conquest period. 1447:("men of Gwent") and 1341: 1145: 1029: 1022: 470:Principality of Wales 452:History of the courts 188:Industrial revolution 33: 6080:House of Plantagenet 5982:Early modern Ireland 5965:Early modern England 5960:Early modern Britain 5901:Early medieval Wales 5759:Prehistoric Shetland 5754:Prehistoric Scotland 5393:Caliphate of Córdoba 5299:Republic of Florence 4435:British Armed Forces 4275:Wales–England border 3733:(1918), "Taliesin's 2424:Charles-Edwards 2003 1288:Harleian genealogies 1178:Jesus College MS. 20 1092:in the countryside. 961:the kindred kingdoms 869:England–Wales border 623:Historical documents 6057:Late modern Ireland 5951:Early modern period 5911:Late medieval Wales 5906:High medieval Wales 5778:Prehistoric Ireland 5749:Prehistoric England 5744:Prehistoric Britain 5384:Lordship of Ireland 5379:Kingdom of Scotland 5368:Kingdom of Portugal 5348:Kingdom of Valencia 5318:Kingdom of Asturias 4594:Scheduled monuments 4570:Literature in Welsh 4470:Banking and finance 4248:Mountains and hills 4174:Statute of Rhuddlan 3785:. See, for example 3777:"Regiam Majestatem" 3745:. For example, the 3708:, pp. 191–192. 3404:, pp. 167–168. 3392:, pp. 166–167. 3380:, pp. 164–165. 3320::149–150, 162–164, 3063:Cadwallon ap Cadfan 2486:"England and Wales" 2132:, pp. 112–113. 1823:Cadwallon ap Cadfan 1740:Celtic Christianity 1711:. He portrayed the 1647:Lives of the Saints 406:Constitutional laws 314:King of the Britons 178:Early modern period 6085:House of Lancaster 6038:World Wars (Wales) 5998:Late modern period 5975:Early modern Wales 5764:Prehistoric Orkney 5735:Prehistoric period 5544:Grand Principality 5462:Kingdom of Croatia 5409:Emirate of Granada 5374:Kingdom of England 5358:Kingdom of Navarre 5352:Kingdom of Majorca 5330:Kingdom of Galicia 5326:Kingdom of Castile 5289:Republic of Venice 5260:Kingdom of Bohemia 4761:Healthcare service 4382:Secretary of State 4164:Edwardian conquest 4154:Medieval Welsh law 4139:Kingdom of Gwynedd 3970:Lloyd, John Edward 3891:. Parthian Books. 3731:Morris-Jones, John 2518:Countryside Agency 1798: 1344: 1334:Geography of Wales 1148: 1056:Historia Brittonum 1031: 1024: 753: • 738: • 723: • 707:Geological history 674: • 615: • 611: • 548: • 521: • 517: • 513: • 481:Kingdom of England 444: • 440: • 436: • 432: • 391:Medieval Welsh law 288: • 269: • 163:Edwardian conquest 145: • 141: • 135:In the Middle Ages 36: 6156:Sub-Roman Britain 6104: 6103: 5987:Early modern Mann 5874:Medieval Scotland 5832:Sub-Roman Britain 5827:End of Roman rule 5771:Prehistoric Wales 5573: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5525:Novgorod Republic 5499:Kingdom of Bosnia 5437:Bulgarian Empire 5340:Kingdom of Aragon 5304:Duchy of Burgundy 5294:Republic of Genoa 5284:Kingdom of Naples 5279:Kingdom of Sicily 5268:Swiss Confederacy 5256:Holy Roman Empire 5228: 5227: 4956: 4955: 4934: 4933: 4780: 4779: 4776: 4775: 4518: 4517: 4447: 4446: 4443: 4442: 4372:Political parties 4288: 4287: 4179:Glyndŵr rebellion 4134:Early Middle Ages 3917:978-1-84217-067-0 3898:978-1-912681-56-3 3880:978-0-7546-5971-6 3817:978-0-19-924982-4 3582:"The Celtic Rite" 3567:978-1-85109-440-0 3523:978-0-521-03716-7 3448:978-0-631-16655-9 3439:The Times of Bede 2878:Patterns of Power 2386:Giles, John Allen 2032:, pp. 15–20. 2001:978-0-511-06118-9 1989:978-87-992214-1-7 1937:Matter of Britain 1891:Regiam Majestatem 1814:Moliant Cadwallon 1608:Lichfield Gospels 1292:Cynan ap Brochwel 1200:Meurig ap Tewdrig 1173:Harleian MS. 5389 1138:Earliest kingdoms 846: 845: 658:Christian history 637:historic counties 426:England and Wales 339:Rulers of Gwynedd 216:Medieval kingdoms 168:Glyndŵr rebellion 16:(Redirected from 6173: 6133: 6132: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6112: 6062:Late modern Mann 6033:Second World War 6018:Edwardian period 6013:Victorian period 5918:Medieval Ireland 5852:Medieval England 5794:Classical period 5783:Prehistoric Mann 5728: 5685:Northern Ireland 5600: 5593: 5586: 5577: 5576: 5495:Banate of Bosnia 5433:Byzantine Empire 5314:Crown of Castile 5264:Kingdom of Italy 5239: 5238: 5007: 5006: 4983: 4976: 4969: 4960: 4959: 4949:Wales portal 4947: 4946: 4945: 4619: 4618: 4533: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4458: 4457: 4425:Modern Welsh law 4340:Local government 4308: 4307: 4299: 4298: 4204: 4203: 4169:Late Middle Ages 4144:Kingdom of Powys 4129:Anglo-Welsh Wars 4072: 4065: 4058: 4049: 4048: 4031: 4010: 3994: 3993:(published 1892) 3979: 3965: 3947: 3938: 3920: 3902: 3883: 3862: 3841: 3820: 3790: 