568:, Sam McCall, Yong Hee Lee and James Harbison) that demonstrated over 1 million VCSELs on a small chip. These first all-semiconductor VCSELs introduced other design features still used in all commercial VCSELs. "This demonstration marked a turning point in the development of the surface-emitting laser. Several more research groups entered the field, and many important innovations were soon being reported from all over the world". Andrew Yang of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) quickly initiated significant funding toward VCSEL R&D, followed by other government and industrial funding efforts. VCSELs replaced edge-emitting lasers in applications for short-range fiberoptic communication such as
414:
single devices operating around 100 mW were first reported in 1993. Improvements in the epitaxial growth, processing, device design, and packaging led to individual large-aperture VCSELs emitting several hundreds of milliwatts by 1998. More than 2 W continuous-wave (CW) operation at -10 degrees
Celsius heat-sink temperature was also reported in 1998 from a VCSEL array consisting of 1,000 elements, corresponding to a power density of 30 W/cm. In 2001, more than 1 W CW power and 10 W pulsed power at room temperature were reported from a 19-element array. The VCSEL array chip was mounted on a
287:"The stress results show that the activation energy and the wearout lifetime of oxide VCSEL are similar to that of implant VCSEL emitting the same amount of output power." A production concern also plagued the industry when moving the oxide VCSELs from research and development to production mode. The oxidation rate of the oxide layer was highly dependent on the aluminium content. Any slight variation in aluminium would change the oxidation rate sometimes resulting in apertures that were either too big or too small to meet the specification standards.
283:
to late 1990s, companies moved towards the technology of oxide VCSELs. The current is confined in an oxide VCSEL by oxidizing the material around the aperture of the VCSEL. A high content aluminium layer that is grown within the VCSEL structure is the layer that is oxidized. Oxide VCSELs also often employ the ion implant production step. As a result, in the oxide VCSEL, the current path is confined by the ion implant and the oxide aperture.
75:
188:
1476:
25:
282:
In the early 1990s, telecommunications companies tended to favor ion-implanted VCSELs. Ions, (often hydrogen ions, H+), were implanted into the VCSEL structure everywhere except the aperture of the VCSEL, destroying the lattice structure around the aperture, thus inhibiting the current. In the mid
413:
High-power vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers can also be fabricated, either by increasing the emitting aperture size of a single device or by combining several elements into large two-dimensional (2D) arrays. There have been relatively few reported studies on high-power VCSELs. Large-aperture
358:
are optically pumped with conventional laser diodes. This arrangement allows a larger area of the device to be pumped and therefore more power can be extracted – as much as 30 W. The external cavity also allows intracavity techniques such as frequency doubling, single frequency operation and
286:
The initial acceptance of oxide VCSELs was plagued with concern about the apertures "popping off" due to the strain and defects of the oxidation layer. However, after much testing, the reliability of the structure has proven to be robust. As stated in one study by
Hewlett Packard on oxide VCSELs,
275:
of AlGaAs does vary relatively strongly as the Al fraction is increased, minimizing the number of layers required to form an efficient Bragg mirror compared to other candidate material systems. Furthermore, at high aluminium concentrations, an oxide can be formed from AlGaAs, and this oxide can be
214:
for the laser light generation in between. The planar DBR-mirrors consist of layers with alternating high and low refractive indices. Each layer has a thickness of a quarter of the laser wavelength in the material, yielding intensity reflectivities above 99%. High reflectivity mirrors are required
165:
There are several advantages to producing VCSELs, in contrast to the production process of edge-emitting lasers. Edge-emitters cannot be tested until the end of the production process. If the edge-emitter does not function properly, whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, the
398:
The small active region, compared to edge-emitting lasers, reduces the threshold current of VCSELs, resulting in low power consumption. However, as yet, VCSELs have lower emission power compared to edge-emitting lasers. The low threshold current also permits high intrinsic modulation bandwidths in
174:
material during the etch, an interim testing process will flag that the top metal layer is not making contact to the initial metal layer. Additionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands of
551:
VCSEL was done by
Kenichi Iga of Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1977. A simple drawing of his idea is shown in his research note. Contrary to the conventional Fabry-Perot edge-emitting semiconductor lasers, his invention comprises a short laser cavity less than 1/10 of the edge-emitting lasers
425:
In 2007, more than 200 W of CW output power was reported from a large (5 × 5mm) 2D VCSEL array emitting around the 976 nm wavelength, representing a substantial breakthrough in the field of high-power VCSELs. The high power level achieved was mostly due to improvements in
370:
are optimized as amplifiers as opposed to oscillators. VCSOAs must be operated below threshold and thus require reduced mirror reflectivities for decreased feedback. In order to maximize the signal gain, these devices contain a large number of quantum wells (optically pumped devices have been
371:
demonstrated with 21–28 wells) and as a result exhibit single-pass gain values which are significantly larger than that of a typical VCSEL (roughly 5%). These structures operate as narrow linewidth (tens of GHz) amplifiers and may be implemented as amplifying filters.
