734:. Experimental studies are done to characterize specific bacterial pathogens and to identify their specific virulence factors. Scientists are trying to better understand these virulence factors through identification and analysis to better understand the infectious process in hopes that new diagnostic techniques, specific antimicrobial compounds, and effective vaccines or toxoids may be eventually produced to treat and prevent infection. There are three general experimental ways for the virulence factors to be identified: biochemically, immunologically, and genetically. For the most part, the genetic approach is the most extensive way in identifying the bacterial virulence factors. Bacterial DNA can be altered from pathogenic to non-pathogenic, random mutations may be introduced to their genome, specific genes encoding for membrane or secretory products may be identified and mutated, and genes that regulate virulence genes maybe identified.
755:, a DNA element inserted at random, mutagenesis of bacteria DNA is also a highly used experimental technique done by scientists. These transposons carry a marker that can be identified within the DNA. When placed at random, the transposon may be placed next to a virulence factor or placed in the middle of a virulence factor gene, which stops the expression of the virulence factor. By doing so, scientists can make a library of the genes using these markers and easily find the genes that cause the virulence factor.
2617:
422:. There are two ways in which they act. One is by acting as a GEF or GAP, and proceeding to look like a normally eukaryotic cellular protein. The other is covalently modifying the GTPase itself. The first way is reversible; many bacteria like Salmonella have two proteins to turn the GTPases on and off. The other process is irreversible, using toxins to completely change the target GTPase and shut down or override gene expression.
43:
478:. As part of this immune response cytokines are released; these can cause the fever and other symptoms seen during disease. If a high amount of LPS is present then septic shock (or endotoxic shock) may result which, in severe cases, can lead to death. As glycolipids (as opposed to peptides), endotoxins are not bound by B or T-cell receptors and do not elicit an adaptive immune response.
425:
One example of a bacterial virulence factor acting like a eukaryotic protein is
Salmonella protein SopE it acts as a GEF, turning the GTPase on to create more GTP. It does not modify anything, but overdrives normal cellular internalization process, making it easier for the Bacteria to be colonized
437:
is an example of modification of the host. It modifies the proteolytic cleavage of carboxyl terminus of RhoA, releasing RhoA from the membrane. The mislocalization of RhoA causes downstream effectors to not work.
1217:
Oscar
Cirioni; Roberto Ghiselli; Daniele Minardi; Fiorenza Orlando; Federico Mocchegiani; Carmela Silvestri; Giovanni Muzzonigro; Vittorio Saba; Giorgio Scalise; Naomi Balaban & Andrea Giacometti (2007).
486:
Exotoxins are actively secreted by some bacteria and have a wide range of effects including inhibition of certain biochemical pathways in the host. The two most potent known exotoxins are the tetanus toxin
323:. Immunoglobulins are antibodies expressed and secreted by hosts in response to an infection. These immunoglobulins play a major role in destruction of the pathogen through mechanisms such as
572:, deter other organisms from consuming the food colonised by the fungi. As with bacterial toxins, there is a wide array of fungal toxins. Arguably one of the more dangerous mycotoxins is
743:
have been used to change the virulence phenotype of non-pathogenic bacteria to pathogenic. Because of horizontal gene transfer, it is possible to transfer the a clone of the DNA from
360:
depend on a subset of genes that allow them to maintain a chronic infection by reactivating when specific environmental conditions are met. Even though they are not essential for
2653:
239:
for invasion, nutrition and other cell-cell communications. It has been found that many pathogens have converged on similar virulence factors to battle against
336:
Viruses also have notable virulence factors. Experimental research, for example, often focuses on creating environments that isolate and identify the role of "
1262:
764:
2646:
1001:
344:
These are genes that perform specific tasks within specific tissues/places at specific times; the sum total of niche-specific genes is the virus'
364:
phases of the virus, these latency genes are important for promoting chronic infection and continued replication within infected individuals.