3784: 3772: 3766: 3744: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3684: 3678: 3669: 3663: 3649: 3643: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3595: 3593: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3553: 3547: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3435:Wormald, Patrick 3431: 3425: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3347: 3341: 3331: 3325: 3315: 3309: 3299: 3293: 3283: 3277: 3263: 3257: 3247: 3241: 3227: 3221: 3211: 3205: 3195: 3189: 3167: 3161: 3151: 3145: 3136: 3130: 3120: 3114: 3104: 3098: 3088: 3082: 3072: 3066: 3052: 3046: 3036: 3030: 3020: 3014: 3004: 2998: 2988: 2977: 2967: 2961: 2951: 2945: 2935: 2929: 2919: 2913: 2903: 2897: 2887: 2881: 2867: 2861: 2851: 2845: 2835: 2829: 2819: 2813: 2803: 2797: 2787: 2781: 2771: 2765: 2755: 2749: 2739: 2733: 2723: 2717: 2707: 2701: 2691: 2685: 2675: 2669: 2659: 2653: 2643: 2637: 2627: 2621: 2607: 2601: 2592: 2586: 2585:, "The Economy". 2576: 2570: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2515: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2482: 2476: 2469: 2463: 2453: 2447: 2437: 2431: 2421: 2415: 2406: 2397: 2395: 2382: 2373: 2368: 2358: 2349: 2348: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2295: 2289: 2280: 2274: 2265: 2259: 2250: 2244: 2209:History of Wales 2202: 2196: 2187: 2181: 2176::151, 154, 156, 2171: 2165: 2162:Roman Chichester 2139: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2108: 2093: 2087: 2086: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2012: 1957: 1931: 1926: 1925: 1924: 1806:Common Brittonic 1762:dating of Easter 1360:offshore islands 1068:Roman-era legacy 1015:Irish settlement 919:northern England 838: 831: 824: 807: 806: 805: 795: 794: 793: 761:British military 740:with other teams 686:history-specific 676:woollen industry 668:Economic history 633:Local government 604:Welsh literature 434:former march law 363:British monarchs 358:English monarchs 125:Anglo-Welsh wars 120:In the Roman era 72: 66: 56: 38: 37: 21: 6181: 6180: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6107: 6105: 6100: 6099: 6067: 6066: 6028:Interwar period 6023:First World War 5992: 5991: 5945: 5944: 5843:Medieval period 5837: 5836: 5788: 5787: 5729: 5720: 5719: 5703:Channel Islands 5639:Isles of Scilly 5609: 5604: 5574: 5565: 5510:Kingdom of Rus' 5468:Crusader states 5425: 5419: 5336:Crown of Aragon 5322:Kingdom of León 5251:Frankish Empire 5244:Northern Europe 5243: 5234: 5224: 5131: 5125: 5012:Northern Europe 5011: 5003:political units 5002: 5000: 4998: 4992: 4987: 4957: 4952: 4943: 4941: 4930: 4885: 4814:Presbyterianism 4772: 4742: 4674:Welsh Americans 4650: 4608: 4514: 4500:Slate quarrying 4439: 4415:Counsel General 4401: 4284: 4253:Protected areas 4193: 4159:Norman invasion 4095: 4082: 4076: 4039: 4034: 4029: 3963: 3936: 3918: 3899: 3881: 3860: 3839: 3818: 3798: 3793: 3773: 3769: 3763:Thomas Stephens 3728: 3724: 3720:, pp. 281. 3716: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3687:Phillimore 1891 3685: 3681: 3670: 3666: 3650: 3646: 3632:Phillimore 1891 3630: 3626: 3617: 3615: 3604: 3600: 3591: 3589: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3554: 3550: 3534: 3530: 3524: 3507: 3503: 3483: 3479: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3432: 3428: 3412: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3388: 3384: 3376: 3372: 3368:, pp. 188. 3364: 3360: 3348: 3344: 3332: 3328: 3316: 3312: 3300: 3296: 3284: 3280: 3264: 3260: 3248: 3244: 3228: 3224: 3212: 3208: 3196: 3192: 3168: 3164: 3152: 3148: 3137: 3133: 3121: 3117: 3105: 3101: 3089: 3085: 3073: 3069: 3053: 3049: 3037: 3033: 3021: 3017: 3005: 3001: 2989: 2980: 2968: 2964: 2952: 2948: 2936: 2932: 2920: 2916: 2904: 2900: 2888: 2884: 2868: 2864: 2852: 2848: 2836: 2832: 2820: 2816: 2804: 2800: 2788: 2784: 2772: 2768: 2756: 2752: 2740: 2736: 2724: 2720: 2708: 2704: 2692: 2688: 2676: 2672: 2660: 2656: 2644: 2640: 2628: 2624: 2608: 2604: 2593: 2589: 2577: 2573: 2562: 2558: 2548: 2546: 2530: 2529: 2525: 2513: 2509: 2508: 2504: 2494: 2492: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2471:Jenny Rowland, 2470: 2466: 2454: 2450: 2438: 2434: 2422: 2418: 2407: 2400: 2383: 2376: 2359: 2352: 2337: 2333: 2318: 2314: 2296: 2292: 2281: 2277: 2266: 2262: 2251: 2247: 2203: 2199: 2188: 2184: 2172: 2168: 2140: 2136: 2128: 2124: 2120:, pp. 128. 