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was how the charge of the added holes was compensated. Our first thought was that the charge was compensated by surface states. Shockley later suggested that the charge was compensated by electrons in the bulk and suggested the junction transistor geometry... Later experiments carried out by
Brattain and me showed that very likely both occur in the point-contact transistor."
619:. Initially, strict secrecy was observed. Carefully restricted internal conferences within Bell Labs shared information about the work of Brattain, Bardeen, Shockley and others who were engaged in related research. Patents were registered, recording the invention of the point-contact transistor by Bardeen and Brattain. There was considerable anxiety over whether
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certainly appreciate the honor. It is a great satisfaction to have done something in life and to have been recognized for it in this way. However, much of my good fortune comes from being in the right place, at the right time, and having the right sort of people to work with." Each of the three gave a lecture. Brattain spoke on
557:. Bardeen was a close friend of Brattain's brother Robert, who had introduced John and Walter in the 1930s. They often played bridge and golf together. Bardeen was a quantum physicist, Brattain a gifted experimenter in materials science, and Shockley, the leader of their team, was an expert in solid-state physics.
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research and development of transistor technology. Bell
Laboratories organized several symposia, open to university, industry and military participants, which were attended by hundreds of scientists in September 1951, April 1952, and 1956. Representatives from international as well as domestic companies attended.
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of Sweden "for research on semiconductors and the discovery of the transistor effect." Bardeen and
Brattain were included for the discovery of the point-contact transistor; Shockley for the development of the junction transistor. Walter Brattain is credited as having said, when told of the award, "I
645:
Brattain transferred to another research group within Bell
Laboratories, working with C. G. B. Garrett, and P. J. Boddy. He continued to study the surface properties of solids and the "transistor effect", so as to better understand the various factors underlying semiconductor behavior. Describing it
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as a visiting lecturer in 1952 and at
Whitman College as a visiting lecturer in 1962 and 1963, and a visiting professor beginning in 1963. Upon formally retiring from Bell Laboratories in 1967, he continued to teach at Whitman, becoming an adjunct professor in 1972. He retired from teaching in 1976
634:
On June 30, 1948, Bell
Laboratories held a press conference to publicly announce their discovery. They also adopted an open policy in which new knowledge was freely shared with other institutions. By doing so, they avoided classification of the work as a military secret, and made possible widespread
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experiments, attempting to determine why
Shockley's device wouldn't amplify. Bardeen was a brilliant theorist; Brattain, equally importantly, "had an intuitive feel for what you could do in semiconductors". Bardeen theorized that the failure to conduct might be the result of local variations in the
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to control electron flow and amplify current. Vacuum tubes were neither reliable nor efficient, and Bell
Laboratories wanted to develop an alternative technology. As early as the 1930s Brattain worked with William B. Shockley on the idea of a semiconductor amplifier that used copper oxide, an early
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to their colleagues at Bell
Laboratories. Amplifying small electrical signals and supporting the processing of digital information, the transistor is "the key enabler of modern electronics". The three men received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 "for research on semiconductors and the discovery
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As described by
Bardeen, "The initial experiments with the gold spot suggested immediately that holes were being introduced into the germanium block, increasing the concentration of holes near the surface. The names emitter and collector were chosen to describe this phenomenon. The only question
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atoms. Through his studies of rectification and photo-effects on the semiconductor surfaces of cuprous oxide and silicon, Brattain discovered the photo-effect at the free surface of a semiconductor. This work was considered by the Nobel prize committee to be one of his chief contributions to solid
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On December 16, Brattain devised a method of placing two gold leaf contacts close together on a germanium surface. Brattain reported: "Using this double point contact, contact was made to a germanium surface that had been anodized to 90 volts, electrolyte washed off in H2O and then had some gold
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According to theories of the time, Shockley's field effect transistor, a cylinder coated thinly with silicon and mounted close to a metal plate, should have worked. He ordered Brattain and Bardeen to find out why it wouldn't. During November and December the two men carried out a variety of
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Walter Brattain married twice. His first wife was chemist Keren Gilmore. They were married in 1935 and had a son, William G. Brattain, in 1943. Keren Gilmore Brattain died on April 10, 1957. The following year, Brattain married Mrs. Emma Jane (Kirsch) Miller, a mother of three children.