2639:
2209:
797:
Casadevall A, Pirofski LA (2009). "Virulence factors and their mechanisms of action: the view from a damage āresponse framework".
296:
680:
are an altered form of lipopolysaccharide, type three secretion system, and YopE and YopJ pathogenicity. The cytolytic peptide
561:
pathogenesis. Exotoxins are extremely immunogenic meaning that they trigger the humoral response (antibodies target the toxin).
1292:
107:
985:
470:
part of this LPS which is toxic. Lipid A is an endotoxin. Endotoxins trigger intense inflammation. They bind to receptors on
79:
1021:: Novel Function of Known Virulence Factors That Are Implicated in Activation of Airway Epithelial Proinflammatory Response"
1419:
243:
host defenses. These obtained bacterial virulence factors have two different routes used to help them survive and grow:
86:
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60:
17:
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93:
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1220:"RNAIII-inhibiting peptide affects biofilm formation in a rat model of staphylococcal ureteral stent infection"
64:
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1799:
1443:
1438:
694:; it is an example of a virulence factor from a fungus. Other virulence factors include factors required for
75:
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Capsules, made of carbohydrate, form part of the outer structure of many bacterial cells including
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colonization of a niche in the host (this includes movement towards and attachment to host cells)
53:
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A major category of virulence factors are bacterial toxins. These are divided into two groups:
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329:
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224:
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100:
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1451:
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380:
146:) are cellular structures, molecules and regulatory systems that enable microbial pathogens (
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1216:
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The factors are used to assist and promote colonization of the host. These factors include
209:(e.g. some exotoxins). Virulence factors encoded on mobile genetic elements spread through
3118:
3113:
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1694:
1642:
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A major group of virulence factors are proteins that can control the activation levels of
8:
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3196:
3152:
3108:
2846:
2620:
933:
Duan, Q; Zhou, M; Zhu, L; Zhu, G (January 2013). "Flagella and bacterial pathogenicity".
1138:
714:
Strategies to target virulence factors and the genes encoding them have been proposed.
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being investigated for their ability to inhibit virulence factors and virulence factor
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note: some toxins are produced by lower species and pass through intermediate species
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1121:
Deborah T. Hung; Elizabeth A. Shakhnovich; Emily
Pierson; John J. Mekalanos (2005).
962:
3135:
2662:
2502:
2320:
1926:
1842:
1590:
1239:
1231:
1191:
1142:
1123:"Small-molecule inhibitor of Vibrio cholerae virulence and intestinal colonization"
1093:
1083:
1042:
1032:
942:
883:
873:
806:
690:
509:
390:, produce a variety of enzymes which cause damage to host tissues. Enzymes include
337:
27:
Type of molecules produced by a pathogen that might cause potential harmful effects
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1931:
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1180:"Recent advances in understanding the antibacterial properties of flavonoids"
1088:
1072:"Paradigms of pathogenesis: Targeting the mobile genetic elements of disease"
769:
653:
645:
603:
554:
488:
475:
391:
357:
349:
213:, and can convert harmless bacteria into dangerous pathogens. Bacteria like
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674:, and actA, all of which are used to help colonize the host. Examples for
661:
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324:
309:
1037:
182:
entry into and exit out of cells (if the pathogen is an intracellular one)
3433:
3299:
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2497:
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2080:
1946:
1657:
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1320:
1310:
1235:
980:. Philadelphia, PA, USA: LIPPINCOTT WILLIAMS & WILKINS. p. 254.
578:
361:
810:
299:
and a wide variety of other surface proteins to attach to host tissue.
30:"Immunoevasion" redirects here. For the antigenic escape mechanism, see
3341:
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2020:
2005:
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1906:
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1330:
1325:
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447:
407:
190:
189:
Specific pathogens possess a wide array of virulence factors. Some are
176:
588:). If ingested repeatedly, this toxin can cause serious liver damage.