2116: 2112: 2094: 2090: 2079: 2075: 2064: 2060: 2052: 2048: 2040: 2036: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2015: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1911: 1790: 1784: 1746: 1736: 1720:Saint Augustine 1713:Synod of Whitby 1705: 1667: 1659:Maelgwn Gwynedd 1634: 1617: 1579: 1544: 1526: 1513: 1507: 1433: 1416: 1411: 1394: 1336: 1330: 1251:Maelgwn Gwynedd 1140: 1080: 1070: 1017: 973: 842: 813: 803: 801: 791: 789: 781: 780: 748: 736:team since 2004 733: 712:Genetic history 606: 594: 586: 585: 537: 529: 528: 508: 502: 496: 490: 477: 465: 457: 456: 446:Wales-only acts 442:Wales-only laws 386: 378: 377: 356: 344:Rulers of Powys 329:Prince of Wales 309: 301: 300: 218: 208: 207: 153:Norman invasion 80: 67: 54: 47: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6179: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6138: 6137: 6125: 6102: 6101: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6076: 6075: 6073: 6069: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6041: 6040: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6007:United Kingdom 6003: 6002: 6000: 5994: 5993: 5990: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5978: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5947: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5915: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5896:Medieval Wales 5893: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5839: 5838: 5835: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5815: 5810: 5808:Roman Scotland 5805: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5790: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5768: 5767: 5766: 5761: 5751: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5710: 5700: 5694: 5689: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5681: 5680: 5670: 5669: 5668: 5666:Outer Hebrides 5663: 5661:Inner Hebrides 5658: 5653: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5636: 5624:United Kingdom 5620: 5619: 5617: 5611: 5610: 5603: 5602: 5595: 5588: 5580: 5571: 5570: 5567: 5566: 5564: 5563: 5536: 5521:Rus' Khaganate 5517: 5502: 5491: 5465: 5450: 5449: 5448: 5443: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5360: 5355: 5333: 5311: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5253: 5247: 5245: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5222: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5177: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5135: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5123: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5077: 5072: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5026: 5021: 5015: 5013: 5004: 4994: 4993: 4986: 4985: 4978: 4971: 4963: 4954: 4953: 4939: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4912: 4911: 4901: 4895: 4893: 4887: 4886: 4884: 4883: 4882: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4790: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4778: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4770: 4769: 4768: 4758: 4752: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4738: 4733: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4665: 4663: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4627: 4625: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4541: 4539: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4495:Power stations 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4445: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4411: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4337: 4332: 4330:First Minister 4327: 4322: 4316: 4314: 4305: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4286: 4285: 4283: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4266: 4265: 4260: 4258:National parks 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4105: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4093: 4091:List of topics 4087: 4084: 4083: 4081: articles 4075: 4074: 4067: 4060: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4038: 4037:External links 4035: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4011: 4006:Celtic Britain 3996: 3995: 3980: 3966: 3961: 3948: 3939: 3934: 3921: 3916: 3903: 3897: 3884: 3879: 3863: 3858: 3842: 3837: 3821: 3816: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3791: 3767: 3749:attributed to 3722: 3710: 3698: 3679: 3664: 3656:Celtic Britain 3644: 3624: 3598: 3572: 3566: 3548: 3528: 3522: 3501: 3477: 3453: 3447: 3426: 3406: 3394: 3382: 3370: 3358: 3342: 3326: 3310: 3294: 3278: 3258: 3242: 3222: 3206: 3190: 3162: 3146: 3131: 3115: 3099: 3083: 3067: 3047: 3031: 3015: 2999: 2978: 2962: 2946: 2930: 2914: 2898: 2882: 2862: 2846: 2830: 2814: 2798: 2782: 2766: 2750: 2734: 2718: 2702: 2686: 2670: 2654: 2638: 2622: 2602: 2587: 2571: 2556: 2523: 2502: 2477: 2464: 2448: 2432: 2416: 2398: 2388:, ed. (1841), 2374: 2350: 2331: 2312: 2301:, ed. (1901), 2290: 2275: 2260: 2245: 2197: 2182: 2166: 2134: 2122: 2110: 2088: 2083:Studia Celtica 2073: 2068:Studia Celtica 2058: 2056:, pp. 93. 