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At Whitman, the Walter Brattain Scholarships are awarded on a merit basis to "entering students who have achieved high academic excellence in their college preparatory work." All applicants for admission are considered for the scholarship, which is potentially renewable for four years.
33:
596:. Brattain and Bardeen eventually managed to create a small level of amplification by pushing a gold metal point into the silicon, and surrounding it with distilled water. Replacing silicon with germanium enhanced the amplification, but only for low frequency currents.
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spots evaporated on it. The gold contacts were pressed down on the bare surface. Both gold contacts to the surface rectified nicely... One point was used as a grid and the other point as a plate. The bias (D.C.) on the grid had to be positive to get amplification"
642:, which Shockley patented. Shockley's theory of the junction transistor was an "impressive achievement", pointing the way to future solid-state electronics, but it would be several years before its construction would become practically possible.
544:
In 1945, Bell Labs reorganized and created a group specifically to do fundamental research in solid state physics, relating to communications technologies. Creation of the sub-department was authorized by the vice-president for research,
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Shockley believed (and stated) that he should have received all the credit for the discovery of the transistor. He actively excluded Bardeen and Brattain from new areas of research, in particular the
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Walter H. Brattain, who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in physics for the invention of the transistor, died yesterday of Alzheimer's Disease in a nursing home in Seattle. He was 85 years old. ...
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321:, Germany. Ross R. Brattain was a teacher at the Ting-Wen Institute, a private school for Chinese boys; Ottilie Houser Brattain was a gifted mathematician. Both were graduates of
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317:, to American parents Ross R. Brattain and Ottilie Houser Brattain. His father was of Scottish descent, while his mother's parents were both immigrants from
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Brattain later collaborated with P. J. Boddy and P. N. Sawyer on several papers on electrochemical processes in living matter. He became interested in
1857:
Oral history interview transcript with Walter Brattain on 28 May 1974, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session II
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Oral history interview transcript with Walter Brattain on June 1964, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session I
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Convinced by the 1947 demonstration that a major breakthrough was being made, Bell Laboratories focused intensively on what it now called the
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Son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Walter H. Brattain to inter his ashes beside his father in Pomeroy City Cemetery, Pomeroy, Washington.
325:. Ottilie and baby Walter returned to the United States in 1903, and Ross followed shortly afterward. The family lived for several years in
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would all go on to have distinguished careers, later becoming known as "the four horsemen of physics". Brattain's brother
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Walter H. Brattain was born in Amoy, China, on February 10, 1902, the son of Ross R. Brattain and Ottilie Houser. ...
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506:. Other researchers at Bell and elsewhere were also experimenting with semiconductors, using materials such as
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521:, both Brattain and Shockley were separately involved in research on magnetic detection of submarines with the
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On December 23, 1947, Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William B. Shockley demonstrated the first working
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1375:"Gentle Genius UI professor John Bardeen won two Nobel prizes – so why don't more people know about him?"
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1806:"Case File of John Bardeen and Walter Brattain Committee on Science and the Arts 1954 Ballantine Medal"
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368:, where he studied with Benjamin H. Brown (physics) and Walter A. Bratton (mathematics). He earned a
1484:"Absent at the Creation; How one scientist made off with the biggest invention since the light bulb"
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from Whitman in 1924, with a double major in physics and mathematics. Brattain and his classmates
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1263:"John Bardeen, William Shockley, Walter Brattain Invention of the Transistor – Bell Laboratories"
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1446:. Lessons from Nanoscience: A Lecture Notes Series. Vol. 06. World Scientific Pub Co Inc.
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Walter Brattain family papers at the Whitman College and Northwest Archives, Whitman College.
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after his son required heart surgery. He also collaborated with Whitman chemistry professor
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541:. As a result of this work, in 1944, Brattain patented a design for a magnetometer head.