230:
junction. In more complex structures, the p-type and n-type regions may be embedded between the mirrors, requiring a more complex semiconductor process to make electrical contact to the active region, but eliminating electrical power loss in the DBR structure.
775:
D. D. John, C. Burgner, B. Potsaid, M. Robertson, B. Lee, W. J. Choi, A. Cable, J. Fujimoto, and V. Jayaraman, "Wideband
Electrically-Pumped 1050 nm MEMS-Tunable VCSEL for Ophthalmic Imaging", Jnl. Lightwave Tech., vol. 33, no. 16, pp. 3461 - 3468, Feb.
348:
A photodiode is integrated under the back mirror of the VCSEL. VCSEL with transversally integrated monitor diode: With suitable etching of the VCSEL's wafer, a resonant photodiode can be manufactured that may measure the light intensity of a neighboring
755:
V. Jayaraman, J. Jiang, B. Potsaid, G. Cole, J Fujimoto, and Alex Cable "Design and performance of broadly tunable, narrow linewidth, high repetition rate 1310nm VCSELs for swept source optical coherence tomography", SPIE volume 8276 paper 82760D,
765:
C. Gierl, T. Gruendl, P. Debernardi, K. Zogal, C. Grasse, H. Davani, G. Böhm, S. Jatta, F. Küppers, P. Meißner, and M. Amann, "Surface micromachined tunable 1.55 μm-VCSEL with 102 nm continuous single-mode tuning," Opt. Express 19, 17336-17343
1084:
Van
Leeuwen, R.; Seurin, J-F.; Xu, G.; Ghosh, C. (February 2009). Clarkson, W. Andrew; Hodgson, Norman; Shori, Ramesh K (eds.). "High power pulsed intra-cavity frequency doubled vertical extended cavity blue laser arrays".
166:
production time and the processing materials have been wasted. VCSELs however, can be tested at several stages throughout the process to check for material quality and processing issues. For instance, if the
1040:
Seurin, J-F.; G. Xu; V. Khalfin; A. Miglo; J. D. Wynn; P. Pradhan; C. L. Ghosh; L. A. D'Asaro (February 2009). Choquette, Kent D; Lei, Chun (eds.). "Progress in high-power high-efficiency VCSEL arrays".
785:
V. Jayaraman, G. D. Cole, M. Robertson, A. Uddin, and A. Cable, "High-sweep-rate 1310 nm MEMS-VCSEL with 150 nm continuous tuning range", Electronics
Letters, vol. 48, no. 14, pp. 867–869, 2012.
242:, usually another laser. This allows a VCSEL to be demonstrated without the additional problem of achieving good electrical performance; however such devices are not practical for most applications.
395:
The larger output aperture of VCSELs, compared to most edge-emitting lasers, produces a lower divergence angle of the output beam, and makes possible high coupling efficiency with optical fibers.
433:
At that point, the VCSEL technology became useful for a variety of medical, industrial, and military applications requiring high power or high energy. Examples of such applications are:
1300:
Jewell, J.L.; Scherer, A.; McCall, S.L.; Lee, Y.H.; Walker, S.; Harbison, J.P.; Florez, L.T. (August 1989). "Low-threshold electrically pumped vertical-cavity surface-emitting microlasers".
316:
Using a tunnel junction (np), an electrically advantageous n-np-p-i-n configuration can be built that also may beneficially influence other structural elements (e.g. in the form of a
700:
1999 Digest of the LEOS Summer
Topical Meetings: Nanostructures and Quantum Dots/WDM Components/VCSELs and Microcavaties/RF Photonics for CATV and HFC Systems (Cat. No.99TH8455)
547:
The surface emission from a bulk semiconductor at ultra-low temperature and magnetic carrier confinement was reported by Ivars
Melngailis in 1965. The first proposal of short
1255:
Christensen, D. H.; Barnes, F. S. (February 1987). "Vertical Cavity
Surface Emitting Laser in Molecular Beam Epitaxial GaAs/AlGaAs using a Multilayer Dielectric Mirror".
