Vedic period - Knowledge

860: 793: 6540:: "The 'revisionist project' certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise. Though the ones pursuing this project use dialectic methods quite effectively, they frequently also turn traditional Indian discussion methods and scholastic tricks to their advantage The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the 'truth' of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at 'rewriting' history out of national pride or for the purpose of 'nation building'." 4137:

stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and the "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.

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painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age. The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into a smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury".

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the end of Harrapan culture. This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with the culture.

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of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities. Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing.

132: 6737: 6995: 7207: 488: 450: 2923: 566: 3215: 912:(horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of 3203: 3831: 3503:, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. 3645:). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine 6497:, p. 186: "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent." 623:. In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of a purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream. 3392:, the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent 859: 6641:, p. 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from mediaeval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." 3054:. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position. People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled 4101:(2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the 3182:, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period." 6319:"The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a 6310:, contains 1,028 hymns, some of which may be as old as 1500 BCE. Because the Vedic texts are the primary way in which we can understand the period between the fall of the IVC (ca 1700) and the second wave of urbanization (600 BCE), we call the intervening era of South Asian history the 'Vedic Period.'" 4140:

Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The pottery, as the name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most

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Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between the Indus Valley civilization and

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In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox

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plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.

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Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3

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traders, but the evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of

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comments: "...the parallels between the Intelligent Design issue and the Indo-Aryan "controversy" are distressingly close. The Indo-Aryan controversy is a manufactured one with a non-scholarly agenda, and the tactics of its manufacturers are very close to those of the ID proponents mentioned above.

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associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher

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priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and the Vedic

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had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic

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The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing the Śrauta ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab. It differed from the

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is a significant pottery style that has been linked to a group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period. It's also thought that the groups that introduced the

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characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to

3323:(polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as 3768:. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. 780:. Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the 275:. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and 6306:, p. xxiv: "Although the Vedas are essentially liturgical documents and increasingly mystical reflections on Vedic ritual, they are sufficiently rich and extensive to give us some understanding of what life was like at the time. The earliest of the Vedas, the 6548:

However unwittingly and however high their aims, the two editors have sought to put a gloss of intellectual legitimacy, with a sense that real scientific questions are being debated, on what is essentially a religion-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus."

6346:, University of Minnesota Press: "Patriarchal culture entered Siam late, through the royal family, which, though to this day Buddhist, in the late Sukhothai period—as Angkor long before it—imported brahminical priests and, with them, Vedic patriarchal culture." 3741:, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common 3412:

itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy. Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society.

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and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic

6482:) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."Narasimhan et al. state that there was no genetic impact from Bactria-Margiana populations on the ancestry of South Asians. 449: 3375:, as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early 887:, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox 3173:

indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as

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focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the

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The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:

6339:, Penguin UK: "The Vedic patriarchal culture was defined by an extremely aggressive need to establish a social order that catered to male sexuality, both on earth and in the heavens—among humans and also among the gods." 3403:

According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple

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The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the

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are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states

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which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as

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is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."

3169:. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like 3429:, to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings ( 6742: 6740: 650: 1400–1000 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised 336:

were adopted, which allowed for the clearing of forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns,

6386:, pp. 33, 35 states that they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians, who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone and "chased them to the extremities of Central Eurasia." 1066:," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the 809:

leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The

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and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic."

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IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."

668:) and (present-day) Tajikistan. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the 3649:—into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. 1062:) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in " 6211: 4036: 9563: 3437:), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the 9571: 7971: 6965: 6563: 6323:

of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present"

6470:, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the 6353:, Concept Publishing Company: "But the most important transformation that occurred in the patriarchal Vedic society is the exclusion of women from the sacrifices." 4228: 3509:

in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were

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Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a

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refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (

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is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the

999:. The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. 776:, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of 3530:) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities. 6121: 7803: 6181: 3974:: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the 6245: 6151: 3158:

as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole. Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like

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endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three

6161: 2566: 1748: 1623: 7755: 6522:, p. 7: "This does not mean that the Indigenous Aryan position is historically probable. The available evidence by no means denies the 3796:, but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of 6578:

cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."

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and the Indo-Iranian religion. Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the

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The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after the collapse of the

660:, while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the 2958: 6534:, p. 342 used the term "Indo-Aryan Controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and some of its opponents. 9700: 2452: 3148:

place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The

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The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the

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of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in the Kingdoms of the

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elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic text. Its time span likely corresponds to the

3985:(MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware culture from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to the 3936:, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of 9602: 9581: 9473: 9452: 9415: 9397: 9374: 9333: 9290: 9269: 9249: 9211: 9077: 8943: 8895: 8857: 8827: 8804: 8783: 8762: 8735: 8599: 8576: 8535: 8515: 8495: 8474: 8451: 8343: 8324: 8297: 8273: 8230: 7942: 7565: 7492: 7473: 3267:

was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils.

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The Wonder that was India: A survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims

4105:(1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura. 3331:

increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (

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Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an

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Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and arrival in the subcontinent as Indo-Aryans

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Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

8671: 8414:. Waterloo, Ontario (Canada); Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey (US): Wilfrid Laurier University Press; Humanities Press. 2977: 1035:

formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.

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into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and

4437: 2052: 8485: 4160:, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the 2976:

While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or

1458: 9725: 6370:, p. 408 states that around 1800–1600 BCE, the Indo-Aryans are believed to have split off from the Iranians. 3612:, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing 3518:. Some of these might have needed full-time specialists. There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of the 3042:, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk 2350: 2047: 7787: 7739: 380: 9309: 6231: 4480: 4238: 4118: 3881: 2075: 399: 94: 9614:

The Gandhara Grave Culture: New Perspectives on Protohistoric Cemeteries in Northern and Northwestern Pakistan

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Kak, Subhash (2005), "Vedic astronomy and early Indian chronology", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie (eds.),

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and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of

3111:. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The 2951: 2835: 1333: 6454:, pp. 454–455, at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god 3544: 3251:

could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear.

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The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World

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Selective remembrances: archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts

9444: 7781: 6166: 6036: 3742: 3034:, such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: 2312: 291: 17: 9440: 9434: 4172:, envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received by the 2057: 9705: 8353: 8316: 6216: 4126: 4102: 2840: 2810: 843:

which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four:

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system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were a "hierarchical

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Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the

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Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos, Rebecca (2019).

6504:, pp. 460–461 note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency" as to the 3231:

Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a

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Worlds together, worlds apart: A history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present

8356:(2002). "Aryanization of the Indus Civilization". In K. N. Panikkar; T. J. Byres; U. Patnaik (eds.). 6269: 6264: 6186: 6146: 6136: 5611: 5205: 4554: 4426: 4144: 4093: 4085: 4020: 3777: 3539: 2790: 2579: 2516: 2082: 1803: 818:

related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the

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valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (

3178:, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads. 1351: 1038:

The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of

7819: 6071: 4985: 4825: 3653: 2944: 2926: 2863: 2410: 2362: 2327: 2117: 1323: 538:, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent 428: 9201: 8240:

Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Perspectives",

4049:: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the 3367:, it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However, 2620: 772:, against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river 8913:

Mishra, Anup (2007), "Chalcolithic Black and Red Ware of Balathal, Upaidur, Rajasthan: A Study",

8639: 8306: 8283: 6176: 6141: 5976: 5756: 5305: 4857: 4786: 3252: 2600: 2357: 2210: 2042: 1941: 1636: 1493: 755: 272: 9179:(2008). "The Aryan homeland debate in India". In P. L. Kohl; M. Kozelsky; N. Ben-Yehuda (eds.). 3784:". Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like 1708: 9695: 9685: 8813: 6505: 6091: 6066: 6016: 5956: 5541: 5477: 5275: 4491: 4366: 4122: 3877: 3869: 2932: 2908: 2465: 1967: 1338: 699: 694: 596: 570: 403: 9592: 9463: 9323: 9280: 9239: 8525: 8505: 8462: 7813: 7797: 7765: 7749: 947:(approximately between 900 and 750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of 9680: 9387: 9259: 8931: 8439: 8035: 6126: 6096: 5961: 5916: 5746: 5385: 5375: 5345: 5077: 5057: 4918: 4287: 4249: 4089: 2147: 1783: 1418: 515: 267:

texts which formed the basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the

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rituals. Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king

8971: 8254: 6513: 6509: 6206: 6061: 6046: 5991: 5632: 4098: 4043:(N. Bihar and Nepal) is established as the third main political centre of the Vedic period. 3409: 2825: 2595: 2272: 2237: 2035: 1768: 1688: 1398: 1393: 1178: 840: 604: 534:

before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in the

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Jamison, Stephanie W.; Witzel, Michael (2003). "Vedic Hinduism". In Arvind Sharma (ed.).

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Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present

8265:

India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200

6279: 5986: 5714: 5561: 5255: 5235: 4647: 4595: 4024: 3113: 2800: 2152: 1761: 1703: 1358: 1313: 810: 620: 356:. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called 254: 242: 219: 142: 50: 9188: 9164: 9122: 9030: 8995: 6191: 6051: 6031: 5676: 5285: 5195: 4965: 4955: 4888: 4837: 4543: 4459: 4188:(aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE. The 4157: 3957: 3873: 3371:

observes that it is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a

2898: 2830: 2815: 2805: 2785: 2750: 2725: 2700: 2583: 2142: 2107: 2017: 1972: 1928: 1773: 1433: 1318: 1047: 944: 906:

The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the

744: 612: 600: 523: 512: 466: 432: 349: 89: 9325:

A History of Ancient and Early Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

8077: 3085:

The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the

348:. During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic 39: 9639: 9598: 9577: 9545: 9469: 9448: 9421: 9411: 9393: 9370: 9347: 9329: 9305: 9286: 9265: 9245: 9207: 9168: 9091: 9073: 9052: 9035: 9017: 8939: 8891: 8863: 8853: 8823: 8800: 8779: 8758: 8741: 8731: 8667: 8625: 8595: 8572: 8531: 8511: 8491: 8470: 8447: 8415: 8339: 8320: 8293: 8269: 8226: 7561: 6201: 6171: 6081: 6076: 6021: 5966: 5796: 5686: 5665: 5621: 5591: 5295: 5225: 5215: 5185: 4667: 4629: 4509: 4261: 3961: 3781: 2820: 2720: 2546: 2521: 2322: 2232: 2222: 2197: 1738: 1698: 1558: 1548: 1403: 1303: 1278: 1138: 1126: 984: 968: 899:, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern 580: 535: 531: 440: 388: 223: 3868:

is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common

3082:

was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes.