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Crystal fire : the invention of the transistor and the birth of the information age
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1235:"Oral History interview transcript with Walter Brattain January 1964 & 28 May 1974"
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Efficiency of Excitation by Electron Impact and Anomalous Scattering in Mercury Vapor.
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as "an intolerable situation", Bardeen left Bell Laboratories in 1951 to go to the
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Revolution in miniature : the history and impact of semiconductor electronics
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as a model to study the surface of living cells and their absorption processes.
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Out of the crystal maze : chapters from the history of solid state physics
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1014:"Brattain, Walter H. (1902–1987), Physicists, Physicists, Nobel Prize Winners"
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in 1929. At Minnesota, Brattain had the opportunity to study the new field of
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In 1956, the three men were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics by
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At the time, the telephone industry was heavily dependent on the use of
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as a research physicist. The two men worked on the heat-induced flow of
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He moved to Seattle in the 1970s and lived there until his death from
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for their invention. Brattain devoted much of his life to research on
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273:; February 10, 1902 – October 13, 1987) was an American physicist at
654:. Shockley left Bell Laboratories in 1953 and went on to form the
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frequency standards. In August 1929 he joined Joseph A. Becker at
748:, 1956 (jointly with Dr. John Bardeen and Dr. William B. Shockley)
722:
Walter Brattain has been widely recognized for his contributions.
650:, where he eventually won a second Nobel Prize for his theory of
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Brattain attended high school in Washington, spending one year at
3726:
University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering alumni
1639:"How William Shockley's Robot Dream Helped Launch Silicon Valley"
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Coca, Andreea; McFarland, Colleen; Mallen, Janet; Hastings, Emi.
511:
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345:
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1739:"Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor"
388:, who followed him at Whitman College, also became a physicist.
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62:
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Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor
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549:. An interdisciplinary group, it was co-led by Shockley and
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32:
1671:"Nobel Prize in Physics Awarded to Transistor Inventors".
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1302:(2nd. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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on October 13, 1987. He is buried at City Cemetery in
1518:. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2007. pp. 57–68.
1116:"Guide to the Walter Brattain Family Papers 1860–1990"
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Deaths from Alzheimer's disease in the United States
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253:
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Union College, 1955 (jointly with Dr. John Bardeen)
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American Association for the Advancement of Science
250:
1316:
3741:Neurological disease deaths in Washington (state)
1871:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
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950:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences
449:in Washington, D.C., where he helped to develop
1884:including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1956
1798:
1349:"Microchips: The Transistor Was the First Step"
1324:"Integral-drive magnetometer head US 2605072 A"
977:
791:International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
477:. They also did work on the surface state and
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710:but continued to be a consultant at Whitman.
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978:Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1998).
805:Doctor of Science, Portland University, 1952
533:sensitive enough to detect anomalies in the
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469:. Some of their subsequent experiments on
465:. Brattain was able to attend a lecture by
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1913:
1899:
1879:
1758:"Transistor Technology Evokes New Physics"
1444:Essential Physics of Nanoscale Transistors
1143:Susan Heller Anderson (October 14, 1987).
911:
564:A stylized replica of the first transistor
445:From 1927 to 1928 Brattain worked for the
31:
1698:Brattain, Walter H. (December 11, 1956).
1661:
1506:
1468:
1441:
1435:
1379:University of Illinois Alumni Association
1298:Braun, Ernest; Macdonald, Stuart (1982).
1256:
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1026:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1301949
473:provided experimental validation for the
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1337:
1202:"William Brattain Obituary - Tigard, OR"
680:Transistor Technology Evokes New Physics
567:
559:
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1756:Shockley, William (December 11, 1956).
1736:
1609:. Infobase Publishing. pp. 39–41.
1481:
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502:and unsuccessful attempt at creating a
289:in December 1947. They shared the 1956
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1700:"Surface Properties of Semiconductors"
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742:, 1954 (jointly with Dr. John Bardeen)
736:, 1952 (jointly with Dr. John Bardeen)
627:, studying resistance in germanium at
305:Walter Brattain was born in Amoy (now
3405:
1894:
1637:Brock, David C. (November 29, 2013).