2046: 2044:, pp. 22. 2034: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2013: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1933: 1932: 1916: 1913: 1839:Cornish people 1783: 1780: 1735: 1732: 1724:Bangor Is Coed 1704: 1698: 1666: 1663: 1633: 1630: 1616: 1613: 1599:Llandeilo Fawr 1578: 1575: 1543: 1540: 1525: 1522: 1509:Main article: 1506: 1503: 1432: 1429: 1415: 1414:Kindred family 1412: 1410: 1407: 1393: 1390: 1329: 1326: 1284:Selyf ap Cynan 1243:Manau Gododdin 1139: 1136: 1102:Roman Monmouth 1069: 1066: 1016: 1013: 972: 969: 912:Celtic Britons 861:Welsh language 844: 843: 841: 840: 833: 826: 818: 815: 814: 812: 811: 799: 786: 783: 782: 779: 778: 773: 763: 758: 743: 728: 714: 709: 704: 699: 692:Health service 689: 679: 665: 655: 653:Jewish history 650: 640: 630: 625: 620: 601: 599:Welsh language 595: 592: 591: 588: 587: 584: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 538: 535: 534: 531: 530: 527: 526: 506:United Kingdom 503: 497: 491: 483: 478: 472: 466: 463: 462: 459: 458: 455: 454: 449: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 387: 384: 383: 380: 379: 376: 375: 370: 360: 351: 349:Fifteen Tribes 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 310: 307: 306: 303: 302: 299: 298: 293: 279: 274: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 219: 214: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 200: 195: 193:Modern history 190: 185: 175: 170: 165: 160: 150: 132: 122: 117: 110:Roman conquest 107: 97: 92: 81: 78: 77: 74: 73: 59: 58: 49: 48: 41: 26: 18:Welsh kingdoms 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6178: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6124: 6114: 6113: 6110: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6090:House of York 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6074: 6070: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6039: 6036: 6035: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6010: 6009:(since 1707) 6008: 6005: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5995: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5962: 5961: 5958: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5940:Medieval Mann 5938: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5919: 5916: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5822:Roman Ireland 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5803:Roman Britain 5801: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5772: 5769: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5732: 5727: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5705: 5704: 5701: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5686: 5683: 5679: 5676: 5675: 5674: 5671: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5634:Isle of Wight 5632: 5631: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5601: 5596: 5594: 5589: 5587: 5582: 5581: 5578: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426:and Near East 5422: 5416: 5413: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5334: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5248: 5246: 5240: 5237: 5231: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5136: 5134: 5132:and Near East 5128: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5008: 5005: 4995: 4991: 4984: 4979: 4977: 4972: 4970: 4965: 4964: 4961: 4951: 4950: 4937: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4910: 4909:national flag 4907: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4888: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4783: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4745: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4641:Welsh English 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4611: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565:Gorsedd Cymru 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4430:Police forces 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4377:Republicanism 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4342: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4255: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4196: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4088: 4085: 4080: 4073: 4068: 4066: 4061: 4059: 4054: 4053: 4050: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4030: 