3346:
3331:
3318:
3070:
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2060:
2040:
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1990:
1985:
1965:
1936:
1886:
1868:
1821:
1813:
1720:
1704:
1315:
727:
657:
611:
573:
569:
507:. Exotoxins are also produced by a range of other bacteria including
451:
410:
which break down a variety of host cells, including red blood cells.
345:
333:, are able to break down the host's immunoglobulins using proteases.
271:
240:
220:
194:
1179:
42:
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3225:
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2010:
1975:
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1901:
1853:
1826:
1772:
1700:
1353:
878:
723:
703:
607:
471:
434:
320:
308:. Capsules play important roles in immune evasion, as they inhibit
282:
275:
159:
147:
3359:
3237:
3021:
3006:
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2538:
2000:
1995:
1980:
1941:
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731:
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695:
558:
520:
467:
353:
252:
202:
1015:
Bien, Justyna; Sokolova, Olga; Bozko, Przemyslaw (21 May 2018).
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2279:
2249:
2065:
1767:
1748:
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615:
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399:
143:
1177:
348:. Genes characteristic of this concept are those that control
2932:
2924:
2742:
2704:
2254:
2170:
2165:
2035:
1956:
1295:
685:
315:
Another group of virulence factors possessed by bacteria are
312:, as well as protecting the bacteria while outside the host.
267:
155:
151:
3438:
3130:
2671:
2419:
2327:
474:
causing the release of inflammatory mediators which induce
341:
263:
that give motility are included in these virulence factors.
142:(preferably known as pathogenicity factors or effectors in
175:, inhibition of the host's immune response (this includes
2264:
193:
encoded and intrinsic to the bacteria (e.g. capsules and
751:
and have them express the pathogenic virulence factor.
466:) of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. It is the
2661:
547:). A potent three-protein virulence factor produced by
765:
Resistance-Nodulation-Cell
Division Superfamily (RND)
394:, which breaks down the connective tissue component
169:
immunoevasion, evasion of the host's immune response
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
796:
1014:
3463:
1076:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
283:Attachment, immunoevasion, and immunosuppression
932:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
2647:
1278:
1184:International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents
975:
920:Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
568:as a competitive resource. The toxins, named
1361:
1210:
1171:
1114:
1000:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
917:
913:
911:
909:
907:
832:
830:
828:
781:
2654:
2640:
1285:
1271:
1017:"Characterization of Virulence Factors of
227:secrete a variety of virulence factors at
2210:Androctonus australis hector insect toxin
1243:
1178:T.P. Tim Cushnie; Andrew J. Lamb (2011).
1146:
1097:
1087:
1046:
1036:
904:
887:
877:
825:
709:
576:produced by certain species of the genus
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
644:capsule, destructive enzymes (including
356:gamma herpesvirus 68 (Ī³HV68) and human
14:
3464:
836:
367:
2635:
1266:
1224:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
859:
1069:
976:Knipe, Howley, David, Peter (2013).
670:include internalin A, internalin B,
564:Exotoxins are also produced by some
197:), whereas others are obtained from
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
926:
24:
1564:Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB)
853:
596:Examples of virulence factors for
25:
3483:
1196:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.02.014
297:trimeric autotransporter adhesins
237:bacterial outer membrane vesicles
2616:
2615:
41:
1648:Extracellular adenylate cyclase
52:needs additional citations for
3308:Last universal common ancestor
2903:Defective interfering particle
1063:
1008:
969:
223:from mobile genetic elements.
185:obtain nutrition from the host
13:
1:
3444:Clonally transmissible cancer
2880:Satellite-like nucleic acids
1800:Fibronectin binding protein A
1070:Keen, E. C. (December 2012).
935:Journal of Basic Microbiology
922:(11th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
862:"What is a virulence factor?"
839:"What are Virulence Factors?"
775:
457:
352:in some viruses like herpes.
978:Fields Virology, 6th Edition
481:
406:, which break down DNA, and
233:membrane vesicle trafficking
162:) to achieve the following:
7:
1541:Staphylococcus aureus alpha
1519:PantonāValentine leukocidin
799:Journal of Water and Health
758:
740:Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
591:
529:(common causative agent of
398:; a range of proteases and
278:, bring damage to the host.