1539:
873:
Grabherr, M.; R. Jager; M. Miller; C. Thalmaier; J. Herlein; R. Michalzik; K. Ebeling (August 1998). "Bottom-emitting VCSEL's for high-CW optical output power".
179:
wafer. Thus, although the VCSEL production process is more labor and material intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable and higher outcome.
1388:
Towe, Elias; Leheny, Robert F.; Yang, Andrew (December 2000). "A historical perspective of the development of the vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser".
916:
Francis, D.; Chen, H.-L.; Yuen, W.; Li, G.; Chang-Hasnain, C. (October 1998). "Monolithic 2D-VCSEL array with >2 W CW and >5 W pulsed output power".
294:. VCSELs at even higher wavelengths are experimental and usually optically pumped. 1310 nm VCSELs are desirable as the dispersion of silica-based
838:
Peters, F.; M. Peters; D. Young; J. Scott; B. Thibeault; S. Corzine; L. Coldren (January 1993). "High-power vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers".
43:
1579:
1465:
1433:
698:
697:
Lei, C.; Deng, H.; Dudley, J.J.; Lim, S.F.; Liang, B.; Tashima, M.; Herrick, R.W. (1999). "Manufacturing of oxide VCSEL at
Hewlett Packard".
245:
VCSELs for wavelengths from 650 nm to 1300 nm are typically based on gallium arsenide (GaAs) wafers with DBRs formed from GaAs and
951:
Miller, M.; M. Grabherr; R. Jager; K. Ebeling (March 2001). "High-power VCSEL arrays for emission in the watt regime at room temperature".
402:
The wavelength of VCSELs may be tuned, within the gain band of the active region, by adjusting the thickness of the reflector layers.
279:
The main methods of restricting the current in a VCSEL are characterized by two types: ion-implanted VCSELs and oxide VCSELs.
290:
Longer wavelength devices, from 1300 nm to 2000 nm, have been demonstrated with at least the active region made of
129:
beam emission perpendicular from the top surface, contrary to conventional edge-emitting semiconductor lasers (also called
654:
422:. A record 3 W CW output power was reported in 2005 from large diameter single devices emitting around 980 nm.
552:
vertical to a wafer surface. In 1979, a first demonstration on a short cavity VCSEL was done by Soda, Iga, Kitahara and
223:
219:
1511:
1505:
1458:
1276:
1177:
1137:
720:
61:
1236:
Koyama, Fumio; et al. (1988). "Room temperature cw operation of GaAs vertical cavity surface emitting laser".
405:
While early VCSELs emitted in multiple longitudinal modes or in filament modes, single-mode VCSELs are now common.
1650:
430:
and packaging. In 2009, >100 W power levels were reported for VCSEL arrays emitting around 808 nm.
388:
cost of the devices. It also allows VCSELs to be built not only in one-dimensional, but also in two-dimensional
39:
560:
operation at room temperature were not reported until 1988. The term VCSEL was coined in a publication of the
324:
1671:
267:
of the material does not vary strongly as the composition is changed, permitting multiple "lattice-matched"
1451:
367:
203:
170:, which are the electrical connections between layers of a circuit, have not been completely cleared of
1622:
1617:
1517:
1499:
615:
561:
458:
336:
Combination of semiconductor materials that can be fabricated using different types of substrate wafers
246:
795:
Iga, Kenichi (2000). "Surface-emitting laser—Its birth and generation of new optoelectronics field".
385:
142:
1596:
1343:
Lee, Y.H.; Jewell, J.L.; Scherer, A.; McCall, S.L.; Harbison, J.P.; Florez, L.T. (September 1989).
565:
734:
1590:
585:
704:
635:
1533:
595:
310:
Allows for differential quantum efficiency values in excess of 100% through carrier recycling
1585:
1556:
1397:
1359:
1309:
1202:
1094:
1050:
960:
925:
882:
847:
804:
605:
427:
419:
234:
In laboratory investigation of VCSELs using new material systems, the active region may be
8:
1479:
610:
600:
207:
134:
1401:
1363:
1345:"Room-temperature continuous-wave vertical-cavity single-quantum-well microlaser diodes"
1344:
1313:
1206:
1098:
1054:
964:
929:
886:
851:
808:
1523:
1413:
1325:
1282:
1218:
1110:
1066:
976:
898:
820:
726:
438:
1528:
1329:
1286:
1272:
1222:
1193:
Soda, Haruhisa; et al. (1979). "GaInAsP/InP Surface Emitting Injection Lasers".