2367: 995:

By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called

131: 9344:

History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

9261:Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600 9176: 9156: 9025: 9007: 8981: 8927: 8249: 8218: 6259: 6196: 6131: 6101: 6086: 6041: 6026: 6011: 5981: 5876: 5571: 5355: 5265: 5144: 5134: 5087: 5016: 4995: 4585: 4575: 4414: 4349: 4198:, which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of 4114: 4092:

during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the

3690: 3480: 3372: 3312: 3179: 3091: 3079: 3018: 2981: 2760: 2511: 2496: 2476: 2417: 2302: 2262: 2162: 2130: 2062: 1997: 1898: 1878: 1788: 1643: 1543: 1488: 1443: 1428: 980: 913: 864: 835: 721:

and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (

395: 376: 227: 187: 60: 4084:

In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the

2526: 9633: 9364: 9067: 8885: 8817: 8794: 8586: 8566: 8310: 8287: 7555: 6778: 6776: 5654: 5643: 5601: 5581: 5499: 5466: 5047: 4975: 4935: 4847: 4807: 4769: 4687: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4062: 3975: 3376: 3335:) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. 3247:. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The 2903: 2795: 2690: 2645: 2561: 2536: 2392: 2372: 2332: 2277: 2167: 2022: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1893: 1618: 1603: 1538: 1388: 1328: 1193: 1109: 1071: 1063: 1004: 773: 689: 661: 499: 353: 303: 8906:

The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World

8555:

Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma King

8467:

The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States

8444:

The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States

3989:

and the subsequent eastward shift of the political centre from the Kurus to the

9559: 9517: 8431:

The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity

6284: 5864: 5816: 5510: 5488: 5456: 5434: 5395: 5325: 5315: 5175: 4908: 4718: 4220: 4199: 4079: 3750: 3510: 3484: 3360: 3283:

was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the

2893: 2765: 2650: 2605: 2469: 2242: 2192: 1923: 1693: 1506: 1363: 1293: 1213: 1087: 1083: 1032: 976: 900: 287: 152: 9465:

A history of Indian literature: Introduction, Veda, epics, purānas and tantras

9160: 8961:

Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018),

6773: 4050: 4032: 3580: 3393: 487: 361: 9674: 9567: 9425: 9319: 9021: 8867: 8745: 8440:"The prelude to urbanization: ethnicity and the rise of Late Vedic chiefdoms" 6566:: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the 6462:, which according to Anthony was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion." 5786: 5726: 5551: 4945: 4898: 4878: 4752: 4735: 4697: 4677: 4612: 4396: 4386: 4376: 4319: 4194: 3698: 3384: 3368: 3150: 2858: 2695: 2615: 2610: 2437: 2382: 2377: 2137: 2112: 2102: 2092: 1977: 1888: 1883: 1853: 1808: 1778: 1743: 1553: 1523: 1143: 1091: 1067: 1028: 951:

emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern

936: 896: 777: 592: 527: 191: 9012: 6466:, p. 454: "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, 3303:

performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.

2710: 2655: 2282: 2252: 1039: 9383: 9039: 8376:

The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate

6467: 6459: 6393: 5906: 5896: 5776: 5766: 5696: 5531: 5521: 5405: 5335: 5117: 5037: 4657: 4337: 4185: 4173: 3986: 3965: 3847: 3746: 3694: 3548:

A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of

3397: 3364: 2873: 2868: 2755: 2740: 2640: 2630: 2625: 2551: 2541: 2481: 2422: 2387: 2187: 2097: 1848: 1843: 1513: 1423: 1163: 1095: 996: 884: 876: 781: 735: 677: 357: 341: 310:, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a 268: 108: 9564:"Beyond the Flight of the Falcon: Early 'Aryans' Within and Outside India" 8620:

Holdrege, Barbara A. (2004), "Dharma", in Mittal, S.; Thursby, G. (eds.),

283: 9629: 9484:

Dialectes dans les Litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 97–265.

9360: 9231:

The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century

6588: 6376:, p. 454 states that one of these Indo-Aryan groups would found the 5926: 5886: 5846: 5245: 5107: 5097: 4161: 3896: 3813: 3662: 3634: 3475: 3422: 2680: 2635: 2590: 2531: 2501: 2491: 2397: 2317: 1987: 1903: 1833: 1793: 1578: 1448: 1308: 1158: 1079: 1008: 972: 588: 551: 547: 519: 457: 311: 299: 295: 9544:(1st paperback ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 68–71. 9126: 764: 6351:

A Dictionary of the Vedic Rituals: Based on the Śrauta and Gṛhya Sūtras

5836: 5736: 5446: 4054: 3843: 3805: 3576: 3389: 3256: 3058:(not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn. 2878: 2685: 2506: 2182: 1982: 1798: 1678: 1648: 1528: 1383: 1117: 908: 868: 849: 759: 665: 565: 9522:"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts" 8936:

The Arthasastra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft

8703: 3734: 3396:

movements, and the end of the Vedic Period, which was followed by the

983:; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king 9540:

Witzel, Michael (2005). "Vedas and Upaniṣads". In Gavin Flood (ed.).

5806: 4016: 4004: 3981: 3928: 3839: 3738: 3568: 3549: 3461:

refer to iron-welders. However, philological evidence indicates that

3202: 3100: 3078:), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a 2883: 2780: 2770: 2267: 2247: 1658: 1653: 1408: 1378: 1368: 1253: 1238: 1203: 921: 892: 340:, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the 3592: 3591:

connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17

3552:, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life 3308: 888: 872: 345: 8986: 8976: 8463:"City states of North India and Pakistan at the time of the Buddha" 7170: 7168: 6587:

According to Erdosy, this battle provided a prototype for the epic

6156: 5067: 4532: 4309: 4299: 4165: 4012: 3990: 3953: 3917: 3596: 3572: 3473:, literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic 3405: 3175: 3124: 2888: 2715: 2432: 2427: 2002: 1992: 1838: 1728: 1723: 1668: 1663: 1598: 1593: 1413: 1273: 1263: 1258: 1233: 1168: 1075: 1059: 1024: 940: 939:, and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the 917: 543: 369: 337: 333: 112: 9492:"Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State" 9144: 9106:

The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization

8993: 8336:

Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age

6782: 3618: 3214: 758:, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day 8001: 7112: 6377: 6274: 5365: 4270: 4169: 3911: 3864: 3830: 3801: 3797: 3789: 3722: 3706: 3608: 3588: 3561:

Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four

3104: 3096: 2980:

was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of

2745: 2670: 2486: 2287: 2227: 2177: 2172: 2157: 2007: 1948: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1823: 1713: 1683: 1673: 1588: 1573: 1478: 1473: 1373: 1298: 1283: 1228: 1198: 1188: 1055: 1051: 1016: 1012: 964: 925: 844: 827: 814:

Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.

683: 656: 632: 628: 539: 365: 264: 9302:

The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation

8719:

Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History

8683:

Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From

8642:

Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History

8588:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

8568:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

8385:

Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History

7356: 7332: 7308: 7219: 7165: 3978:. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the 3666:. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like 1533: 8585:

Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), "Hinduism", in Joseph Kitagawa (ed.),

8565:

Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), "Hinduism", in Joseph Kitagawa (ed.),

7422: 7007: 5165: 4066: 4040: 3994: 3891: 3702: 3667: 3657: 3492: 3380: 3319:

was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of

3108: 2775: 2705: 2665: 2660: 2556: 2442: 2337: 2307: 2217: 1962: 1958: 1858: 1813: 1733: 1608: 1583: 1288: 1248: 1243: 1223: 1218: 1173: 960: 948: 929: 823: 329: 307: 116: 9573:

Which of Us are Aryans?: Rethinking the Concept of Our Origins

8996:"The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia" 8048: 8046: 8044: 7511: 7272: 6653: 6591:, Hiltebeitel calls this idea a "particularly baffling fancy." 3421:

Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of

8775:

A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India

7870: 7410: 7061: 6841: 6839: 6455: 3825: 3761: 3730: 3726: 3714: 3710: 3682: 3671: 3642: 3630: 3626: 3603: 3563: 2730: 2675: 2257: 2012: 1818: 1718: 1613: 1568: 1563: 1518: 1483: 1438: 1208: 1183: 1133: 1043: 1020: 956: 952: 853: 769: 739: 673: 642: 558: 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at 394:

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan

379:

that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into

231: 9664:

The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE – 500 BCE)

8548:, vol. 49, Cambridge University Press, pp. 187–190 8123: 8121: 8119: 8117: 7989: 7930: 6396:, who were pursued by the Iranians "across Iran into India." 935:

The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic

787: 8338:(1st ed.). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 8041: 7729: 7727: 7284: 5826: 3809: 3785: 3718: 3686: 3646: 3095:

hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups—

2735: 1828: 1463: 1153: 1148: 1000: 718: 477: 9433:

Trigger, Bruce G. (2003). "States: City and Territorial".

9366:

Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights

7523: 7385: 7383: 6836: 6824: 3749:

cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in

550:) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian 8692:"New reports clearly confirm 'Arya' migration into India" 8613:

Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative

8114: 7894: 7882: 7688: 7078: 7076: 7024: 7022: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6712: 6710: 4151: 3765: 3271:

had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (

800:(c. 1000–600 BCE), associated with Vedic material culture 717:

contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the

8067: 8065: 8063: 8061: 7977: 7906: 7724: 7676: 7664: 7640: 6543:

In her review of Bryant's "The Indo-Aryan Controversy,"

4113:

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic

3850:

is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.