219:gain the majority of their
10:
3488:
3000:Class II or DNA transposon
2995:Class I or retrotransposon
1559:Toxic shock syndrome toxin
462:Endotoxin is a component (
413:
29:
3370:
3313:Earliest known life forms
3298:
3211:
3187:Repeated sequences in DNA
3079:
2961:
2950:
2923:
2895:
2845:
2834:
2807:
2796:
2741:
2670:
2611:
2598:
2536:
2456:(+)-Allopumiliotoxin 267A
2443:
2417:
2406:
2361:
2303:
2197:
2186:
1955:
1812:
1783:
1719:
1656:
1603:
1576:
1529:
1504:
1495:
1468:
1381:
1372:
1352:
1341:
441:
327:. Some bacteria, such as
287:Bacteria produce various
3160:Endogenous viral element
2978:Horizontal gene transfer
1849:beta-Nitropropionic acid
1089:10.3389/fcimb.2012.00161
805:(Supplement 1): S2āS18.
545:pseudomembranous colitis
464:lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
216:Escherichia coli O157:H7
211:horizontal gene transfer
2857:dsDNA satellite virus (
1633:Heat-labile enterotoxin
1624:heat-stable enterotoxin
1148:10.1126/science.1116739
526:Clostridium perfringens
372:Some bacteria, such as
266:The factors, including
229:hostāpathogen interface
199:mobile genetic elements
3415:Helper dependent virus
2731:Biological dark matter
1742:Bacillus thuringiensis
947:10.1002/jobm.201100335
860:Cross, Alan S (2008).
737:Experiments involving
710:Inhibition and control
667:Listeria monocytogenes
629:Streptococcus pyogenes
557:, plays a key role in
433:outer protein T) from
387:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
375:Streptococcus pyogenes
330:Streptococcus pyogenes
305:Neisseria meningitidis
225:Gram-negative bacteria
3175:Endogenous retrovirus
3148:Origin of replication
2864:ssDNA satellite virus
2854:ssRNA satellite virus
1019:Staphylococcus aureus
918:Levinson, W. (2010).
706:(e.g. beta-1 and 3).
599:Staphylococcus aureus
540:Clostridium difficile
504:Clostridium botulinum
381:Staphylococcus aureus
179:-mediated cell death)
3119:Secondary chromosome
3114:Extrachromosomal DNA
2990:Transposable element
1643:Pseudomonas exotoxin
1236:10.1128/AAC.00808-07
1025:Journal of Pathogens
747:to a non-pathogenic
543:(causative agent of
519:(causative agent of
426:within a host cell.
340:-specific virulence
61:improve this article
3355:Model lipid bilayer
3197:Interspersed repeat
1139:2005Sci...310..670H
1038:10.4061/2011/601905
811:10.2166/wh.2009.036
684:is produced during
368:Destructive enzymes
2665:organic structures
2559:Alpha-Bungarotoxin
1729:Lipopolysaccharide
1687:Pore-forming toxin
841:. News-Medical.Net
620:deoxyribonucleases
550:Bacillus anthracis
494:Clostridium tetani
261:Bacterial flagella
76:"Virulence factor"
3472:Virulence factors
3459:
3458:
3400:Non-cellular life
3207:
3206:
2946:
2945:
2919:
2918:
2873:ssRNA satellite (
2629:
2628:
2594:
2593:
2564:Beta-Bungarotoxin
2508:Pumiliotoxin 251D
2402:
2401:
1808:
1807:
1795:Clumping factor A
1715:
1714:
1599:
1598:
1572:
1571:
1491:
1490:
1230:(12): 4518ā4520.
1133:(5748): 670ā674.
987:978-1-4511-0563-6
837:Ryding S (2021).