1636:
1602:
1596:
1565:
1414:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1347:Isaacson, Walter (December 4, 2014).
779:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1886:Surface Properties of Semiconductors
1392:
1372:
1145:"Walter Brattain, Inventor, Is Dead"
878:
789:commission on semiconductors of the
717:
672:Surface Properties of Semiconductors
3686:American people of Scottish descent
1737:Bardeen, John (December 11, 1956).
1133:
1092:
1083:"Walter Houser Brattain, 1902–1987"
962:
553:. The new group was soon joined by
523:National Defense Research Committee
13:
1685:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1956.tb03829.x
1018:American National Biography Online
440:
277:who, along with fellow scientists
14:
3762:
3681:American people of German descent
1828:
1482:Kessler, Ronald (April 6, 1997).
1120:Northwest Digital Archives (NWDA)
984:. New York : Norton. p. 78.
895:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
796:Naval Research Advisory Committee
656:Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory
3671:American experimental physicists
3661:20th-century American physicists
1865:Walter Houser Brattain 1902–1987
1834:
1547:"Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen"
944:Walter Houser Brattain 1902–1987
246:
3696:People from Springfield, Oregon
3666:20th-century American inventors
1710:(3265). Nobelprize.org: 151–3.
1239:Niels Bohr Library and Archives
1194:
1088:. National Academy of Sciences.
753:National Inventors Hall of Fame
3701:People from Summit, New Jersey
1776:"Special Scholarship Programs"
1603:Carey, Charles W. Jr. (2006).
1074:
849:
829:Star Trek: The Next Generation
403:in 1926, and a Ph.D. from the
16:American physicist (1902–1987)
1:
3751:American expatriates in China
1673:Bell System Technical Journal
1243:American Institute of Physics
1176:Chemical and Engineering News
842:
814:University of Minnesota, 1957
529:. Brattain's group developed
415:. His thesis, supervised by
38:
1716:10.1126/science.126.3265.151
1488:The Washington Post Magazine
764:National Academy of Sciences
447:National Bureau of Standards
300:
7:
3731:University of Oregon alumni
3706:American quantum physicists
861:IEEE Global History Network
700:
612:of the transistor effect."
455:Bell Telephone Laboratories
10:
3767:
3691:Nobel laureates in Physics
1408:Hoddeson, Lillian (1992).
1261:Levine, Alaina G. (2008).
360:. Brattain then attended
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1932:
1188:10.1021/cen-v035n019.p058
1012:Cooper, David Y. (2001).
774:American Physical Society
235:
223:
202:
188:
181:
158:
147:
137:
111:
103:
77:
48:
30:
23:
3716:Semiconductor physicists
3676:American Nobel laureates
3451:Cyril Norman Hinshelwood
1578:"Walter Houser Brattain"
1515:Inventors and inventions
1442:Lundstrom, Mark (2014).
1182:(19): 58. May 13, 1957.
891:"Walter Houser Brattain"
413:John Hasbrouck Van Vleck
287:point-contact transistor
97:United States of America
3711:Scientists at Bell Labs
3547:André Frédéric Cournand
730:Stuart Ballantine Medal
579:and Walter Brattain at
504:field effect transistor
463:copper oxide rectifiers
405:University of Minnesota
366:Walla Walla, Washington
166:Stuart Ballantine Medal
129:University of Minnesota
3721:Whitman College alumni
3574:Nobel Prize recipients
3539:Physiology or Medicine
3522:Walter Houser Brattain
1926:Nobel Prize in Physics
1876:Walter Houser Brattain
1862:Bardeen, John (1994).
1841:Walter Houser Brattain
1081:Bardeed, John (1994).
941:Bardeen, John (1994).
746:Nobel Prize in Physics
648:University of Illinois
617:Surface States Project
584:
565:
535:Earth's magnetic field
342:Queen Anne High School
291:Nobel Prize in Physics
242:Walter Houser Brattain
230:John Torrence Tate Sr.