8666:. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 65–113. 8412:

The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature

8292:, Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan, 8171: 7860: 7858: 7712: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7601: 7599: 7597: 7595: 7593: 7591: 7589: 7451: 7449: 7400: 7398: 7380: 7296: 7185: 7183: 7143: 7141: 7139: 7051: 7049: 6697: 6695: 6399:

For an overview of the current relevant research, see:

3625:

The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (

9482:

Witzel, Michael (1989), "Tracing the Vedic dialects",

9436:

Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study

9410:(4th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 9149:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

8367:

Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India

8183: 8144: 8142: 8140: 8138: 8136: 8104: 8102: 8100: 8098: 8096: 8094: 8092: 7700: 7535: 7499: 7480: 7461: 7073: 7034: 7019: 6983: 6863: 6851: 6788: 6707: 3208:

Ancient Indian antennae sword; metalwork, 1500–500 BCE

9304:. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. 8850:

The dawn of civilization – Earliest times to 700 B. C

8161: 8159: 8157: 8058: 8013: 7949: 7368: 7262: 7260: 7258: 7256: 7254: 7252: 7250: 7248: 7246: 7100: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6727: 6725: 6670: 6668: 1011:), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. 626:

The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the

611:

cultures are candidates for cultures associated with

375:

The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of

9462:

Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, Vuppala Srinivasa (1981),

8195: 7918: 7855: 7652: 7623: 7586: 7554:

Wan, Peter P.; Reins, Thomas D. (17 February 2021).

7446: 7434: 7395: 7344: 7231: 7180: 7153: 7136: 7124: 7046: 6919: 6892: 6812: 6692: 4088:, but the following millennium, coinciding with the 2984:. Political hierarchy was determined by rank, where 8956:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 8728:

Military manpower, armies and warfare in South Asia

8711:

Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research

8704:"On the Chronological Framework for Indian Culture" 8507:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