664:). Examples for
638:lipoteichoic acid
293:lipoteichoic acid
173:immunosuppression
140:Virulence factors
137:
136:
129:
111:
18:Virulence factors
16:(Redirected from
3479:
3136:Gene duplication
2959:
2958:
2955:self-replication
2843:
2842:
2805:
2804:
2663:Self-replicating
2656:
2649:
2642:
2633:
2632:
2619:
2618:
2547:
2503:Histrionicotoxin
2449:
2423:
2415:
2414:
2367:
2321:Alpha-latrotoxin
2309:
2203:
2195:
2194:
1927:Sterigmatocystin
1879:, Fumonisin B3,
1843:epsilon-amanitin
1762:B. thuringiensis
1591:Diphtheria toxin
1534:
1502:
1501:
1471:
1387:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1369:
1359:
1358:
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1349:
1287:
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901:
891:
881:
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851:
850:
848:
846:
834:
823:
822:
794:
698:formation (e.g.
691:Candida albicans
626:. Examples for
510:Escherichia coli
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
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3486:
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3462:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3405:Synthetic virus
3393:Artificial cell
3366:
3294:
3203:
3092:RNA replication
3087:DNA replication
3075:
3066:Group II intron
2964:
2954:
2942:
2933:Mammalian prion
2915:
2891:
2870:dsRNA satellite
2867:ssDNA satellite
2837:
2830:
2799:
2792:
2737:
2666:
2660:
2630:
2625:
2607:
2590:
2586:Cardiotoxin III
2542:
2537:
2532:
2444:
2439:
2418:
2410:
2398:
2362:
2357:
2304:
2299:
2198:
2190:
2182:
2086:Resiniferatoxin
1951:
1804:
1786:
1779:
1744:delta endotoxin
1711:
1652:
1638:Pertussis toxin
1606:
1595:
1568:
1530:
1525:
1487:
1483:Listeriolysin O
1469:
1464:
1382:
1364:
1344:
1337:
1291:
1261:
1215:
1211:
1176:
1172:
1119:
1115:
1068:
1064:
1013:
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993:
992:
988:
974:
970:
931:
927:
916:
905:
858:
854:
844:
842:
835:
826:
795:
782:
778:
761:
716:Small molecules
712:
677:Yersinia pestis
672:listeriolysin O
642:hyaluronic acid
594:
516:Vibrio cholerae
499:botulinum toxin
484:
460:
444:
416:
396:hyaluronic acid
370:
285:
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3453:
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3447:
3446:
3441:
3431:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3412:
3402:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3380:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3315:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3272:
3270:Kappa organism
3267:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3228:
3217:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3141:Non-coding DNA
3138:
3133:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3061:Group I intron
3058:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3027:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3004:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2983:Genomic island
2980:
2969:
2967:
2963:Mobile genetic
2956:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2929:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2908:
2899:
2897:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2878:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2855:
2851:
2849:
2840:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2821:
2813:
2811:
2802:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2790:
2788:dsDNA-RT virus
2785:
2783:ssRNA-RT virus
2780:
2778:(ā)ssRNA virus
2775:
2773:(+)ssRNA virus
2770:
2765:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2747:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2728:
2718:Incertae sedis
2714:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2687:
2682:
2676:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2659:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2636:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2550:
2548:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2528:Zetekitoxin AB
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2463:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2424:
2412:
2404:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2370:
2368:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2312:
2310:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2206:
2204:
2192:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2076:Pseudaconitine
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2016:Djenkolic acid
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1839:gamma-amanitin
1831:alpha-amanitin
1824:
1818:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1791:
1789:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1751:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1725:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1662:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1626:
1618:
1611:
1609:
1601:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1578:Actinomycetota
1574:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1537:
1535:
1532:Staphylococcus
1527:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1474:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1390:
1388:
1376:
1367:
1356:
1347:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1290:
1289:
1282:
1275:
1267:
1260:
1259:
1209:
1170:
1113:
1062:
1007:
986:
968:
925:
903:
879:10.1186/cc7127
852:
824:
779:
777:
774:
773:
772:
767:
760:
757:
711:
708:
650:streptodornase
593:
590:
531:food poisoning
491:) secreted by
483:
480:
459:
456:
443:
440:
415:
412:
369:
366:
317:immunoglobulin
284:
281:
280:
279:
264:
257:antiphagocytic
207:bacteriophages
187:
186:
183:
180:
170:
167:
135:
134:
117:September 2014
49:
47:
40:
32:Immune evasion
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3484:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3424:
3423:Nanobacterium
3420:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3388:Cell division
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3291:
3288:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3232:
3231:Hydrogenosome
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3221:Mitochondrion
3219:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3213:Endosymbiosis
3210:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3192:Tandem repeat
3190:
3189:
3188:
3185:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3080:Other aspects
3078:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2825:Avsunviroidae
2822:
2820:
2819:
2818:Pospiviroidae
2815:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2672:Cellular life
2669:
2664:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2634:
2622:
2614:
2613:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2597:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2518:Samandaridine
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2491:Marinobufagin
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2461:Batrachotoxin
2459:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Charybdotoxin
2213:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2126:Solauricidine
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2071:Protoanemonin
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2056:Oenanthotoxin
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1932:Trichothecene
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1892:Ibotenic acid
1890:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1835:beta-amanitin
1832:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1782:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1629:Cholera toxin
1627:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1602:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1478:Anthrax toxin
1476:
1475:
1473:
1467:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1401:Tetanospasmin
1399:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1340:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1190:(2): 99ā107.
1189:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1020:
1011:
1003:
997:
989:
983:
979:
972:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
929:
921:
914:
912:
910:
908:
899:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
871:
867:
866:Critical Care
863:
856:
840:
833:
831:
829:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
780:
771:
770:Filamentation
768:
766:
763:
762:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
741:
735:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
707:
705:
701:
697:
693:
692:
688:formation by
687:
683:
679:
678:
673:
669:
668:
663:
659:
655:
654:hyaluronidase
651:
647:
646:streptokinase