197:electronic engineering
172:Nobel Prize in Physics
25:Walter Houser Brattain
3559:Dickinson W. Richards
808:Whitman College, 1955
695:phospholipid bilayers
571:
563:
354:Moran School for Boys
1843:at Wikimedia Commons
1494:on February 24, 2015
857:"Walter H. Brattain"
667:King Gustaf VI Adolf
397:University of Oregon
350:Tonasket High School
335:Tonasket, Washington
329:, then settled on a
124:University of Oregon
1649:on December 1, 2013
1606:American Scientists
1373:Hoddeson, Lillian.
705:Brattain taught at
678:, and Shockley on
660:Beckman Instruments
640:junction transistor
527:Columbia University
471:thermionic emission
435:Pomeroy, Washington
431:Alzheimer's disease
327:Spokane, Washington
3746:People from Xiamen
3481:Juan Ramón Jiménez
1878:on Nobelprize.org
1812:. January 15, 2014
1810:Franklin Institute
1353:Bloomberg Business
819:Other recognition
769:Franklin Institute
751:Inducted into the
734:Franklin Institute
707:Harvard University
592:which trapped the
585:
566:
391:Brattain earned a
352:, and one year at
3638:
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3399:
3398:
1839:Media related to
1764:. Nobelprize.org.
1745:. Nobelprize.org.
1679:(6): i–iv. 1956.
1461:978-981-4571-73-9
1057:"Robert Brattain"
802:Honorary degrees
718:Awards and honors
652:superconductivity
629:Purdue University
551:Stanley O. Morgan
475:Sommerfeld theory
467:Arnold Sommerfeld
409:quantum mechanics
378:Vladimir Rojansky
370:bachelor's degree
358:Bainbridge Island
239:
238:
215:Bell Laboratories
183:Scientific career
59:February 10, 1902
3758:
3576:
3553:Werner Forssmann
3528:William Shockley
3457:Nikolay Semyonov
3426:
3419:
3412:
3403:
3402:
3392:
3376:
3360:
3344:
3328:
3312:
3296:
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3224:
3212:
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3184:
3168:
3152:
3140:
3128:
3112:
3096:
3080:
3064:
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3019:
3007:
2991:
2975:
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2915:
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2891:
2875:
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2280:
2268:
2256:
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2241:
2229:
2221:
2220:
2214:
2206:
2198:
2190:
2178:
2159:
2147:
2139:
2131:
2123:
2115:
2107:
2099:
2091:
2083:
2082:
2076:
2064:
2056:
2054:Kamerlingh Onnes
2048:
2040:
2032:
2024:
2012:
2004:
1996:
1988:
1980:
1972:
1956:
1944:
1915:
1908:
1901:
1892:
1891:
1883:
1872:
1870:
1838:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1786:on April 2, 2015
1782:. Archived from
1772:
1766:
1765:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1668:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1645:. Archived from
1634:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1600:
1594:
1593:
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1589:
1574:
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1562:
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1558:
1543:
1537:
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1510:
1504:
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1501:
1499:
1490:. Archived from
1479:
1466:
1465:
1439:
1433:
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1430:
1428:
1405:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
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1247:
1246:
1245:. March 4, 2015.