8133: 8089: 7843: 7831: 7611: 7574: 7320: 6971: 6943: 6931: 6909: 6907: 6800: 6474:. He was associated more than any other deity with 6297: 3932:. Many of these texts are largely derived from the 3816:, are essential parts of these later developments. 3356:), and tribal principalities had emerged in India. 3066:were popular drinks in the Vedic society, of which 3004:(non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom. The words 8154: 7243: 7195: 7088: 6880: 6752: 6722: 6665: 6594: 6526:—that of external Aryan origins and, if anything, 6392:, p. 34 states that the other group were the 4176:thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of 3263:was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, 383:, and around the beginning of the Common Era, the 9439:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9145:"Kuru kings, Tura Kavaseya and the -tvaya Gerund" 8960: 6680: 6485: 526:represented a sub-group that diverged from other 511:, which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of 9672: 9594:Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult 8752: 8031: 6904: 6446: 6444: 3968:, dating from c. the 12th to 11th centuries BCE. 3660:tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the 3469:refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or 9461: 8964:The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia 8925: 8839:"The Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age" 8792: 8753:Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). 8644:. London and New York: Routledge (Book review)" 8469:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–122. 7876: 7362: 7338: 7314: 7225: 7174: 7067: 6659: 6632: 6553: 6303: 3737:gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially 1050:. Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the 738:connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes 328:culture spread eastward to the fertile western 8446:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–98. 3425:and agriculture. There are references, in the 3388:structure social relations. The period of the 684:Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE) 8661: 7995: 6638: 6441: 6380:kingdom in northern Syria (c. 1500–1300 BCE). 6239: 3956:in north-western India, corresponding to the 3483:culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an 3479:, and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a 3239:was restricted by the tribal councils called 2952: 1046:texts, and at the same time the beginning of 9299: 9187: 8903: 8844:. In Ahmad Hasan Dani; V. M. Masson (eds.). 8793:Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998), 8771: 8755:The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development 8383:Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie, eds. (2005), 8382: 8239: 7967: 7416: 6531: 6501: 3780:formed one of the main constituents of the " 3776:Around the beginning of the Common Era, the 3681:The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were 3016:, but they are not associated with the term 747:culture, a difference also noted by Samuel. 9278: 8610: 8584: 8564: 8552: 8403:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archeology 8052: 7941:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSinghalGupta ( 7491:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 ( 7472:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 ( 7290: 7118: 6746: 6603: 6287:(Contemporaneous period in Iranian history) 3745:religion remain visible, especially in the 2996:(the common people) in the middle, and the 1098:, which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis". 762:). The battle was fought between the tribe 9529:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS) 8640:"Edward F. Bryant and Laurie Patton, eds. 8364: 7082: 6246: 6232: 2959: 2945: 1042:marks a final apex in the codification of 1015:expanded towards the south and settled in 486: 130: 38: 9195:. Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press. 9029: 9011: 8985: 8975: 8778:. Rishikesh, India: Divine Life Society. 8624:, New York: Routledge, pp. 213–248, 8253: 6478:, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from 3713:and Amsa, further nature deities such as 3697:and some deities of social order such as 3185: 959:, reaching its prominence under the king 788:Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE) 754:. Most notable of such conflicts was the 709:), associated with Vedic material culture 591:cultures have often been associated with 230:when the Vedic literature, including the 71: 9655:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 9175: 9142: 9133: 9112: 9085: 9065: 8951: 8883: 8846:History of civilizations of Central Asia 8619: 8523: 8305: 8019: 8007: 7983: 7936: 7888: 7828:, "Notes on the translation": pp. xii–x. 7825: 7706: 7694: 7670: 7553: 7486: 7467: 7428: 7040: 7001: 6794: 6622: 6609: 6600:Witzel's study is furthermore cited by: 6418: 6389: 6383: 3829: 3771: 3543: 3046:, would you impart to me endless wealth. 2992:(tribal nobility) stood at the top, the 1070:. Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of 858: 791: 693: 569:Archaeological cultures associated with 564: 387:formed one of the main constituents of " 372:) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. 241:–900 BCE), was composed in the northern 9590: 9432: 9241:Ancient Indian History And Civilization 9103: 8812: 8725: 8637: 8503: 8460: 8437: 8405:(2nd ed.), Oxford University Press 8400: 8394:Gandhara Grave Complex in West Pakistan 8217: 8083: 7849: 7837: 7777: 7505: 7213: 7028: 7013: 6989: 6874: 6857: 6845: 6544: 6463: 6451: 6423: 6413: 6373: 6367: 3922:(containing some 75 mantras not in the 3641:and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras ( 3220:Ancient Indian axe blade, 1500–1000 BCE 3140:is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. 3089:from the people and the emergence of a 990: 14: 9673: 9661: 9652: 9558: 9539: 9516: 9489: 9481: 9405: 9300:Singhal, K. C.; Gupta, Roshan (2003). 9257: 9228: 9219: 8912: 8689: 8680: 8428: 8373: 8333: 8282: 8255:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812 8189: 8148: 7912: 7809: 7793: 7761: 7745: 7718: 7634: 7617: 7557:Asia Past and Present: A Brief History 7517: 7455: 7440: 7404: 7389: 7374: 7350: 7302: 7278: 7266: 7201: 7189: 7147: 7106: 7094: 6961: 6925: 6886: 6818: 6806: 6767: 6716: 6701: 6686: 6559: 6537: 6519: 6433: 6428: 6403: 4152:Puranic chronology of the Vedic period 4011:belong to this period, as well as the 455: 9628: 9611: 9382: 9359: 9341: 9318: 9199: 9046: 8934:, in M. McClish; P. Olivelle (eds.), 8904:Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), 8543: 8483: 8261: 8201: 8165: 8127: 8071: 7924: 7900: 7864: 7733: 7682: 7658: 7646: 7605: 7580: 7326: 7237: 7159: 7130: 7055: 6977: 6949: 6937: 6898: 6830: 6731: 6674: 6514:migration out of the Eurasian steppes 6494: 6358: 3583:are also considered to be Vedic. The 3012:occur in various family books of the 963:, whose court provided patronage for 475: 464: 27:Ancient South Asian historical period 9591:Woodard, Roger D. (18 August 2006). 9138:. Britannica Educational Publishing. 8938:, Hackett Publishing, p. xxiv, 8874: 8701: 8392:Dani, Ahmad Hasan (15 August 1966), 8391: 8352: 8108: 7816:, citing Olivelle (1998), pp. xii–x. 7529: 6913: 6408: 3834:An early-19th-century manuscript of 3606:, the composers of the hymns of the 3311:rituals) to strengthen the emerging 1023:which was governed from its capital 1019:. To the south of their kingdom was 725:) or obey the commandments of gods ( 621:indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans 518:and started to inhabit the northern 9635:The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism 9542:The Blackwell companion to Hinduism 9499:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 9279:Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). 9237: 9088:The Vedic Experience: Mantramañjari 9051:. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. 8836: 8716: 8409: 8378:, New York: Oxford University Press 8177: 7955: 7541: 4129:and the Painted Grey Ware culture. 3070:was sanctified by religion. Flute ( 2293:Western Mexico Shaft Tomb Tradition 916:, the division of Vedic society in 852:and many Sutras important to later 804:After the 12th century BCE, as the 24: 9716:Indo-Aryan archaeological cultures 9622: 9193:Political History of Ancient India 9090:, Bangalore: Motilal Banarsidass, 8730:. London: Pickering & Chatto. 8690:Joseph, Tony (13 September 2019), 8396:, Pakistan: University of Peshawar 3279:). The main responsibility of the 1090:. This period culminated with the 943:kingdom on the Ganges, under King 25: 9742: 9612:Zahir, Muhammad (15 April 2016), 9049:Axiological approach to the Vedas 8884:Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977), 8524:Griswold, Hervey De Witt (1971), 4202:, is dated in this chronology at 3952:). This is the time of the early 3792:acknowledge the authority of the 3556: 1003:, a small kingdom to the east of 516:migrated into north-western India 286:with precision by speakers of an 9657:, University of California Press 9597:. University of Illinois Press. 8651:Journal of Indo-European Studies 8544:Hedge, K.T.M. (2 January 2015), 6616: 4227: 3890:: This period includes both the 3725:(the earth). Goddesses included 3213: 3201: 2922: 2921: 1694:Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans 1007:(on the door step of modern-day 729:). Their speech is described as 448: 9701:Iron Age cultures of South Asia 8819:The Origin of the Indo-Iranians 7547: 6581: 2988:(tribal king or chieftain) and 863:Modern replica of utensils and 245:, between the end of the urban 9638:. Malden, MA (US): Blackwell. 9206:, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 8638:Jamison, Stephanie W. (2006). 8546:The Painted Grey Ware of India 8490:, Cambridge University Press, 8401:Darvill, Timothy, ed. (2009), 8225:. Princeton University Press. 6326: 6313: 4481:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 4192:, the background-scene of the 4119:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 4108: 4073: 3964:(PGW) cultures, and the early 3882:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 848:era texts including the early 400:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 95:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 13: 1: 9047:Nigal, Sahebrao Genu (1986). 8557:, University of Chicago Press 8504:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011), 8365:Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007), 6647: 6625:, pp. 350–351 remarks: " 5411: 5150: 5123: 5022: 5001: 4924: 4863: 4792: 4775: 4758: 4741: 4724: 4703: 4618: 4601: 4355: 4203: 3819: 3760:are based on the concepts of 3674:etc. trace their root to the 3652:Vedic people believed in the 3453:refers to iron and the words 3449:. Some scholars believe that 703: 647: 559: 555: 318: 257: 253:, which began in the central 235: 218:), is the period in the late 208: 162: 9233:, Cambridge University Press 8852:. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 8772:Krishnananda, Swami (1994). 8242:Annual Review of Linguistics 8032:Krishan & Tadikonda 1996 4566:Northern Black Polished Ware 875:ritual originating from the 820:Northern Black Polished Ware 652:Proto-Indo-European religion 282:The Vedas were composed and 271:, a tribal union of several 7: 9691:Ancient history of Pakistan 9328:, Pearson Education India, 9282:A Dictionary of Archaeology 9258:Sharma, Ram Sharan (1990). 