643:
639:
635:
631:
630:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
604:hyaluronidase
601:
600:
589:
587:
586:
581:
580:
575:
571:
567:
562:
560:
556:
555:anthrax toxin
552:
551:
546:
542:
541:
536:
532:
528:
527:
522:
518:
517:
512:
511:
506:
505:
500:
496:
495:
490:
489:tetanospasmin
479:
477:
476:degranulation
473:
469:
465:
455:
453:
449:
439:
436:
432:
427:
423:
421:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
392:hyaluronidase
389:
388:
383:
382:
377:
376:
365:
363:
359:
358:herpesviruses
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
332:
331:
326:
322:
318:
313:
311:
307:
306:
300:
298:
294:
290:
277:
273:
269:
265:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
245:
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191:chromosomally
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81:
78: ā
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3410:Viral vector
3253:Gerontoplast
3180:Transpoviron
3029:
2952:Nucleic acid
2938:Fungal prion
2836:Helper-virus
2823:
2816:
2723:
2716:
2602:
2581:Calcicludine
2571:Calciseptine
2554:Bungarotoxin
2523:Tarichatoxin
2471:Arenobufagin
2435:Tetrodotoxin
2394:Tetrodotoxin
2348:Vanillotoxin
2285:Phaiodotoxin
2188:Invertebrate
2111:Solasodamine
2046:Lotaustralin
1881:Fumonisin B4
1877:Fumonisin B2
1873:Fumonisin B1
1859:Cytochalasin
1784:
1761:
1741:
1693:
1679:
1673:Superantigen
1665:
1621:
1509:Streptolysin
1450:
1431:
1412:
1393:
1227:
1223:
1212:
1187:
1183:
1173:
1130:
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1024:
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1010:
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928:
919:
869:
865:
855:
843:. Retrieved
802:
798:
748:
744:
738:
736:
713:
689:
682:Candidalysin
675:
665:
662:streptolysin
627:
624:enterotoxins
597:
595:
583:
577:
563:
548:
538:
535:gas gangrene
524:
514:
508:
502:
501:secreted by
492:
485:
461:
445:
430:
428:
424:
417:
385:
379:
373:
371:
335:
328:
325:opsonization
314:
310:phagocytosis
303:
301:
286:
214:
188:
139:
138:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
3434:Cancer cell
3300:Abiogenesis
3248:Chromoplast
3243:Chloroplast
3026:Degradative
2768:dsRNA virus
2763:ssDNA virus
2756:Giant virus
2751:dsDNA virus
2544:Snake venom
2498:Epibatidine
2486:Cinobufagin
2343:Stromatoxin
2290:Imperatoxin
2240:Scyllatoxin
2146:Tagetitoxin
2141:Swainsonine
2131:Solauricine
2096:Solamargine
2091:Scopolamine
2081:Retronecine
1947:Zearalenone
1615:Shiga toxin
1586:Cord factor
1425:Enterotoxin
1420:Alpha toxin
1414:perfringens
1406:Tetanolysin
1384:Clostridium
1321:hepatotoxin
1311:enterotoxin
1301:cardiotoxin
660:(including
579:Aspergillus
533:as well as
3342:Proteinoid
3337:Coacervate
3290:Nitroplast
3283:Trophosome
3278:Bacteriome
3263:Apicoplast
3258:Leucoplast
3099:Chromosome
3017:Resistance
2725:Parakaryon
2576:Taicatoxin
2513:Samandarin
2466:Bufotoxins
2430:Ciguatoxin
2408:Vertebrate
2353:Huwentoxin
2333:Cupiennins
2316:Latrotoxin
2260:Kaliotoxin
2230:Margatoxin
2220:Maurotoxin
2161:Toxalbumin
2151:Tinyatoxin
2136:Strychnine
2121:Solasonine
2116:Solasodine
2101:Solanidine
2021:Falcarinol
2006:Delphinine
1922:Phalloidin
1912:Ochratoxin
1907:Orellanine
1897:Lolitrem B
1864:Ergotamine
1814:Mycotoxins
1658:Mechanisms
1617:/Verotoxin
1554:Exfoliatin
1514:Leukocidin
1331:phototoxin
1326:neurotoxin
1031:: 601905.
941:(1): 1ā8.
872:(6): 197.
776:References
753:Transposon
728:flavonoids
720:expression
570:mycotoxins
458:Endotoxins
448:endotoxins
408:hemolysins
291:including
272:hemolysins
241:eukaryotic
177:leukocidin
87:newspapers
3351:Research
3332:Protocell
3071:Retrozyme
3030:Virulence
3012:Fertility
2859:Virophage
2847:Satellite
2838:dependent
2690:Eukaryota
2481:Bufotenin
2476:Bufotalin
2446:Amphibian
2389:Saxitoxin
2379:Eledoisin
2374:Conotoxin
2245:Hefutoxin
2061:Oleandrin
2041:Linamarin
2031:Helenalin
1991:Cicutoxin
1986:Chaconine
1966:Amygdalin
1937:Vomitoxin
1887:Gliotoxin
1869:Fumonisin
1822:Aflatoxin
1785:Virulence
1721:Endotoxin
1452:botulinum
1433:difficile
1343:Bacterial
1316:hemotoxin
1306:cytotoxin
996:cite book
724:alkaloids
704:integrins
658:exotoxins
634:M protein
612:coagulase
585:A. flavus
582:(notably
574:aflatoxin
553:, called
482:Exotoxins
472:monocytes
452:exotoxins
346:virulence
321:proteases
276:proteases
259:factors.