1173:
1133:
1070:
716:
576:, and are now used for link bandwidths from 1 to 400 gigabits per second or greater.
553:
448:
167:
1438:
1417:
1114:
980:
902:
824:
730:
1644:
1405:
1367:
1317:
1264:
1210:
1102:
1058:
968:
933:
890:
855:
812:
708:
569:
528:
291:
272:
264:
176:
92:
1018:
995:
673:
564:
in 1987. In 1989, Jack Jewell led a Bell Labs / Bellcore collaboration (including
1638:
1601:
557:
477:
133:
lasers) which emit from surfaces formed by cleaving the individual chip out of a
712:
590:
548:
473:
469:
276:
used to restrict the current in a VCSEL, enabling very low threshold currents.
1665:
573:
505:
489:
465:
295:
146:
138:
119:
1443:
517:
342:
Two VCSELs on top of each other. One of them optically pumps the other one.
263:
As). The GaAs–AlGaAs system is favored for constructing VCSELs because the
211:
154:
1371:
1321:
937:
859:
1493:
1268:
1214:
452:
380:
Because VCSELs emit from the top surface of the chip, they can be tested
122:
1409:
816:
239:
171:
1106:
1062:
972:
894:
1087:
Proceedings SPIE, in Solid State Lasers XVIII: Technology and Devices
872:
658:
384:, before they are cleaved into individual devices. This reduces the
950:
1043:
Proceedings SPIE, in Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers XIII
532:
415:
268:
150:
215:
in VCSELs to balance the short axial length of the gain region.
837:
674:"Introduction of VCSEL: Working Principles And Characteristics"
355:
74:
110:
1039:
522:
499:
227:
187:
126:
1475:
1016:
993:
639:
307:
Multiple active region devices (aka bipolar cascade VCSELs)
218:
In common VCSELs the upper and lower mirrors are doped as
1257:
Topical Meeting on Semiconductor Lasers, Technical Digest
101:
1083:
137:. VCSELs are used in various laser products, including
418:
heat spreader, taking advantage of diamond’s very high
323:
Tunable VCSELs with micromechanically movable mirrors (
175:
VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three-inch
1390:
IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
1342:
1299:
1019:"A New Application for VCSELs: High-Power Pump Lasers"
994:
D’Asaro, L. A.; J. Seurin and J.Wynn (February 2005).
797:
IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
1434:
Long Wavelength Surface Emitting Lasers: Introduction
271:
layers to be grown on a GaAs substrate. However, the
107:
104:
1089:. Solid State Lasers XVIII: Technology and Devices.
996:"High-power, high efficiency VCSELs pursue the goal"
206:(DBR) mirrors parallel to the wafer surface with an
98:
1017:Seurin, J-F.; L. A. D’Asaro; C. Ghosh (July 2007).
95:
34:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
345:VCSEL with longitudinally integrated monitor diode
1254:
1130:Semiconductor Lasers II: Materials and Structures
915:
1663:
1439:Britney's Guide to Semiconductor Physics: VCSELs
1152:
1045:. Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers XIII.
696:
364:Vertical-cavity semiconductor optical amplifiers
1580:Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser
444:Infrared illuminators for military/surveillance
1387:
1077:
191:A realistic VCSEL device structure. This is a
1473:
1459:
1167:
866:
671:
909:
655:"Intel made smart glasses that look normal"
330:(either optically or electrically pumped )
238:by an external light source with a shorter
1506:Separate confinement heterostructure laser
1466:
1452:
1229:
1033:
1010:
987:
944:
831:
1127:
62:Learn how and when to remove this message
46:, without removing the technical details.
1186:
538:Lidar for automobile collision avoidance
186:
160:
73:
1383:
1381:
633:
352:VCSELs with external cavities (VECSELs)
1664:
1574:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
1235:
339:Monolithically optically pumped VCSELs
84:vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
1447:
1263:. Optical Society of America: WA7-1.