9143:Proferes, Theodore (2003). 9086:Panikkar, Raimundo (2001), 9072:, Oxford University Press, 8527:The Religion of the Ṛigveda 8487:An Introduction to Hinduism 8086:, "ochre‐coloured pottery". 7877:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7363:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7339:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7315:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7226:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7175:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7068:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 6660:McClish & Olivelle 2012 6570:for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The 6304:McClish & Olivelle 2012 6162:Influence on Southeast Asia 4212: 3533: 3144:and verse 13.8.3.11 of the 1031:and parts of North Western 546:area (present-day northern 346:orthodox sacrificial ritual 279:to be traced and inferred. 10: 9747: 9406:Tignor, Robert L. (2014). 9224:, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 9200:Reddy, K. Krishna (2011), 9134:Pletcher, Kenneth (2010). 9066:Olivelle, Patrick (1998), 8954:Hinduism. Past and present 8757:. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 8615:. Oxford University Press. 8465:. In F. R. Allchin (ed.). 8442:. In F. R. Allchin (ed.). 8334:Bellah, Robert N. (2011). 8317:Princeton University Press 8210: 6344:The Alphonso Lingis Reader 4544:Black and Red ware culture 4127:Black and red ware culture 4103:Black and red ware culture 4077: 3948:verbal stem (for Rigvedic 3926:), and the mantras of the 3894:and prose language of the 3823: 3804:. Later texts such as the 3654:transmigration of the soul 3537: 3416: 3128:sacrifice depended on the 3030:are absent. Verses of the 2971: 1101: 955:of India and southeastern 687: 426: 422: 417: 408:black and red ware culture 9731:Historical Vedic religion 9662:Prasad, R. U. S. (2020), 9505:(4): 1–26, archived from 9392:, John Wiley & Sons, 9285:. John Wiley & Sons. 9244:, New Age International, 9229:Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), 9161:10.1017/S0041977X03000120 9108:, Oxford University Press 8908:, Oxford University Press 8875:Long, Jeffrey D. (2013), 8611:Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011). 8553:Hiltebeitel, Alf (2001), 8510:, John Wiley & Sons, 7996:Jamison & Witzel 2003 7560:. John Wiley & Sons. 6639:Jamison & Witzel 2003 6270:Indus Valley civilisation 6265:Historical Vedic religion 4555:Painted Grey Ware culture 4427:Indus Valley Civilisation 4145:Painted grey ware culture 4086:Indus Valley Civilisation 3540:Historical Vedic religion 3195: 2083:Indus Valley Civilisation 822:and the Mahajanapadas of 798:Painted Grey Ware culture 509:Indus Valley Civilisation 412:Painted Grey Ware culture 247:Indus Valley Civilisation 183: 175: 158: 148: 138: 129: 103: 85:Indus Valley Civilisation 77: 66: 56: 46: 37: 9721:Bronze Age civilizations 9576:. Aleph. pp. 1–29. 9490:Witzel, Michael (1995), 8877:Jainism: An Introduction 8484:Flood, Gavin D. (1996), 8461:Erdosy, George (1995b). 8438:Erdosy, George (1995a). 8410:Day, Terence P. (1982). 8307:Beckwith, Christopher I. 8010:, pp. 112–115, 125. 7768:, citing Trigger (2003). 7520:, pp. 48–51, ch. 3. 7281:, pp. 48–51, 61–93. 6532:Bryant & Patton 2005 6502:Mallory & Adams 2006 6349:Chitrabhanu Sen (1978), 6342:Alphonso Lingis (2018), 6291: 5206:Gurjara-Pratihara Empire 5186:Eastern Chalukya Kingdom 4787:Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire 4039:, VadhSS). In the east, 3944:, and the spread of the 3729:(the dawn), Prithvi and 3633:of Rigvedic verses (see 3622:means "what is heard"). 3348:), oligarchical states ( 3255:, a noted historian and 2864:Ancient Maritime History 856:culture were completed. 670:Bactria–Margiana culture 640:the oldest layer of the 429:Indo-European migrations 9653:Thapar, Romila (2004), 9468:, Motilal Banarsidass, 9369:, Penguin Books India, 9342:Singh, Upinder (2009), 9264:. Motilal Banarsidass. 9013:10.1126/science.aat7487 8952:Michaels, Axel (2004), 8915:Indian History Congress 8890:, Motilal Banarsidass, 8530:, Motilal Banarsidass, 8429:Erdosy, George (1995), 8053:Shaw & Jameson 2008 7431:, pp. xxviii–xxix. 7016:, p. 375, 408–411. 5306:Western Chalukya Empire 4449:Mature Harappan culture 3275:) and chiefs of sects ( 3253:Arthur Llewellyn Basham 756:Battle of the Ten Kings 571:Indo-Iranian migrations 306:society centred in the 9726:Ancient Indian culture 9104:Parpola, Asko (2015), 8702:Kak, Subhash (2001b), 8374:Bryant, Edwin (2001), 8262:Avari, Burjor (2016). 6783:Narasimhan et al. 2019 6506:Indo-European homeland 6212:Science and technology 4596:Three Crowned Kingdoms 4438:Early Harappan culture 4253:(2,500,000–250,000 BC) 4123:Gandhara grave culture 3878:Gandhara grave culture 3851: 3808:and epics, namely the 3579:as well as the oldest 3553: 3235:. The autonomy of the 3186:Political organisation 3048: 2933:Post-classical History 2909:Cradle of Civilization 1968:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 1669:Massylii Confederation 880: 801: 710: 700:Gandhara grave culture 616: 404:Gandhara grave culture 9220:Rocher, Ludo (1986), 8726:Kaushik, Roy (2013). 8681:Joseph, Tony (2018), 8664:The Study of Hinduism 8358:The Making of History 7532:, p. chapter II. 7121:, p. 2, note 12. 6833:, pp. 30, 33–35. 6458:and the ritual drink 6335:Rita Banerji (2008), 6115:Specialised histories 5386:Kalachuris of Kalyani 5376:Kalachuris of Tripuri 5058:Western Ganga Kingdom 4986:Indo-Sassanid Kingdom 4936:Western Satrap Empire 4919:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 4909:Indo-Scythian Kingdom 4460:Late Harappan culture 4221:History of South Asia 3888:Mantra language texts 3874:Late Harappan culture 3833: 3772:Influence on Hinduism 3629:) which included the 3547: 3327:(supreme ruler). The 3142:Panchavamsha Brahmana 3036: 1679:Kingdom of Mauretania 1054:movements (including 862: 795: 768:, led by their chief 698:Cremation urn of the 697: 676:and the ritual drink 646:, which was composed 568: 498:Bronze Age spread of 381:Brahmanical orthodoxy 364:movements (including 9136:The History of India 8020:Paul & Paul 1989 8008:Paul & Paul 1989 6510:Anatolian hypothesis 5633:Ahmadnagar Sultanate 5435:Late medieval period 5346:Eastern Ganga Empire 5078:Vishnukundina Empire 4099:Copper Hoard culture 4094:early Vedic religion 4090:Indo–Aryan migration 4047:Sutra language texts 4015:, the oldest of the 4001:Brahmana prose texts 3410:Kurukshetra district 3154:visualised the four 2517:Senegambia Megaliths 1769:Proto-Indo-Europeans 1709:Kingdom of the Aurès 1689:Kingdom of Ouarsenis 991:Towards urbanization 672:, including the god 562: 800 BCE. 437:Indo-Aryan migration 9238:Sen, S. N. (1999), 9189:Raychaudhuri, H. C. 9183:. pp. 349–378. 8837:Lal, B. B. (1996). 8433:, Walter de Gruyter 8180:, pp. 412–419. 8130:, pp. 274–293. 7939:, pp. 150–151. 7937:Singhal & Gupta 7903:, pp. 198–199. 7736:, pp. 200–201. 7685:, pp. 204–206. 7649:, pp. 201–203. 7544:, pp. 117–120. 6848:, pp. 410–411. 6280:Indigenous Aryanism 5715:Early modern period 5562:Vijayanagara Empire 5542:Chitradurga Kingdom 5236:Bhauma-Kara Kingdom 4648:Shaishunaga dynasty 4007:proper of the four 3972:Samhita prose texts 3733:(the mother of the 3363:'s analysis of the 3192: 3146:Shatapatha Brahmana 3132:of the sacrificer. 3114:Shatapatha Brahmana 2153:Ancestral Puebloans 1664:Kingdom of Blemmyes 1359:Aegean Civilization 865:falcon shaped altar 833:In this period the 528:Indo-Iranian tribes 344:'s codification of 263:BCE. The Vedas are 255:Indo-Gangetic Plain 251:second urbanisation 243:Indian subcontinent 179:Early Vedic culture 143:Indian subcontinent 126: 107:Late Vedic period, 51:Indian subcontinent 34: 9616:, pp. 274–293 9389:A History of India 9006:(6457). eaat7487. 8796:A History of India 8592:(Digital printing) 6192:Partition of India 6057:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 6005:Regional histories 5950:National histories 5837:Travancore Kingdom 5807:Thondaiman Kingdom 5677:Golkonda Sultanate 5286:Somavamshi Kingdom 5256:Rashtrakuta Empire 5196:Rashidun Caliphate 5118:Kabul Shahi Empire 4966:Nagas of Padmavati 4889:Indo-Greek Kingdom 4829:(230 BC – AD 1206) 4522:Vedic Civilisation 4470:Vedic Civilisation 4367:Ahar-Banas culture 4158:Puranic chronology 3958:Black and Red Ware 3852: 3554: 3190: 3038:O, Indra, fond of 2899:Ancient Literature 2448:Indigenous Peoples 2108:Satavahana Dynasty 1714:Kingdom of Makuria 1684:Kingdom of Nobatia 1674:Kingdom of Numidia 1654:Nasamones Chiefdom 1649:Garamantes Kingdom 1434:Barbarian Kingdoms 1048:Classical Sanskrit 895:and his successor 881: 802: 711: 617: 513:Indo-Aryan peoples 433:Indo-Aryan peoples 284:orally transmitted 139:Geographical range 124: 90:Cemetery H culture 47:Geographical range 33:Early Vedic period 32: 9706:History of Punjab 9604:978-0-252-09295-4 9583:978-93-88292-38-2 9475:978-81-208-0264-3 9454:978-0-521-82245-9 9417:978-0-393-92207-3 9399:978-1-4443-2351-1 9376:978-0-14-309986-4 9335:978-81-317-1120-0 9292:978-0-470-75196-1 9271:978-81-208-0706-8 9251:978-81-224-1198-0 9213:978-0-07-132923-1 9177:Ratnagar, Shereen 9079:978-0-19-283576-5 8945:978-1-60384-903-6 8928:Olivelle, Patrick 8897:978-81-208-0436-4 8859:978-92-3-102719-2 8829:978-90-04-16054-5 8814:Kuzmina, Elena E. 8806:978-0-415-32920-0 8785:978-81-7052-108-2 8764:978-81-215-0565-9 8737:978-1-84893-292-0 8601:978-1-136-87590-8 8578:978-1-136-87597-7 8537:978-81-208-0745-7 8517:978-1-4443-5968-8 8497:978-0-521-43878-0 8476:978-0-521-37695-2 8453:978-0-521-37695-2 8360:. pp. 41–55. 8345:978-0-674-06143-9 8326:978-1-4008-2994-1 8309:(16 March 2009). 8299:978-1-59740-599-7 8275:978-1-317-23673-3 8232:978-0-691-05887-0 8219:Anthony, David W. 7968:Krishnananda 1994 7958:, pp. 42–45. 7915:, pp. 42–43. 7721:, pp. 33–34. 7567:978-1-118-95520-8 7419:, pp. 67–68. 7417:Raychaudhuri 1972 7392:, pp. 48–56. 7365:, pp. 41–43. 7341:, pp. 39–41. 7317:, pp. 39–40. 7305:, pp. 49–50. 7228:, pp. 37–39. 7177:, pp. 37–38. 6719:, pp. 49–52. 6256: 6255: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5934: 5855: 5854: 5757:Thanjavur Kingdom 5705: 5704: 5666:Bijapur Sultanate 5622:Deccan sultanates 5500:Tughlaq Sultanate 5447:Ghaznavid Dynasty 5425: 5424: 5296:Chaulukya Kingdom 5226:Mallabhum kingdom 5216:Umayyad Caliphate 4956:Bharshiva Dynasty 4852:(200 BC – AD 300) 4842:(230 BC – AD 220) 4838:Satavahana Empire 4816: 4815: 4812:(247 BC – AD 224) 4668:Macedonian Empire 4642:(450 BC – AD 489) 4630:Achaemenid Empire 4500: 4499: 4405: 4404: 4328: 4327: 4278: 4277: 4262:Madrasian culture 4057:Sutras, and some 4031:) and the oldest 3962:Painted Grey Ware 3259:, theorises that 3229: 3228: 3225: 3224: 3171:Tattiriya Samhita 3122:. The effects of 2969: 2968: 2547:Sahelian Kingdoms 2522:Pre-Imperial Mali 2198:St. Johns culture 1739:Kingdom of Altava 1734:Kingdom of Alodia 1704:Kingdom of Masuna 1699:Kingdom of Capsus 1549:Kingdom of Simien 1304:Achaemenid Empire 985:Pravahana Jaivali 784:, after the war. 536:Sintashta culture 532:Andronovo horizon 441:Indigenous Aryans 290:language who had 273:Indo-Aryan tribes 197: 196: 125:Late Vedic period 122: 121: 16:(Redirected from 9738: 9711:History of Sindh 9667: 9658: 9649: 9617: 9608: 9587: 9555: 9536: 9526: 9513: 9511: 9496: 9486: 9478: 9458: 9429: 9402: 9379: 9356: 9338: 9315: 9296: 9275: 9254: 9234: 9225: 9216: 9196: 9184: 9172: 9139: 9130: 9121:(1–4): 111–143. 