221:virulence
195:endotoxin
3466:Category
3378:Organism
3371:See also
3347:Sulphobe
3324:Ribozyme
3319:RNA life
3226:Mitosome
3170:Prophage
3165:Provirus
3153:Replicon
3109:Circular
3056:Phagemid
2973:Mobilome
2965:elements
2875:Virusoid
2798:Subviral
2710:Protista
2695:Animalia
2680:Bacteria
2621:Category
2384:Onchidal
2364:Mollusca
2275:Bestoxin
2270:Birtoxin
2235:Slotoxin
2225:Agitoxin
2200:Scorpion
2156:Tomatine
2106:Solanine
2051:Mimosine
2026:Gossypol
2011:Divicine
1976:Antiarin
1971:Anisatin
1902:Muscimol
1854:Citrinin
1827:Amatoxin
1773:Cry34Ab1
1701:AB toxin
1695:type III
1607:negative
1365:positive
1354:Exotoxin
1254:17875996
1204:21514796
1165:30557147
1157:16223984
1108:23248780
1057:22567334
963:22002199
955:22359233
898:19090973
819:19717929
759:See also
745:Yersinia
732:peptides
722:include
700:sortases
608:protease
592:Examples
497:and the
435:Yersinia
431:Yersinia
289:adhesins
253:invasins
249:adhesins
203:plasmids
160:protozoa
148:bacteria
3360:Jeewanu
3274:Organs
3238:Plastid
3038:Cryptic
3007:Plasmid
2705:Plantae
2685:Archaea
2539:Reptile
2001:Daphnin
1996:Coniine
1981:Brucine
1942:Zeranol
1917:Patulin
1764:toxins
1754:Cry3Bb1
1734:Lipid A
1681:type II
1622:E. coli
1374:Bacilli
1245:2167994
1135:Bibcode
1127:Science
1099:3522046
1082:: 161.
1048:3335658
889:2646308
749:E. coli
696:biofilm
656:), and
616:lipases
559:anthrax
521:cholera
468:lipid A
420:GTPases
414:GTPases
400:lipases
350:latency
342:genes".
152:viruses
101:scholar
3451:Virome
3429:Nanobe
3126:Genome
3104:Linear
3049:Fosmid
3044:Cosmid
2809:Viroid
2800:agents
2411:toxins
2306:Spider
2280:BmKAEP
2250:HgeTx1
2191:toxins
2066:Persin
1959:toxins
1787:factor
1768:Cry6Aa
1760:Other
1749:Cry1Ac
1667:type I
1470:Other:
1395:tetani
1345:toxins
1296:Toxins
1252:
1242:
1202:
1163:
1155:
1106:
1096:
1055:
1045:
984:
961:
953:
896:
886:
845:3 June
817:
730:, and
702:) and
686:hyphal
652:, and
537:) and
442:Toxins
429:YopT (
404:DNases
354:Murine
268:toxins
255:, and
231:, via
158:, and
144:botany
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
2925:Prion
2896:Other
2743:Virus
2700:Fungi
2338:PhTx3
2255:HsTx1
2178:Tutin
2171:Ricin
2166:Abrin
2036:Ledol
1957:Plant
1549:delta
1497:Cocci
1458:Botox
1161:S2CID
959:S2CID
566:fungi
362:lytic
338:niche
319:(Ig)
201:like
156:fungi
108:JSTOR
94:books
3439:HeLa
3383:Cell
3131:Gene
2420:Fish
2328:CSTX
1605:Gram
1545:beta
1363:Gram
1250:PMID
1200:PMID
1153:PMID
1104:PMID
1053:PMID
1029:2011
1002:link
982:ISBN
951:PMID
894:PMID
847:2021
815:PMID
632:are
622:and
602:are
450:and
384:and
274:and
205:and
80:news
3022:Col
2910:DNA
2907:RNA
2886:DNA
2883:RNA
2295:Pi3
2265:Lq2
1705:AB5
1240:PMC
1232:doi
1192:doi
1143:doi
1131:310
1094:PMC
1084:doi
1043:PMC
1033:doi
943:doi
884:PMC
874:doi
807:doi
523:);
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