4028:0-271-01780-5 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3981: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3962:0-312-04767-3 3958: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3937: 3935:0-415-24211-8 3931: 3927: 3922: 3919: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3882: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3867:Davies, Wendy 3864: 3861: 3859:0-19-820153-2 3855: 3851: 3847: 3846:Davies, Wendy 3843: 3840: 3838:0-7185-1235-9 3834: 3830: 3826: 3825:Davies, Wendy 3822: 3819: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3788: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3719: 3714: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3497: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3481: 3473: 3472: 3467: 3463: 3457: 3450: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3410: 3403: 3398: 3391: 3386: 3379: 3374: 3367: 3362: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3339: 3335: 3330: 3323: 3319: 3314: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3226: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3080: 3076: 3071: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3012: 3008: 3003: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2827: 2824::30, 32, 89, 2823: 2818: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2544: 2540: 2538: 2533: 2527: 2519: 2512: 2506: 2491: 2487: 2481: 2474: 2468: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2403: 2393: 2392: 2387: 2381: 2379: 2372: 2366: 2365: 2357: 2355: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2316: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2163: 2159: 2156:(near modern 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2131: 2126: 2119: 2114: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2062: 2055: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2031: 2026: 2022: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1973:1-85264-022-7 1970: 1966: 1962: 1956: 1952: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1930: 1919: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1815: 1810: 1807: 1803: 1794: 1789: 1779: 1777: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1745: 1741: 1731: 1729: 1728:Northumbrians 1725: 1721: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1679: 1676: 1670: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1612: 1610: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595:penal slavery 1591: 1588: 1584: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1539: 1537: 1532: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1511:King of Wales 1502: 1499: 1497: 1493: 1487: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1472: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1406: 1404: 1398: 1389: 1387: 1382: 1378: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1340: 1335: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1170: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1144: 1135: 1132: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1079: 1075: 1065: 1063: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1028: 1021: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 993: 991: 987: 981: 977: 968: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 937: 932: 928: 924: 921:and southern 920: 915: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 884: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 839: 834: 832: 827: 825: 820: 819: 817: 816: 810: 800: 798: 788: 787: 785: 784: 777: 774: 771: 767: 764: 762: 759: 756: 752: 747: 744: 741: 737: 732: 729: 726: 722: 718: 717:Football team 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 697: 693: 690: 687: 683: 680: 677: 673: 669: 666: 663: 659: 656: 654: 651: 648: 644: 643:Music history 641: 638: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 618: 614: 610: 605: 602: 600: 597: 596: 590: 589: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 561:Milford Haven 559: 557: 554: 551: 547: 543: 540: 539: 536:Local history 533: 532: 524: 520: 516: 512: 507: 504: 501: 498: 495: 492: 488: 484: 482: 479: 476: 475:Welsh Marches 473: 471: 468: 467: 461: 460: 453: 450: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 424: 422: 421:Language laws 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 396: 392: 389: 388: 382: 381: 374: 371: 368: 364: 361: 359: 355: 352: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 324:King of Wales 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 311: 305: 304: 297: 294: 