9109: 9100: 9082: 9062: 9043: 9033: 9015: 8990: 8989: 8979: 8969: 8957: 8948: 8922: 8909: 8900: 8880: 8871: 8843: 8833: 8809: 8789: 8768: 8749: 8722: 8713: 8708: 8698: 8686: 8677: 8658: 8648: 8634: 8616: 8604: 8593: 8581: 8558: 8549: 8540: 8520: 8500: 8480: 8457: 8434: 8425: 8406: 8397: 8388: 8379: 8370: 8361: 8349: 8330: 8302: 8279: 8258: 8257: 8236: 8205: 8199: 8193: 8187: 8181: 8175: 8169: 8163: 8152: 8146: 8131: 8125: 8112: 8106: 8087: 8081: 8075: 8069: 8056: 8050: 8039: 8029: 8023: 8017: 8011: 8005: 7999: 7993: 7987: 7981: 7975: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7946: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7916: 7910: 7904: 7898: 7892: 7891:, p. xxvii. 7886: 7880: 7874: 7868: 7862: 7853: 7847: 7841: 7835: 7829: 7823: 7817: 7807: 7801: 7791: 7785: 7775: 7769: 7759: 7753: 7743: 7737: 7731: 7722: 7716: 7710: 7704: 7698: 7697:, p. xxxvi. 7692: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7621: 7615: 7609: 7603: 7584: 7578: 7572: 7571: 7551: 7545: 7539: 7533: 7527: 7521: 7515: 7509: 7503: 7497: 7496: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7465: 7459: 7453: 7444: 7438: 7432: 7426: 7420: 7414: 7408: 7402: 7393: 7387: 7378: 7372: 7366: 7360: 7354: 7348: 7342: 7336: 7330: 7324: 7318: 7312: 7306: 7300: 7294: 7293:, pp. 8–10. 7291:Hiltebeitel 2007 7288: 7282: 7276: 7270: 7264: 7241: 7235: 7229: 7223: 7217: 7211: 7205: 7199: 7193: 7187: 7178: 7172: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7145: 7134: 7128: 7122: 7119:Hiltebeitel 2001 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7071: 7065: 7059: 7053: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6975: 6969: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6941: 6935: 6929: 6923: 6917: 6911: 6902: 6896: 6890: 6884: 6878: 6872: 6861: 6855: 6849: 6843: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6816: 6810: 6804: 6798: 6792: 6786: 6780: 6771: 6765: 6750: 6747:Hiltebeitel 2002 6744: 6735: 6729: 6720: 6714: 6705: 6699: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6663: 6657: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6620: 6614: 6604:Hiltebeitel 2011 6598: 6592: 6585: 6579: 6557: 6551: 6489: 6483: 6448: 6439: 6362: 6356: 6330: 6324: 6317: 6311: 6301: 6260:History of India 6248: 6241: 6234: 6197:Pakistan studies 6037:Himachal Pradesh 5877:Portuguese India 5873: 5872: 5869: 5827:Sikh Confederacy 5723: 5722: 5719: 5572:Bengal Sultanate 5511:Sayyid Sultanate 5489:Khalji Sultanate 5478:Mamluk Sultanate 5443: 5442: 5439: 5420: 5416: 5413: 5356:Kakatiya Kingdom 5266:Paramara Kingdom 5159: 5155: 5152: 5128: 5125: 5068:Kamarupa Kingdom 5031: 5027: 5024: 5017:Kalabhras Empire 5010: 5006: 5003: 4929: 4926: 4913:(50 BC – AD 400) 4893:(180 BC – AD 10) 4872: 4868: 4865: 4834: 4833: 4830: 4801: 4797: 4794: 4780: 4777: 4763: 4760: 4746: 4743: 4729: 4726: 4712: 4708: 4705: 4623: 4620: 4606: 4603: 4586:Haryanka dynasty 4576:Pradyota dynasty 4518: 4517: 4514: 4423: 4422: 4419: 4360: 4357: 4350:Anarta tradition 4346: 4345: 4342: 4310:Mehrgarh culture 4300:Bhirrana culture 4296: 4295: 4292: 4291:(10,800–3300 BC) 4258: 4257: 4254: 4244: 4243: 4231: 4217: 4216: 4208: 4205: 4115:material culture 3691:sacrificial fire 3595:priests and the 3373:complex chiefdom 3313:social hierarchy 3287:(chaplain), the 3217: 3205: 3197: 3196: 3193: 3189: 3180:Patrick Olivelle 3080:heptatonic scale 2961: 2954: 2947: 2925: 2924: 2567:African Kingdoms 2418:Ortoiroid People 2131:Northern America 1954:Bactria–Margiana 1749:African Kingdoms 1724:Nemencha Kingdom 1719:Kingdom of Hodna 1624:African Kingdoms 1524:Kingdom of Kerma 1429:Migration Period 1269:Israel and Judah 1106: 1105: 981:Gargi Vachaknavi 841:order of estates 708: 705: 649: 595:migrations. The 561: 557: 490: 482: 473: 462: 452: 396:material culture 323: 320: 262: 259: 240: 237: 228:history of India 217: 213: 210: 188:Haryanka dynasty 171: 167: 164: 134: 127: 123: 73: 61:Bronze Age India 42: 35: 31: 21: 9746: 9745: 9741: 9740: 9739: 9737: 9736: 9735: 9671: 9670: 9646: 9625: 9623:Further reading 9620: 9605: 9584: 9560:Witzel, Michael 9552: 9524: 9518:Witzel, Michael 9512:on 11 June 2007 9509: 9494: 9476: 9455: 9418: 9400: 9377: 9354: 9336: 9312: 9293: 9272: 9252: 9214: 9098: 9080: 9059: 8967: 8946: 8926:McClish, Mark; 8898: 8860: 8848:. Vol. 1: 8841: 8830: 8807: 8786: 8765: 8738: 8706: 8674: 8646: 8632: 8622:The Hindu World 8607: 8602: 8591: 8579: 8538: 8518: 8498: 8477: 8454: 8422: 8346: 8327: 8300: 8276: 8233: 8213: 8208: 8200: 8196: 8188: 8184: 8176: 8172: 8164: 8155: 8147: 8134: 8126: 8115: 8107: 8090: 8082: 8078: 8070: 8059: 8051: 8042: 8030: 8026: 8018: 8014: 8006: 8002: 7994: 7990: 7982: 7978: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7940: 7935: 7931: 7923: 7919: 7911: 7907: 7899: 7895: 7887: 7883: 7875: 7871: 7863: 7856: 7848: 7844: 7836: 7832: 7824: 7820: 7808: 7804: 7792: 7788: 7776: 7772: 7760: 7756: 7744: 7740: 7732: 7725: 7717: 7713: 7705: 7701: 7693: 7689: 7681: 7677: 7673:, p. xxvi. 7669: 7665: 7657: 7653: 7645: 7641: 7633: 7624: 7616: 7612: 7604: 7587: 7579: 7575: 7568: 7552: 7548: 7540: 7536: 7528: 7524: 7516: 7512: 7504: 7500: 7490: 7485: 7481: 7471: 7466: 7462: 7454: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7427: 7423: 7415: 7411: 7403: 7396: 7388: 7381: 7377:, pp. 2–8. 7373: 7369: 7361: 7357: 7349: 7345: 7337: 7333: 7325: 7321: 7313: 7309: 7301: 7297: 7289: 7285: 7277: 7273: 7265: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7224: 7220: 7212: 7208: 7200: 7196: 7188: 7181: 7173: 7166: 7158: 7154: 7146: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7117: 7113: 7105: 7101: 7093: 7089: 7083:Bronkhorst 2007 7081: 7074: 7066: 7062: 7054: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7020: 7012: 7008: 7000: 6996: 6988: 6984: 6976: 6972: 6960: 6956: 6948: 6944: 6936: 6932: 6924: 6920: 6912: 6905: 6897: 6893: 6885: 6881: 6873: 6864: 6856: 6852: 6844: 6837: 6829: 6825: 6817: 6813: 6805: 6801: 6793: 6789: 6781: 6774: 6766: 6753: 6745: 6738: 6730: 6723: 6715: 6708: 6704:, pp. 3–5. 6700: 6693: 6685: 6681: 6673: 6666: 6662:, p. xxiv. 6658: 6654: 6650: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6621: 6617: 6599: 6595: 6586: 6582: 6558: 6554: 6490: 6486: 6449: 6442: 6438: 6363: 6359: 6331: 6327: 6318: 6314: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6252: 6223: 6222: 6221: 6116: 6108: 6107: 6106: 6006: 5998: 5997: 5996: 5951: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5936: 5870: 5867: 5865:Colonial states 5857: 5856: 5747:Madurai Kingdom 5720: 5717: 5707: 5706: 5655:Bidar Sultanate 5644:Berar sultanate 5612:Ladakh Kingdom 5602:Gajapati Empire 5582:Garhwal Kingdom 5467:Delhi Sultanate 5440: 5437: 5427: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5396:Chutiya Kingdom 5366:Zamorin Kingdom 5157: 5153: 5145:Maukhari Empire 5135:Chalukya Empire 5126: 5088:Maitraka Empire 5029: 5025: 5008: 5004: 4996:Vakataka Empire 4976:Sasanian Empire 4927: 4870: 4866: 4848:Kuninda Kingdom 4831: 4828: 4826:Middle Kingdoms 4818: 4817: 4808:Parthian Empire 4799: 4795: 4778: 4761: 4744: 4727: 4710: 4706: 4621: 4604: 4515: 4512: 4502: 4501: 4420: 4417: 4407: 4406: 4358: 4343: 4340: 4330: 4329: 4320:Edakkal culture 4293: 4290: 4280: 4279: 4271:Soanian culture 4255: 4252: 4241: 4215: 4207: 3100 BCE 4206: 4190:Kurukshetra War 4184:of the current 4178:Vaivasvata Manu 4154: 4111: 4082: 4076: 3828: 3822: 3782:Hindu synthesis 3778:Vedic tradition 3774: 3721:(the wind) and 3559: 3542: 3536: 3441:, but the word 3433:) and priests ( 3419: 3377:state formation 3221: 3218: 3209: 3206: 3188: 2974: 2965: 2914: 2913: 2904:Ancient Warfare 2854: 2846: 2845: 2586: 2572: 2571: 2472: 2458: 2457: 2413: 2403: 2402: 2353: 2343: 2342: 2213: 2203: 2202: 2133: 2123: 2122: 2118:Middle Kingdoms 2078: 2068: 2067: 2038: 2028: 2027: 1944: 1934: 1933: 1919:Eurasian Nomads 1914:Five Barbarians 1909:Four Barbarians 1894:Pannonian Avars 1764: 1762:Eurasian Steppe 1754: 1753: 1639: 1629: 1628: 1619:Nilotic Peoples 1544:Kingdom of Axum 1539:Kingdom of Kush 1534:Kingdom of Dʿmt 1509: 1499: 1498: 1354: 1344: 1343: 1129: 1110:Ancient history 1104: 1064:Greater Magadha 993: 871:, an elaborate 796:Pottery of the 790: 707: 1200 BCE 706: 692: 690:Rigvedic tribes 686: 662:Zeravshan River 505: 504: 503: 497: 492: 491: 484: 483: 480: 476: 474: 471: 469: 465: 463: 460: 456: 453: 443: 425: 420: 389:Hindu synthesis 385:Vedic tradition 354:Greater Magadha 321: 304:Late Bronze Age 260: 238: 215: 211: 169: 165: 99: 70:1500-1100 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9744: 9734: 9733: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9669: 9668: 9666:, Vernon Press 9659: 9650: 9644: 9632:, ed. (2003). 9624: 9621: 9619: 9618: 9609: 9603: 9588: 9582: 9556: 9550: 9537: 9514: 9487: 9479: 9474: 9459: 9453: 9430: 9416: 9403: 9398: 9380: 9375: 9357: 9353:978-8131716779 9352: 9339: 9334: 9320:Singh, Upinder 9316: 9310: 9297: 9291: 9276: 9270: 9255: 9250: 9235: 9226: 9217: 9212: 9203:Indian History 9197: 9185: 9173: 9155:(2): 210–219. 9140: 9131: 9110: 9101: 9096: 9083: 9078: 9063: 9057: 9044: 8991: 8987:10.1101/292581 8977:10.1101/292581 8958: 8949: 8944: 8932:"Introduction" 8923: 8910: 8901: 8896: 8881: 8872: 8858: 8834: 8828: 8810: 8805: 8790: 8784: 8769: 8763: 8750: 8736: 8723: 8714: 8699: 8687: 8678: 8673:978-1570034497 8672: 8659: 8635: 8630: 8617: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8582: 8577: 8561: 8559: 8550: 8541: 8536: 8521: 8516: 8501: 8496: 8481: 8475: 8458: 8452: 8435: 8426: 8420: 8407: 8398: 8389: 8380: 8371: 8362: 8350: 8344: 8331: 8325: 8303: 8298: 8280: 8274: 8259: 8237: 8231: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8206: 8194: 8192:, p. 122. 8182: 8170: 8153: 8132: 8113: 8088: 8076: 8074:, p. 218. 8057: 8055:, p. 248. 8040: 8024: 8012: 8000: 7988: 7986:, p. 215. 7976: 7960: 7948: 7929: 7917: 7905: 7893: 7881: 7869: 7867:, p. 190. 7854: 7842: 7830: 7818: 7802: 7786: 7770: 7754: 7738: 7723: 7711: 7699: 7687: 7675: 7663: 7661:, p. 204. 7651: 7639: 7622: 7610: 7608:, p. 191. 7585: 7573: 7566: 7546: 7534: 7522: 7510: 7508:, p. 208. 7498: 7479: 7460: 7445: 7433: 7421: 7409: 7394: 7379: 7367: 7355: 7343: 7331: 7319: 7307: 7295: 7283: 7271: 7242: 7240:, p. 200. 7230: 7218: 7206: 7194: 7179: 7164: 7162:, p. 103. 7152: 7135: 7133:, p. 187. 7123: 7111: 7109:, p. 335. 7099: 7087: 7072: 7060: 7058:, p. 192. 7045: 7033: 7031:, p. 462. 7018: 7006: 6994: 6992:, p. 242. 6982: 6970: 6954: 6942: 6930: 6918: 6903: 6901:, p. 186. 6891: 6879: 6877:, p. 454. 6862: 6860:, p. 322. 