1231:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1206:Dignity Memorial
1198:
1192:
1191:
1171:
1165:
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1159:
1157:
1140:
1131:
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1128:
1126:
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1009:
1003:
1002:
1000:
998:
975:
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959:
957:
955:
949:
938:
909:
908:
903:
901:
887:
876:
875:
873:
871:
853:
740:John Scott Medal
577:William Shockley
283:William Shockley
272:
271:
268:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
225:Doctoral advisor
84:
81:October 13, 1987
58:
56:
43:
40:
35:
21:
20:
3766:
3765:
3761:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3572:
3564:
3561:(United States)
3549:(United States)
3533:
3530:(United States)
3524:(United States)
3518:(United States)
3502:
3486:
3462:
3453:(Great Britain)
3437:
3430:
3400:
3395:
3379:
3363:
3347:
3331:
3315:
3299:
3283:
3267:
3255:
3239:
3227:
3215:
3199:
3187:
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3155:
3143:
3131:
3115:
3099:
3083:
3067:
3051:
3044:
3038:
3022:
3010:
2994:
2985:Cohen-Tannoudji
2978:
2962:
2950:
2938:
2926:
2918:
2910:
2894:
2878:
2862:
2850:
2834:
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2142:
2134:
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2110:
2102:
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2079:
2067:
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2051:
2043:
2035:
2027:
2015:
2007:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1975:
1959:
1947:
1939:
1928:
1919:
1868:
1831:
1826:
1825:
1815:
1813:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1787:
1780:Whitman College
1774:
1773:
1769:
1754:
1750:
1735:
1731:
1696:
1692:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1652:
1650:
1635:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1585:
1582:How Stuff Works
1576:
1575:
1566:
1556:
1554:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1512:
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1317:
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1199:
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1155:
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1124:
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1112:
1093:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1065:
1063:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1010:
1006:
996:
994:
992:
976:
963:
953:
951:
947:
939:
912:
899:
897:
889:
888:
879:
869:
867:
855:
854:
850:
845:
720:
703:
594:charge carriers
494:state physics.
459:charge carriers
443:
441:Scientific work
382:E. John Workman
374:Walker Bleakney
362:Whitman College
348:, two years at
323:Whitman College
303:
285:, invented the
249:
245:
219:
210:Whitman College
177:
152:Robert Brattain
133:
119:Whitman College
112:Alma mater
99:
86:
82:
73:
60:
54:
52:
44:
41:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3764:
3754:
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3748:
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3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
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3627:
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3496:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3477:
3475:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3459:(Soviet Union)
3454:
3447:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3429:
3428:
3421:
3414:
3406:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3377:
3361:
3345:
3329:
3313:
3297:
3281:
3265:
3253:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3197:
3185:
3169:
3153:
3141:
3129:
3113:
3097:
3081:
3065:
3048:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3020:
3008:
2992:
2976:
2960:
2948:
2936:
2924:
2916:
2908:
2892:
2876:
2860:
2848:
2832:
2824:
2812:
2800:
2792:
2776:
2764:
2748:
2732:
2721:P. W. Anderson
2716:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2677:
2665:
2649:
2633:
2625:
2613:
2605:
2597:
2589:
2581:
2565:
2549:
2542:Goeppert Mayer
2533:
2525:
2513:
2505:
2493:
2477:
2465:
2449:
2437:
2425:
2417:
2405:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2374:
2366:
2358:
2350:
2342:
2334:
2326:
2318:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2289:
2281:
2269:
2266:C. D. Anderson
2257:
2249:
2242:
2230:
2222:
2215:
2207:
2199:
2191:
2179:
2170:
2168:
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2160:
2148:
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2124:
2116:
2108:
2100:
2092:
2084:
2077:
2065:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2025:
2013:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1957:
1945:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1903:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1873:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1830:
1829:External links
1827:
1824:
1823:
1797:
1767:
1748:
1729:
1690:
1660:
1629:
1616:978-0816054992
1615:
1595:
1564:
1551:Transistorized