788:
636:"Faces light up over VCSEL prospects"
531:(e.g. the "dot projector" for iPhone
298:is minimal in this wavelength range.
44:make it understandable to non-experts
1378:
1192:
652:
495:Analog broadband signal transmission
408:
202:The laser resonator consists of two
78:Diagram of a simple VCSEL structure.
18:
1195:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
1170:Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary
794:
13:
375:
14:
1683:
1512:Distributed Bragg reflector laser
1427:
953:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
875:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
333:Wafer-bonded or wafer-fused VCSEL
16:Type of semiconductor laser diode
1474:
653:Bohn, Dieter (5 February 2018).
301:
91:
23:
1651:List of semiconductor materials
1336:
1293:
1248:
1161:
1146:
1121:
483:
779:
769:
759:
749:
690:
665:
646:
634:Extance, Andy (9 April 2018).
627:
359:femtosecond pulse modelocking.
1:
621:
1500:Double heterostructure laser
313:VCSELs with tunnel junctions
182:
7:
1155:Physics of Photonic Devices
672:SEO_INPHENIX (2021-09-24).
579:
204:distributed Bragg reflector
10:
1688:
1623:Laser diode rate equations
1618:Semiconductor laser theory
1518:Distributed-feedback laser
713:10.1109/LEOSST.1999.794691
616:Parallel optical interface
562:Optical Society of America
542:
513:Biological tissue analysis
459:second harmonic generation
247:aluminium gallium arsenide
210:consisting of one or more
143:fiber optic communications
1631:
1610:
1566:
1549:
1486:
1153:Shun Lien Chuang (2009).
498:Absorption spectroscopy (
1597:Semiconductor ring laser
1172:. Taylor & Francis.
707:. pp. III11–III12.
1591:Interband cascade laser
586:Interconnect bottleneck
457:High-power/high-energy
441:, laser wrinkle removal
1168:J.K. Peterson (2002).
705:IEEE Photonics Society
318:Buried Tunnel Junction
199:
79:
1540:External-cavity laser
1534:Quantum-cascade laser
596:Optical communication
525:for cellphone cameras
226:materials, forming a
196:multiple-quantum-well
190:
161:Production advantages
77:
1672:Semiconductor lasers
1586:Hybrid silicon laser
1557:Volume Bragg grating
1480:Semiconductor lasers
1269:10.1364/SLA.1987.WA7
1215:10.1143/JJAP.18.2329
606:Optical interconnect
428:wall-plug efficiency
420:thermal conductivity
1410:10.1109/2944.902201
1402:2000IJSTQ...6.1458T
1372:10.1049/el:19890921
1364:1989ElL....25.1377L
1352:Electronics Letters
1322:10.1049/el:19890754
1314:1989ElL....25.1123J
1302:Electronics Letters
1207:1979JaJAP..18.2329S
1099:2009SPIE.7193E..1DV
1055:2009SPIE.7229E..03S
965:2001IPTL...13..173M
938:10.1049/el:19981517
930:1998ElL....34.2132F
918:Electronics Letters
887:1998IPTL...10.1061G
860:10.1049/el:19930134
852:1993ElL....29..200P
840:Electronics Letters
817:10.1109/2944.902168
809:2000IJSTQ...6.1201I
737:on 10 November 2016
611:Optical microcavity
601:Optical fiber cable
437:Medical/cosmetics:
1524:Quantum well laser
1128:Eli Kapon (1998).
556:, but devices for
461:(blue/green light)
449:solid-state lasers
439:laser hair removal
200:
80:
1659:
1658:
1529:Quantum dot laser
1358:(20): 1377–1378.
1308:(17): 1123–1124.
1201:(12): 2329–2330.
1107:10.1117/12.816035
1063:10.1117/12.808294
1023:Photonics Spectra
1000:Photonics Spectra
973:10.1109/68.914311
924:(22): 2132–2133.
895:10.1109/68.701502
492:data transmission
464:Laser machining:
409:High-power VCSELs
72:
71:
64:
1679:
1645:Gallium arsenide
1478:
1468:
1461:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1422:
1421:
1396:(6): 1458–1464.
1385:
1376:
1375:
1349:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1244:(11): 1089–1090.
1233:
1227:
1226:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1014:
1008:
1007:
991:
985:
984:
948:
942:
941:
913:
907:
906:
881:(8): 1061–1063.