6850: 6835: 6823: 6811: 6799: 6787: 6772: 6751: 6736: 6721: 6706: 6691: 6679: 6664: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6643: 6631: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6607: 6593: 6580: 6552: 6550: 6549: 6541: 6535: 6524:normative view 6517: 6498: 6484: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6400: 6398: 6397: 6387: 6381: 6371: 6357: 6355: 6354: 6347: 6340: 6325: 6321:tape-recording 6312: 6308:Ṛgveda Saṃhitā 6295: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6285:Avestan period 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6254: 6253: 6251: 6250: 6243: 6236: 6228: 6225: 6224: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6118: 6117: 6114: 6113: 6110: 6109: 6105: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6004: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5995: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5953: 5952: 5949: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5939: 5938: 5933: 5932: 5929: 5923: 5922: 5919: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5899: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5871: 5863: 5862: 5859: 5858: 5853: 5852: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5819: 5817:Maratha Empire 5813: 5812: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5799: 5797:Sikkim Kingdom 5793: 5792: 5789: 5787:Marava Kingdom 5783: 5782: 5779: 5773: 5772: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5759: 5753: 5752: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5733: 5732: 5729: 5721: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5708: 5703: 5702: 5699: 5693: 5692: 5689: 5687:Keladi Kingdom 5683: 5682: 5679: 5672: 5671: 5668: 5661: 5660: 5657: 5650: 5649: 5646: 5639: 5638: 5635: 5628: 5627: 5624: 5618: 5617: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5594: 5592:Mysore Kingdom 5588: 5587: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5534: 5528: 5527: 5524: 5522:Lodi Sultanate 5517: 5516: 5513: 5506: 5505: 5502: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5484: 5483: 5480: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5459: 5457:Ghurid Dynasty 5453: 5452: 5449: 5441: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5422: 5408: 5402: 5401: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5328: 5326:Hoysala Empire 5322: 5321: 5318: 5316:Lohara Kingdom 5312: 5311: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5178: 5176:Tibetan Empire 5172: 5171: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5090: 5084: 5083: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5050: 5048:Kadamba Empire 5044: 5043: 5040: 5034: 5033: 5019: 5013: 5012: 4998: 4992: 4991: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4972: 4971: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4832: 4824: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4813: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4772: 4770:Pallava Empire 4766: 4765: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4738: 4732: 4731: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4690: 4688:Seleucid India 4684: 4683: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4640: 4636: 4635: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4615: 4613:Maha Janapadas 4609: 4608: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4550: 4549: 4548:(1300–1000 BC) 4546: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4528: 4527: 4524: 4516: 4508: 4507: 4504: 4503: 4498: 4497: 4494: 4487: 4486: 4485:(2000–1600 BC) 4483: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4464:(1900–1300 BC) 4462: 4455: 4454: 4453:(2600–1900 BC) 4451: 4444: 4443: 4442:(3300–2600 BC) 4440: 4433: 4432: 4431:(3300–1300 BC) 4429: 4421: 4418:(3300–1300 BC) 4413: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4391:(1600–1300 BC) 4389: 4383: 4382: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4371:(3000–1500 BC) 4369: 4363: 4362: 4352: 4344: 4341:(3500–1500 BC) 4336: 4335: 4332: 4331: 4326: 4325: 4324:(5000–3000 BC) 4322: 4316: 4315: 4314:(7000–3300 BC) 4312: 4306: 4305: 4304:(7570–6200 BC) 4302: 4294: 4286: 4285: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4256: 4248: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4224: 4223: 4214: 4211: 4153: 4150: 4110: 4107: 4080:Art of Mathura 4075: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4044: 3998: 3969: 3885: 3824:Main article: 3821: 3818: 3773: 3770: 3756:Ethics in the 3751:Zoroastrianism 3637:), singing of 3575:and the older 3558: 3557:Vedic religion 3555: 3538:Main article: 3535: 3532: 3418: 3415: 3361:Michael Witzel 3291:(army chief), 3227: 3226: 3223: 3222: 3219: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3200: 3191:Vedic weaponry 3187: 3184: 2982:social classes 2973: 2970: 2967: 2966: 2964: 2963: 2956: 2949: 2941: 2938: 2937: 2936: 2935: 2929: 2916: 2915: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2894:Historiography 2891: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2855: 2852: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2587: 2580:Southeast Asia 2578: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2473: 2470:Central Africa 2464: 2463: 2460: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2414: 2409: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2401: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2354: 2349: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2214: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2134: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2079: 2074: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2039: 2034: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2025: 2020: 2018:Fergana Valley 2015: 2010: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1973:Yavana Kingdom 1970: 1965: 1956: 1951: 1945: 1940: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1926: 1924:Nomadic Empire 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1765: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1752: 1751: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1640: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1510: 1507:Horn of Africa 1505: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1355: 1350: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1130: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1113: 1112: 1103: 1100: 1088:Indo-Parthians 1084:Indo-Scythians 992: 989: 977:Uddalaka Aruni 901:Iron Age India 789: 786: 685: 682: 494: 493: 485: 478: 467: 458: 454: 447: 446: 445: 444: 424: 421: 419: 416: 377:social classes 324:–1000 BCE the 288:Old Indo-Aryan 216: 500 BCE 195: 194: 185: 181: 180: 177: 173: 172: 170: 500 BCE 160: 156: 155: 153:Iron Age India 150: 146: 145: 140: 136: 135: 120: 119: 105: 101: 100: 98: 97: 92: 87: 81: 79: 75: 74: 68: 64: 63: 58: 54: 53: 48: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9743: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9696:Iron Age Asia 9694: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9686:Ancient India 9684: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9665: 9660: 9656: 9651: 9647: 9645:1-4051-3251-5 9641: 9637: 9636: 9631: 9627: 9626: 9615: 9610: 9606: 9600: 9596: 9595: 9589: 9585: 9579: 9575: 9574: 9569: 9568:Romila Thapar 9565: 9561: 9557: 9553: 9551:1-4051-3251-5 9547: 9543: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9523: 9519: 9515: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9493: 9488: 9485: 9480: 9477: 9471: 9467: 9466: 9460: 9456: 9450: 9446: 9442: 9438: 9437: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9413: 9409: 9404: 9401: 9395: 9391: 9390: 9385: 9384:Stein, Burton 9381: 9378: 9372: 9368: 9367: 9362: 9358: 9355: 9349: 9345: 9340: 9337: 9331: 9327: 9326: 9321: 9317: 9313: 9307: 9303: 9298: 9294: 9288: 9284: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9267: 9263: 9262: 9256: 9253: 9247: 9243: 9242: 9236: 9232: 9227: 9223: 9218: 9215: 9209: 9205: 9204: 9198: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9182: 9178: 9174: 9170: 9166: 9162: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9141: 9137: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9116: 9115:East and West 9111: 9107: 9102: 9099: 9097:81-208-1280-8 9093: 9089: 9084: 9081: 9075: 9071: 9070: 9064: 9060: 9058:81-85119-18-X 9054: 9050: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8997: 8992: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8966: 8965: 8959: 8955: 8950: 8947: 8941: 8937: 8933: 8929: 8924: 8920: 8916: 8911: 8907: 8902: 8899: 8893: 8889: 8888: 8887:Ancient India 8882: 8879:, I.B. Tauris 8878: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8855: 8851: 8847: 8840: 8835: 8831: 8825: 8821: 8820: 8815: 8811: 8808: 8802: 8799:, Routledge, 8798: 8797: 8791: 8787: 8781: 8777: 8776: 8770: 8766: 8760: 8756: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8733: 8729: 8724: 8720: 8715: 8712: 8705: 8700: 8697: 8693: 8688: 8684: 8679: 8675: 8669: 8665: 8660: 8656: 8652: 8645: 8643: 8636: 8633: 8631:0-415-21527-7 8627: 8623: 8618: 8614: 8609: 8603: 8597: 8594:, Routledge, 8590: 8589: 8583: 8580: 8574: 8571:, Routledge, 8570: 8569: 8563: 8562: 8560: 8556: 8551: 8547: 8542: 8539: 8533: 8529: 8528: 8522: 8519: 8513: 8509: 8508: 8502: 8499: 8493: 8489: 8488: 8482: 8478: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8459: 8455: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8436: 8432: 8427: 8423: 8421:0-919812-15-5 8417: 8413: 8408: 8404: 8399: 8395: 8390: 8386: 8381: 8377: 8372: 8368: 8363: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8341: 8337: 8332: 8328: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8313: 8308: 8304: 8301: 8295: 8291: 8290: 8285: 8284:Basham, A. L. 8281: 8277: 8271: 8268:. Routledge. 8267: 8266: 8260: 8256: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8238: 8234: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8215: 8204:, p. 19. 8203: 8198: 8191: 8186: 8179: 8174: 8167: 8162: 8160: 8158: 8150: 8145: 8143: 8141: 8139: 8137: 8129: 8124: 8122: 8120: 8118: 8111:, p. 99. 8110: 8105: 8103: 8101: 8099: 8097: 8095: 8093: 8085: 8080: 8073: 8068: 8066: 8064: 8062: 8054: 8049: 8047: 8045: 8037: 8033: 8028: 8021: 8016: 8009: 8004: 7998:, p. 65. 7997: 7992: 7985: 7984:Holdrege 2004 7980: 7973: 7969: 7964: 7957: 7952: 7944: 7938: 7933: 7927:, p. 81. 7926: 7921: 7914: 7909: 7902: 7897: 7890: 7889:Olivelle 1998 7885: 7879:, p. 40. 7878: 7873: 7866: 7861: 7859: 7851: 7846: 7839: 7834: 7827: 7826:Olivelle 1998 7822: 7815: 7811: 7806: 7799: 7795: 7790: 7783: 7779: 7774: 7767: 7763: 7758: 7751: 7747: 7742: 7735: 7730: 7728: 7720: 7715: 7709:, p. 45. 7708: 7707:Majumdar 1977 7703: 7696: 7695:Olivelle 1998 7691: 7684: 7679: 7672: 7671:Olivelle 1998 7667: 7660: 7655: 7648: 7643: 7637:, p. 35. 7636: 7631: 7629: 7627: 7619: 7614: 7607: 7602: 7600: 7598: 7596: 7594: 7592: 7590: 7583:, p. 54. 7582: 7577: 7569: 7563: 7559: 7558: 7550: 7543: 7538: 7531: 7526: 7519: 7514: 7507: 7502: 7494: 7489:, p. 66. 7488: 7487:Majumdar 1998 7483: 7475: 7470:, p. 65. 7469: 7468:Majumdar 1998 7464: 7458:, p. 41. 7457: 7452: 7450: 7443:, p. 40. 7442: 7437: 7430: 7429:Olivelle 1998 7425: 7418: 7413: 7407:, p. 42. 7406: 7401: 7399: 7391: 7386: 7384: 7376: 7371: 7364: 7359: 7353:, p. 33. 7352: 7347: 7340: 7335: 7329:, p. 89. 7328: 7323: 7316: 7311: 7304: 7299: 7292: 7287: 7280: 7275: 7268: 7263: 7261: 7259: 7257: 7255: 7253: 7251: 7249: 7247: 7239: 7234: 7227: 7222: 7215: 7210: 7203: 7198: 7192:, p. 49. 7191: 7186: 7184: 7176: 7171: 7169: 7161: 7156: 7150:, p. 32. 7149: 7144: 7142: 7140: 7132: 7127: 7120: 7115: 7108: 7103: 7096: 7091: 7084: 7079: 7077: 7070:, p. 38. 7069: 7064: 7057: 7052: 7050: 7043:, p. 32. 7042: 7041:Beckwith 2009 7037: 7030: 7025: 7023: 7015: 7010: 7003: 7002:Beckwith 2009 6998: 6991: 6986: 6980:, p. 30. 6979: 6974: 6967: 6963: 6958: 6952:, p. 37. 6951: 6946: 6940:, p. 31. 6939: 6934: 6928:, p. 95. 6927: 6922: 6915: 6910: 6908: 6900: 6895: 6888: 6883: 6876: 6871: 6869: 6867: 6859: 6854: 6847: 6842: 6840: 6832: 6827: 6821:, p. 41. 6820: 6815: 6808: 6803: 6797:, p. 60. 6796: 6795:Pletcher 2010 6791: 6784: 6779: 6777: 6769: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6748: 6743: 6741: 6734:, p. 82. 6733: 6728: 6726: 6718: 6713: 6711: 6703: 6698: 6696: 6688: 6683: 6677:, p. 50. 