1538:
1525:978-0761477617
1524:
1505:
1467:
1460:
1434:
1421:978-0195053296
1420:
1391:
1365:
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1315:
1309:978-0521289030
1308:
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1221:
1193:
1166:
1150:New York Times
1132:
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687:blood clotting
625:Seymour Benzer
442:
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393:Master of Arts
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295:surface states
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138:Known for
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85:(aged 85)
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3014:
3009:
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2973:R. Richardson
2970:
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2949:
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2806:
2805:Chandrasekhar
2801:
2798:
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2777:
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2758:
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2332:
2327:
2324:
2319:
2312:
2305:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2287:
2282:
2279:
2278:G. P. Thomson
2275:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2223:
2216:
2213:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2197:
2196:O. Richardson
2192:
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2158:
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2034:
2031:
2030:Van der Waals
2026:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2003:
1998:
1995:
1994:J. J. Thomson
1990:
1987:
1982:
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1971:
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1801:
1785:
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1777:
1771:
1763:
1762:Nobel Lecture
1759:
1752:
1744:
1743:Nobel Lecture
1740:
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1705:
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3651:1902 births
3434:Nobel Prize
2873:Steinberger
2789:K. Siegbahn
2781:Bloembergen
2502:Chamberlain
2235:Schrödinger
2145:M. Siegbahn
2074:W. H. Bragg
2070:W. L. Bragg
1584:. July 2010
1267:APS Physics
1156:December 8,
900:December 8,
104:Nationality
42: 1950
3645:Categories
3468:Literature
3390:L'Huillier
3354:Hasselmann
3310:Strickland
3278:Kosterlitz
3202:Perlmutter
2941:Brockhouse
2646:Schrieffer
2518:Hofstadter
2470:C. N. Yang
2227:Heisenberg
2204:De Broglie
1061:PBS Online
870:August 10,
843:References
621:Ralph Bray
609:transistor
539:submarines
537:caused by
487:adsorption
315:Qing China
142:Transistor
93:Washington
55:1902-02-10
3555:(Germany)
3443:Chemistry
3436:laureates
3374:Zeilinger
3194:Novoselov
3162:Kobayashi
3086:Abrikosov
2933:J. Taylor
2913:de Gennes
2905:R. Taylor
2797:K. Wilson
2745:R. Wilson
2729:Van Vleck
2700:1976–2000
2690:Rainwater
2686:Mottelson
2662:Josephson
2610:Gell-Mann
2574:Schwinger
2562:Prokhorov
2522:Mössbauer
2482:Cherenkov
2474:T. D. Lee
2398:Cockcroft
2389:1951–1975
2188:C. Wilson
2167:1926–1950
2113:Guillaume
2002:Michelson
1962:Becquerel
1933:1901–1925
1922:Laureates
1653:April 10,
1125:March 29,
581:Bell Labs
508:germanium
395:from the
337:in 1911.
319:Stuttgart
301:Biography
275:Bell Labs
154:(brother)
148:Relatives
37:Brattain
3382:Agostini
3270:Thouless
3262:McDonald
3250:Nakamura
3218:Wineland
3150:Grünberg
3106:Politzer
3090:Ginzburg
3078:Giacconi
3058:Ketterle
3013:'t Hooft
2997:Laughlin
2989:Phillips
2969:Osheroff
2897:Friedman
2869:Schwartz
2865:Lederman
2785:Schawlow
2761:Weinberg
2570:Tomonaga
2462:Brattain
2454:Shockley
2363:Blackett
2355:Appleton
2347:Bridgman
2294:Lawrence
2274:Davisson
2254:Chadwick
2137:Millikan
2121:Einstein
2010:Lippmann
1978:Rayleigh
1970:M. Curie
1966:P. Curie
1816:March 5,
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1622:March 5,
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997:March 4,
954:March 4,
824:Brattain
701:Teaching
693:, using
485:and the
483:tungsten
107:American
3508:Physics
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3370:Clauser
3334:Penrose
3318:Peebles
3274:Haldane
3242:Akasaki
3230:Englert
3222:Haroche
3206:Schmidt
3166:Maskawa
3118:Glauber
3110:Wilczek
3094:Leggett
3074:Koshiba
3054:Cornell
3045:present
3029:Kroemer
3025:Alferov
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3001:Störmer
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2853:Bednorz
2753:Glashow
2741:Penzias
2737:Kapitsa
2709:Richter
2682:A. Bohr
2658:Giaever
2638:Bardeen
2602:Alvarez
2586:Kastler
2578:Feynman
2458:Bardeen
2422:Zernike
2414:Purcell
2184:Compton
2129:N. Bohr
2018:Marconi
1950:Lorentz
1942:Röntgen
1924:of the
1704:Science
732:of the
726:Awards
517:During
512:silicon
491:thorium
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3366:Aspect
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3350:Parisi
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1553:. PBS
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