870:
864:
863:
835:
829:
828:
803:(6): 1201–1215.
792:
786:
783:
777:
773:
767:
763:
757:
753:
747:
746:
744:
742:
733:. Archived from
694:
688:
687:
685:
684:
669:
663:
662:
650:
644:
643:
631:
570:Gigabit Ethernet
529:Structured light
292:indium phosphide
273:refractive index
265:lattice constant
177:gallium arsenide
117:
116:
113:
112:
109:
106:
103:
100:
97:
67:
60:
56:
53:
47:
27:
26:
19:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1639:Indium arsenide
1627:
1606:
1602:Polariton laser
1562:
1545:
1482:
1472:
1430:
1425:
1386:
1379:
1347:
1341:
1337:
1298:
1294:
1279:
1253:
1249:
1234:
1230:
1191:
1187:
1180:
1166:
1162:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1126:
1122:
1093:: 771931D–1–9.
1082:
1078:
1049:: 722903–1–11.
1038:
1034:
1015:
1011:
992:
988:
949:
945:
914:
910:
871:
867:
836:
832:
793:
789:
784:
780:
774:
770:
764:
760:
754:
750:
740:
738:
723:
695:
691:
682:
680:
670:
666:
651:
647:
632:
628:
624:
582:
545:
486:
478:laser engraving
411:
378:
376:Characteristics
304:
262:
254:
193:bottom-emitting
185:
163:
118:) is a type of
94:
90:
68:
57:
51:
48:
40:help improve it
37:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1685:
1675:
1674:
1657:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1642:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1583:
1577:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1560:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1483:
1471:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1429:
1428:External links
1426:
1424:
1423:
1377:
1335:
1292:
1277:
1247:
1228:
1185:
1178:
1160:
1145:
1138:
1120:
1076:
1032:
1009:
986:
959:(3): 173–175.
943:
908:
865:
846:(2): 200–201.
830:
787:
778:
768:
758:
748:
721:
689:
664:
645:
625:
623:
620:
619:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
591:Optical cavity
588:
581:
578:
544:
541:
540:
539:
536:
526:
520:
514:
511:
510:Computer mouse
508:
506:Laser printers
503:
496:
493:
485:
482:
481:
480:
474:laser ablation
470:laser drilling
462:
455:
445:
442:
410:
407:
377:
374:
373:
372:
365:
361:
360:
353:
350:
346:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
321:
314:
311:
308:
303:
300:
256:
250:
184:
181:
162:
159:
147:laser printers
70:
69:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1684:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1278:0-936659-39-4
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1181:
1179:9780849313493
1175:
1171:
1164:
1156:
1149:
1141:
1139:9780080516967
1135:
1131:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1005:
1001:
997:
990:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
869:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
834:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
791:
782:
772:
762:
752:
736:
732:
728:
724:
722:0-7803-5633-0
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
701:
693:
679:
675:
668:
660:
656:
649:
641:
637:
630:
626:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
583:
577:
575:
574:Fibre Channel
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
550:
537:
534:
530:
527:
524:
521:
519:
515:
512:
509:
507:
504:
501:
497:
494:
491:
490:Optical fiber
488:
487:
479:
475:
471:
467:
466:laser cutting
463:
460:
456:
454:
450:
446:
443:
440:
436:
435:
434:
431:
429:
423:
421:
417:
406:
403:
400:
396:
393:
391:
387:
383:
369:
366:
363:
362:
357:
354:
351:
347:
344:
341:
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
322:
319:
315:
312:
309:
306:
305:
302:Special forms
299:
297:
296:optical fiber
293:
288:
284:
280:
277:
274:
270:
266:
260:
253:
248:
243:
241:
237:
232:
229:
225:
221:
216:
213:
212:quantum wells
209:
208:active region
205:
197:
194:
189:
180:
178:
173:
169:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
139:computer mice
136:
132:
128:
124:
121:
120:semiconductor
115:
89:
85:
76:
66:
63:
55:
52:February 2017
45:
41:
35:
32:This article
30:
21:
20:
1573:
1550:Hybrid types
1393:
1389:
1355:
1351:
1338:
1305:
1301:
1295:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1241:
1238:Trans. IEICE
1237:
1231:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1169:
1163:
1154:
1148:
1132:. Elsevier.