291: 287: 283: 280: 278: 275: 272: 268: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 217: 212: 211: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 183: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 158: 154: 151: 148: 144: 140: 136: 133: 130: 126: 123: 121: 118: 115: 111: 108: 105: 101: 98: 96: 93: 90: 86: 83: 82: 76: 75: 71: 65: 61: 60: 57: 51: 50: 45: 40: 39: 32: 19: 5540:Principality 5274:Papal States 4999:histories of 4940: 4926:Welsh Dragon 4794:Christianity 4614:Demographics 4572: / 4397:Wales Office 4362:Local rulers 4211:Biodiversity 4133: 4114:Bibliography 4018: 4005: 3985: 3974: 3952: 3943: 3925: 3907: 3888: 3870: 3849: 3828: 3807: 3786: 3780: 3770: 3758: 3747:Marwnad Rhun 3746: 3739: 3734: 3725: 3713: 3701: 3690: 3682: 3675: 3667: 3655: 3647: 3635: 3627: 3616:, retrieved 3611: 3601: 3590:, retrieved 3585: 3575: 3557: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3531: 3513: 3504: 3494: 3490:Giles, J. A. 3480: 3470: 3466:Giles, J. A. 3456: 3438: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3397: 3385: 3373: 3361: 3353: 3345: 3337: 3329: 3321: 3313: 3305: 3297: 3289: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3253: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3225: 3217: 3209: 3201: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3165: 3157: 3149: 3142: 3134: 3126: 3118: 3110: 3102: 3094: 3086: 3078: 3070: 3058: 3050: 3042: 3034: 3026: 3018: 3010: 3002: 2994: 2973: 2965: 2957: 2949: 2941: 2933: 2925: 2917: 2909: 2901: 2893: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2865: 2857: 2849: 2841: 2833: 2825: 2817: 2809: 2801: 2793: 2785: 2777: 2769: 2761: 2753: 2745: 2737: 2729: 2721: 2713: 2705: 2700:, "Economy". 2697: 2689: 2681: 2673: 2668:, "Economy". 2665: 2657: 2649: 2641: 2633: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2598: 2590: 2582: 2574: 2567: 2559: 2549:26 September 2547:. Retrieved 2535: 2526: 2517: 2505: 2493:. Retrieved 2480: 2472: 2467: 2459: 2451: 2443: 2435: 2427: 2419: 2412: 2390: 2363: 2344: 2334: 2325: 2315: 2306: 2293: 2286: 2278: 2271: 2263: 2256: 2248: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2200: 2193: 2185: 2177: 2169: 2145: 2137: 2125: 2113: 2104: 2091: 2082: 2076: 2067: 2061: 2049: 2037: 2025: 2008: 2004: 1992: 1980: 1976: 1964: 1955: 1929:Wales portal 1910: 1899: 1889: 1883: 1879: 1869: 1864: 1858: 1853: 1851: 1846: 1834: 1830: 1818: 1812: 1808: 1801: 1799: 1773: 1747: 1717: 1706: 1701: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1681: 1675:West Country 1672: 1668: 1665:Institutions 1650: 1646: 1643:Welsh Triads 1635: 1625: 1624:), priests ( 1621: 1618: 1615:Christianity 1606: 1605:note of the 1602: 1592: 1582: 1580: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1530: 1527: 1518: 1514: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1473: 1468: 1460: 1448: 1444: 1436: 1434: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1403:transhumance 1399: 1395: 1383: 1379: 1372: 1345: 1303: 1278:The name of 1277: 1258: 1232: 1224:Gwrtheyrnion 1197: 1190: 1176: 1166: 1153: 1149: 1131:Wendy Davies 1128: 1119: 1105: 1087: 1084:Romanisation 1081: 1054: 1032: 994: 982: 978: 974: 956: 947:kingdoms of 934: 916: 904:Christianity 899: 895: 891: 885: 881:Merfyn Frych 848: 847: 766:Rent control 755:1962–present 725:1977–present 519:Wales Office 515:Welsh Office 319:Royal houses 138: 95:Bibliography 6135:Middle Ages 5813:Roman Wales 5697:Isle of Man 5506:Kievan Rus' 5242:Western and 5235:territories 5159:Czech lands 5010:Western and 4921:Royal Badge 4864:Saint David 4804:Catholicism 4799:Anglicanism 4475:Coal mining 4465:Agriculture 4367:Nationalism 3986:Y Cymmrodor 3787:CAPUT XXXVI 3740:Y Cymmrodor 3691:Y Cymmrodor 3636:Y Cymmrodor 3618:27 February 3592:27 February 3536:Davies 2009 3414:Davies 2009 3402:Davies 1982 3390:Davies 1982 3378:Davies 1982 3366:Davies 1982 3350:Davies 1982 3334:Davies 1982 3318:Davies 1982 3302:Davies 1982 3286:Davies 1982 3266:Davies 2009 3250:Davies 1982 3230:Davies 2009 3214:Davies 1982 3198:Davies 1989 3170:Davies 2009 3154:Davies 1989 3139:Davies 1982 3123:Davies 1982 3107:Davies 1982 3091:Davies 1982 3075:Davies 1982 3055:Davies 1989 3039:Davies 1982 3023:Davies 1982 3007:Davies 1982 2991:Davies 1982 2970:Davies 1989 2954:Davies 1989 2938:Davies 1989 2922:Davies 1982 2906:Davies 1989 2890:Davies 1982 2870:Davies 1982 2854:Davies 1982 2838:Davies 1989 2822:Davies 1989 2806:Davies 1989 2790:Davies 1989 2774:Davies 1989 2758:Davies 1989 2742:Davies 1989 2726:Davies 1982 2710:Davies 1982 2694:Davies 1982 2678:Davies 1982 2662:Davies 1982 2646:Davies 1982 2610:Davies 2009 2564:Davies 1982 2456:Davies 1982 2440:Davies 1982 2409:Davies 1982 2345:Y Cymmrodor 2326:Y Cymmrodor 2307:Y Cymmrodor 2299:Meyer, Kuno 2283:Davies 1982 2268:Davies 1982 2253:Davies 1989 2150:Tomen y Mur 2118:Davies 1982 2097:Meyer, Kuno 2042:Johnes 2019 2030:Johnes 2019 1852:All of the 1744:Celtic Rite 1632:Communities 1542:Aristocracy 1453:Brycheiniog 1445:gwyr Guenti 1392:Subsistence 1305:Canu Heledd 1220:Brycheiniog 1183:Vortiporius 1181:. Its king 1039:Uí Liatháin 965:Northumbria 949:Northumbria 945:Anglo-Saxon 873:Offa's Dyke 857:Middle Ages 731:Rugby union 702:Plaid Cymru 628:Archaeology 430:English law 395:manuscripts 223:Brycheiniog 114:of Anglesey 104:archaeology 53:History of 6145:Categories 5401:Almoravids 5389:al-Andalus 5362:Portugal ( 5205:Anatolia ( 4756:Healthcare 4716:Scientists 4679:Architects 4574:in English 4560:Eisteddfod 4335:Government 4320:Devolution 4303:Government 4280:Waterfalls 4149:Deheubarth 4119:Prehistory 4001:Rhys, John 3796:References 3706:Lloyd 1911 3672:Kirby 2000 3288::157–160, 3236::214–215, 3025::139–140, 3009::129–131, 2872::121–125, 2581::179–195, 2543:Met Office 2537:Met Office 2205:Lloyd 1911 2158:Caernarfon 2054:Laing 1975 1860:Y Gododdin 1827:Hen Ogledd 1786:See also: 1768:, and the 1738:See also: 1657:said that 1626:presbyteri 1603:marginalia 1465:Ceredigion 1449:Broceniauc 1332:See also: 1314:Dogfeiling 1310:Shropshire 1269:Meirionydd 1216:Ceredigion 1195:, c. 540. 1098:Carmarthen 1072:See also: 1005:Idwal Foel 1001:Deheubarth 995:One king, 927:Hen Ogledd 910:, and the 886:Wales was 770:regulation 617:in English 546:as capital 523:Devolution 411:Penal laws 233:Deheubarth 228:Ceredigion 203:Devolution 198:World Wars 182:witchcraft 157:settlement 129:rebellions 100:Prehistory 79:Chronology 5560:Despotate 5504:Ukraine ( 5488:Jerusalem 5452:Croatia ( 5207:Byzantine 5179:Hungary ( 5170:Byzantine 5069:1169–1536 4809:Mormonism 4701:Musicians 4696:Inventors 4631:Languages 4623:Languages 4555:Education 4510:Transport 4480:Companies 4325:Elections 4199:Geography 4124:Roman Era 3718:Rhys 1904 3693:vol. XI, 3652:Rhys 1904 3638:vol. XI, 3608:"Liturgy" 2495:2 October 2458::99–102, 2154:Segontium 2018:Citations 1961:North Sea 1906:Welsh law 1896:Scots law 1835:Brittones 1536:fosterage 1457:Glywysing 1451:("men of 1425:pencenedl 1328:Geography 1322:Cynddylan 1204:Glywysing 1161:shown on 1124:Welsh law 1107:civitates 997:Hywel Dda 908:Roman era 877:earthwork 865:Old Welsh 751:1899–1962 721:1876–1976 682:Education 416:Poor laws 296:Seisyllwg 286:Wenwynwyn 277:Morgannwg 248:Glywysing 6095:Monarchs 5713:Guernsey 5678:Anglesey 5651:Shetland 5646:Scotland 5615:Overview 5556:Lordship 5538:Serbia ( 5519:Russia ( 5458:Pannonia 5454:Dalmatia 5405:Almohads 5233:Medieval 5168:Greece ( 5080:Scotland 5065:800–1169 4997:Medieval 4860:History 4834:Hinduism 4829:Buddhism 4786:Religion 4731:in Welsh 4485:Forestry 4392:Unionism 4312:Politics 4294:Politics 4189:Colonies 4109:Timeline 4017:(1998), 4003:(1904), 3972:(1911), 3869:(2009), 3848:(1989), 3827:(1982), 3751:Taliesin 3689::97–101 3662:, p. 281 3216::64–67, 3186:uchelwyr 3182:taeogion 3156::24–26, 3125::60–63, 3077::67–71, 2940::21–24, 2776::10–15, 2744::19–20, 2728::71–72, 2696::39–41, 2285::96–98, 2207::84–88, 2099:(1896), 1915:See also 1876:Scotland 1809:combrogi 1641:and the 1622:episcopi 1577:Populace 1505:Kingship 1437:Gwenhwys 1375:Iron Age 1368:maritime 1364:Anglesey 1300:Pengwern 1296:Taliesen 1273:Dunoding 1094:Caerwent 931:Dumnonia 923:Scotland 613:in Welsh 609:medieval 566:Monmouth 556:Llanelli 550:timeline 464:Polities 401:Treaties 258:Gwynllwg 85:Timeline 44:a series 42:Part of 6109:Portals 6072:Related 5692:Ireland 5629:England 5548:Kingdom 5480:Antioch 5476:Tripoli 5219:Ottoman 5196:Romania 5174:Ottoman 5164:Georgia 5154:Croatia 5144:Armenia 5139:Albania 5061:400–800 5057:Ireland 5052:Germany 5029:England 5024:Denmark 5019:Corsica 5001:current 4891:Symbols 4854:Sikhism 4849:Druidry 4844:Judaism 4824:Bahá'ís 4726:Writers 4711:Royalty 4684:Artists 4604:Theatre 4589:Museums 4550:Castles 4537:Culture 4524:Society 4505:Tourism 4453:Economy 4345:History 4238:Islands 4233:Geology 4228:Climate 4101:History 3759:marwnad 3642:, p. 99 3546:(1992). 3492:(ed.), 3468:(ed.), 3424:(1992). 3276:(1992). 3240:(2004). 2648::5–12, 2632::1–15, 2620:(2004). 2539:website 2255::33–34 2241:brawdwr 2237:brenhin 1901:galanas 1872:England 1843:Bretons 1841:or the 1831:Brython 1770:liturgy 1766:tonsure 1758:Ireland 1754:Britain 1700:Bede's 1678:custom. 