1129:
1123:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1026:
1022:
1012:
1003:
999:
989:
956:
952:
946:
921:
917:
911:
878:
874:
868:
843:
839:
833:
800:
796:
790:
781:
771:
761:
751:
739:. Retrieved
735:the original
699:
692:
681:. Retrieved
677:
667:
648:
629:
566:Axel Scherer
546:
518:atomic clock
484:Applications
453:fiber lasers
432:
424:
412:
404:
401:
397:
394:
389:
381:
379:
317:
289:
285:
281:
278:
258:
251:
244:
235:
233:
217:
201:
195:
192:
164:
155:smartglasses
130:
87:
83:
81:
58:
49:
33:
1567:Other Types
1494:Laser diode
1487:Basic types
1006:(2): 62–66.
516:Chip scale
447:Pumping of
386:fabrication
123:laser diode
683:2023-12-21
622:References
240:wavelength
172:dielectric
1632:Materials
1330:111035374
1287:257137192
1223:122958383
1071:109520958
659:The Verge
269:epitaxial
183:Structure
1666:Category
1582:(VECSEL)
1418:46544782
1115:21109187
981:22964703
903:22839700
825:10550809
731:39634122
678:INPHENIX
580:See also
554:Suematsu
399:VCSELs.
382:on-wafer
131:in-plane
1576:(VCSEL)
1398:Bibcode
1360:Bibcode
1310:Bibcode
1203:Bibcode
1095:Bibcode
1051:Bibcode
961:Bibcode
926:Bibcode
883:Bibcode
848:Bibcode
805:Bibcode
543:History
533:Face ID
416:diamond
356:VECSELs
320:(BTJ)).
151:Face ID
38:Please
1647:(GaAs)
1641:(InAs)
1611:Theory
1416:
1328:
1285:
1275:
1221:
1176:
1136:
1113:
1069:
979:
901:
823:
741:3 June
729:
719:
549:cavity
390:arrays
368:VCSOAs
349:VCSEL.
236:pumped
224:n-type
220:p-type
198:VCSEL.
153:, and
1593:(ICL)
1559:laser
1542:(ECL)
1536:(QCL)
1520:(DFB)
1514:(DBR)
1508:(SCH)
1414:S2CID
1348:(PDF)
1326:S2CID
1283:S2CID
1219:S2CID
1111:S2CID
1067:S2CID
977:S2CID
899:S2CID
821:S2CID
776:2015.
727:S2CID
523:Lidar
500:TDLAS
228:diode
135:wafer
127:laser
125:with
88:VCSEL
1502:(DH)
1496:(LD)
1273:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1134:ISBN
1091:7193
1047:7229
1029:(7).
766:2011
756:2012
743:2021
717:ISBN
640:SPIE
572:and
451:and
325:MEMS
222:and
168:vias
82:The
1406:doi
1368:doi
1318:doi
1265:doi
1242:E71
1211:doi
1103:doi
1059:doi
969:doi
934:doi
891:doi
856:doi
813:doi
709:doi
257:(1−
249:(Al
42:to
1668::
1412:.
1404:.
1392:.
1380:^
1366:.
1356:25
1354:.
1350:.
1324:.
1316:.
1306:25
1304:.
1281:.
1271:.
1259:.
1240:.
1217:.
1209:.
1199:18
1197:.
1109:.
1101:.
1065:.
1057:.
1027:41
1025:.
1021:.
1004:39
1002:.
998:.
975:.
967:.
957:13
955:.
932:.
922:34
920:.
897:.
889:.
879:10
877:.
854:.
844:29
842:.
819:.
811:.
799:.
725:.
715:.
703:.
676:.
657:.
638:.
558:CW
476:,
472:,
468:,
392:.
255:Ga
157:.
149:,
145:,
141:,
111:əl
1467:e
1460:t
1453:v
1420:.
1408::
1400::
1394:6
1374:.
1370::
1362::
1332:.
1320::
1312::
1289:.
1267::
1261:6
1225:.
1213::
1205::
1182:.
1157:.
1142:.
1117:.
1105::
1097::
1073:.
1061::
1053::
983:.
971::
963::
940:.
936::
928::
905:.
893::
885::
862:.
858::
850::
827:.
815::
807::
801:6
745:.
711::
686:.
661:.
642:.
535:)
502:)
327:)
261:)
259:x
252:x
114:/
108:s
105:k
102:ɪ
99:v
96:ˈ
93:/
86:(
65:)
59:(
54:)
50:(
36:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