1559:uchelwr 1548:sarhaed 1469:Ceredig 1409:Society 1386:England 1318:Newtown 1257:in his 1239:Cunedda 1235:Gwynedd 1189:in his 1163:Ptolemy 1159:Demetae 1112:lexicon 1035:Ireland 971:History 797:History 696:UK-wide 581:Wrexham 576:Swansea 571:Newport 542:Cardiff 271:culture 267:history 263:Gwynedd 89:British 5708:Jersey 5699:(Mann) 5656:Orkney 5552:Empire 5533:Moscow 5529:Ryazan 5484:Edessa 5472:Cyprus 5446:Second 5364:County 5211:Seljuk 5201:Serbia 5191:Poland 5103:Sweden 5047:France 4899:Anthem 4766:Boards 4748:Health 4669:Actors 4656:People 4599:Sports 4420:Courts 4387:Senedd 4355:Mayors 4350:Cities 4270:Rivers 4025: 3959: 3932: 3914: 3895: 3877: 3856: 3835: 3814: 3564: 3542::3–4, 3520: 3445: 3352::146, 3336::142, 3304::150, 3176::214, 3109::140, 3041::127, 2993::126, 2924::121, 2892::121, 2856::122, 2808::3–4, 2616::214, 2597::219, 2566::5–9, 2545:. 2010 2442::102, 2270::102, 2243:, etc. 2229:cenedl 2225:alltud 2192::154, 2144::153, 1999: 1987: 1971: 1764:, the 1689:noddfa 1655:Gildas 1587:vassal 1555:braint 1496:brenin 1492:brenin 1480:regnum 1461:Glywys 1421:cenedl 1255:Gildas 1228:Buellt 1226:(near 1212:Ergyng 1187:Gildas 1089:villas 1045:(with 1043:Laigin 1037:, the 1009:Edmund 953:Mercia 941:Wessex 936:Cernyw 900:braint 593:Topics 308:Rulers 243:Ergyng 46:on the 6123:Wales 5673:Wales 5441:First 5397:Taifa 5112:Early 5108:Wales 5098:Spain 5084:Early 5075:Italy 5033:Early 4904:Flags 4839:Islam 4736:Women 4721:Women 4706:Poets 4689:Women 4636:Welsh 4584:Music 4579:Media 4263:AONBs 4243:Lakes 4221:Flora 4216:Fauna 4079:Wales 3660:Notes 3654::281 3272::15, 3252::16, 3234:XVIII 3200::26, 3174:XVIII 3141::67, 3093::68, 3057::87, 2972::27, 2956::82, 2908::18, 2840::32, 2760::17, 2712::63, 2680::11, 2664::39, 2614:XVIII 2514:(PDF) 2411::94, 2371:Latin 2369:— in 2233:aillt 2217:gwlad 2160:) or 1948:Notes 1880:Cymry 1865:Cymry 1854:Cymry 1802:Cymry 1693:nawdd 1685:nawdd 1571:breyr 1567:aillt 1563:breyr 1531:teulu 1524:Kings 1484:gwlad 1476:gwlad 1441:Gwent 1352:heath 1348:moors 1280:Powys 1241:from 1208:Gwent 1155:Dyfed 1116:Welsh 1114:into 1062:Scoti 1051:Dyfed 1047:Déisi 986:Welsh 957:Cymry 925:(the 892:trefi 888:rural 853:Wales 809:Wales 672:slate 373:Peers 290:Fadog 282:Powys 253:Gwent 238:Dyfed 139:early 55:Wales 5366:and 5217:and 5183:and 5172:and 5120:Late 5116:High 5092:Late 5088:High 5041:Late 5037:High 4660:list 4023:ISBN 3957:ISBN 3930:ISBN 3912:ISBN 3893:ISBN 3875:ISBN 3854:ISBN 3833:ISBN 3812:ISBN 3674::71 3634::99 3620:2013 3594:2013 3562:ISBN 3540:XIII 3518:ISBN 3486:Bede 3462:Bede 3443:ISBN 3420::3, 3418:XIII 3270:XIII 2792::2, 2551:2010 2497:2010 2221:tref 2213:Tyst 1997:ISBN 1985:ISBN 1969:ISBN 1874:and 1756:and 1742:and 1709:Bede 1691:(a " 1639:Bede 1583:Gwas 1467:for 1459:for 1356:peat 1350:and 1271:and 1265:Rhos 1222:and 1210:and 1175:and 1120:pobl 1100:and 1076:and 1041:and 990:llan 951:and 647:harp 367:list 147:late 143:high 5399:, 5215:Rum 4545:Art 4407:Law 2426::9 1847:brô 1833:or 1471:). 1316:to 1312:to 902:). 896:tud 385:Law 6147:: 5820:, 5558:, 5554:, 5550:, 5546:, 5542:, 5531:, 5527:, 5523:, 5512:, 5508:, 5497:, 5486:, 5482:, 5478:, 5474:, 5460:, 5456:, 5407:, 5403:, 5395:, 5350:, 5346:, 5342:, 5328:, 5324:, 5320:, 5266:, 5262:, 5209:, 5118:, 5114:, 5090:, 5086:, 5067:, 5063:, 5039:, 5035:, 3779:, 3658:, 3610:, 3584:, 2981:^ 2541:. 2534:. 2516:. 2488:. 2401:^ 2377:^ 2353:^ 2343:, 2305:, 2239:, 2235:, 2231:, 2227:, 2223:, 2219:, 1908:. 1867:. 1651:ie 1486:. 1463:, 1439:(" 1267:, 1206:, 1171:, 988:: 967:. 883:. 6111:: 5599:e 5592:t 5585:v 5562:) 5535:) 5516:) 5501:) 5490:) 5470:( 5464:) 5411:) 5391:( 5370:) 5354:) 5338:( 5332:) 5316:( 5310:) 5306:( 5270:) 5258:( 5221:) 5213:- 5187:) 5176:) 5122:) 5110:( 5094:) 5082:( 5071:) 5059:( 5043:) 5031:( 4982:e 4975:t 4968:v 4662:) 4658:( 4071:e 4064:t 4057:v 3901:. 3765:. 3538:: 3416:: 3356:. 3340:. 3324:. 3308:. 3292:. 3268:: 3256:. 3232:: 3220:. 3204:. 3172:: 3160:. 3129:. 3113:. 3081:. 3045:. 3029:. 3013:. 2997:. 2976:. 2960:. 2944:. 2928:. 2912:. 2860:. 2844:. 2828:. 2812:. 2796:. 2764:. 2748:. 2732:. 2716:. 2612:: 2553:. 2499:. 2462:. 2446:. 2164:. 1995:( 1983:( 1967:( 1817:( 1637:( 837:e 830:t 823:v 772:) 768:( 757:) 749:( 742:) 734:( 727:) 719:( 698:) 694:( 688:) 684:( 678:) 670:( 664:) 660:( 649:) 645:( 639:) 635:( 619:) 607:( 552:) 544:( 525:) 509:( 489:) 485:( 448:) 428:( 397:) 393:( 369:) 365:( 292:) 284:( 273:) 265:( 184:) 180:( 159:) 155:( 149:) 137:( 131:) 127:( 116:) 112:( 106:) 102:( 91:) 87:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index