6676: 6671: 6669: 6661: 6656: 6652: 6640: 6635: 6628: 6624: 6623:Panikkar 2001 6619: 6611: 6610:Proferes 2003 6608: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6597: 6590: 6584: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6556: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6536: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6518: 6515: 6511: 6508:, namely the 6507: 6503: 6499: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6488: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6450:According to 6447: 6445: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6419:Ratnagar 2008 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6395: 6391: 6390:Beckwith 2009 6388: 6385: 6384:Beckwith 2009 6382: 6379: 6375: 6372: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6361: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6341: 6338: 6337:Sex and Power 6334: 6333: 6329: 6322: 6316: 6309: 6305: 6300: 6296: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6249: 6244: 6242: 6237: 6235: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6226: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6112: 6111: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6072:Uttar Pradesh 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6009: 6002: 6001: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5947: 5946: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5924: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5914: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5884: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5866: 5861: 5860: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5844: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5834: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5804: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5774: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5754: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5744: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5734: 5730: 5728: 5727:Mughal Empire 5725: 5724: 5716: 5711: 5710: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5673: 5669: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5656: 5652: 5651: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5555: 5553: 5552:Reddy Kingdom 5550: 5549: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5518: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5501: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5485: 5481: 5479: 5475: 5474: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5454: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5444: 5436: 5431: 5430: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5333: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5277: 5276:Yadava Empire 5274: 5273: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5243: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5233: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5183: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5167: 5166:Harsha Empire 5164: 5163: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5132: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5014: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4963: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4949: 4947: 4946:Kushan Empire 4944: 4943: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4906: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4882: 4880: 4879:Shunga Empire 4877: 4876: 4861: 4859: 4858:Mitra Dynasty 4856: 4855: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4835: 4827: 4822: 4821: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4805: 4800: AD 500 4796: 250 BC 4790: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4779: 250 AD 4773: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4762: 300 BC 4756: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4745: 300 BC 4739: 4737: 4736:Chera Kingdom 4734: 4733: 4728: 300 BC 4722: 4720: 4719:Pandya Empire 4717: 4716: 4711: 300 AD 4707: 300 BC 4701: 4699: 4698:Sangam period 4696: 4695: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4681: 4679: 4678:Maurya Empire 4676: 4675: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4605: 600 BC 4599: 4597: 4594: 4593: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4562: 4559:(1200–600 BC) 4558: 4556: 4552: 4551: 4547: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4537:(1500–600 BC) 4536: 4534: 4530: 4529: 4526:(1500–500 BC) 4525: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4513:(1500–200 BC) 4511: 4506: 4505: 4496:(1600–500 BC) 4495: 4493: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4482: 4478: 4477: 4474:(2000–500 BC) 4473: 4471: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4461: 4457: 4456: 4452: 4450: 4446: 4445: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4424: 4416: 4411: 4410: 4401:(1400–700 BC) 4400: 4398: 4397:Jorwe culture 4395: 4394: 4390: 4388: 4387:Malwa culture 4385: 4384: 4381:(1600–750 BC) 4380: 4378: 4377:Pandu culture 4375: 4374: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4339: 4334: 4333: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4289: 4284: 4283: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4259: 4251: 4246: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4219: 4218: 4210: 4201: 4197: 4196: 4195:Bhagavad Gita 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4149: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4106: 4104: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4081: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4045: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3983: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3919: 3914: 3913: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3866: 3861: 3860:Rigvedic text 3858: 3857: 3856: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3817: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3769: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3623: 3621: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3477: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3414: 3411: 3407: 3401: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3385:Romila Thapar 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3369:Robert Bellah 3366: 3362: 3359:According to 3357: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3295:(envoys) and 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3216: 3211: 3204: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3183: 3181: 3177: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3152: 3151:Purusha Sukta 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3047: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2962: 2957: 2955: 2950: 2948: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2928: 2920: 2919: 2918: 2917: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2902: 2900: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2859:Human History 2857: 2856: 2850: 2849: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2784: 2782: 2779: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2751:Mueang Pahang 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2696:Gangga Negara 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2596:Austronesians 2594: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2575: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2527:Djenné-Djenno 2525: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2461: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2415: 2412: 2407: 2406: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2212: 2207: 2206: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2148:Mississippian 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2127: 2126: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2113:Sangam Period 2111: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2103:Maurya Empire 2101: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2093:Mahajanapadas 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2071: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2032: 2031: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2004: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1978:Kushan Empire 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1943: 1938: 1937: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1854:Proto-Mongols 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1779:Indo-Iranians 1777: 1775: 1772: 1770: 1767: 1766: 1763: 1758: 1757: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1554:Harla Kingdom 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1502: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1469:British Isles 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1353: 1348: 1347: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1068:Maurya Empire 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1029:Narmada River 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 997:Mahajanapadas 988: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 945:Keśin Dālbhya 942: 938: 933: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 910: 904: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 878: 874: 870: 866: 861: 857: 855: 851: 846: 842: 838: 837: 831: 829: 825: 821: 815: 812: 807: 799: 794: 785: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 766: 761: 757: 753: 748: 746: 741: 737: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 701: 696: 691: 681: 679: 675: 671: 667: 664:(present-day 663: 659: 658: 653: 645: 644: 639: 635: 634: 630: 624: 622: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 577: 572: 567: 563: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 514: 510: 501: 496: 489: 481: 472: 461: 451: 442: 438: 434: 430: 415: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 392: 390: 386: 382: 378: 373: 371: 367: 363: 360:) as well as 359: 358:mahajanapadas 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 315: 314:way of life. 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 280: 278: 277:Vedic culture 274: 270: 266: 256: 252: 248: 244: 233: 229: 225: 221: 206: 202: 193: 192:Mahajanapadas 189: 186: 182: 178: 174: 161: 157: 154: 151: 147: 144: 141: 137: 133: 128: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 82: 80: 76: 69: 65: 62: 59: 55: 52: 49: 45: 41: 36: 30: 19: 9681:Vedic period 9663: 9654: 9634: 9630:Flood, Gavin 9613: 9593: 9572: 9541: 9532: 9528: 9507:the original 9502: 9498: 9483: 9464: 9435: 9407: 9388: 9365: 9361:Staal, Frits 9343: 9324: 9301: 9281: 9260: 9240: 9230: 9221: 9202: 9192: 9180: 9152: 9148: 9135: 9118: 9114: 9105: 9087: 9068: 9048: 9003: 8999: 8963: 8953: 8935: 8918: 8914: 8905: 8886: 8876: 8849: 8845: 8818: 8795: 8774: 8754: 8727: 8718: 8710: 8695: 8685:, Juggernaut 8682: 8663: 8654: 8650: 8641: 8621: 8612: 8587: 8567: 8554: 8545: 8526: 8506: 8486: 8466: 8443: 8430: 8411: 8402: 8393: 8384: 8375: 8366: 8357: 8335: 8311: 8288: 8264: 8245: 8241: 8222: 8197: 8185: 8173: 8084:Darvill 2009 8079: 8027: 8015: 8003: 7991: 7979: 7963: 7951: 7932: 7920: 7908: 7896: 7884: 7872: 7850:Erdosy 1995b 7845: 7838:Erdosy 1995a 7833: 7821: 7805: 7789: 7778:Trigger 2003 7773: 7757: 7741: 7714: 7702: 7690: 7678: 7666: 7654: 7642: 7620:, p. 5. 7613: 7576: 7556: 7549: 7537: 7525: 7513: 7506:Fortson 2011 7501: 7482: 7463: 7436: 7424: 7412: 7370: 7358: 7346: 7334: 7322: 7310: 7298: 7286: 7274: 7233: 7221: 7214:Kaushik 2013 7209: 7197: 7155: 7126: 7114: 7102: 7090: 7063: 7036: 7029:Anthony 2007 7014:Anthony 2007 7009: 6997: 6990:Woodard 2006 6985: 6973: 6957: 6945: 6933: 6921: 6894: 6882: 6875:Anthony 2007 6858:Kuzmina 2007 6853: 6846:Anthony 2007 6826: 6814: 6809:, p. 3. 6802: 6790: 6682: 6655: 6634: 6626: 6618: 6606:, p. 57 6596: 6583: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6555: 6545:Jamison 2006 6527: 6523: 6500:As of 2006, 6487: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6468:Verethraghna 6464:Anthony 2007 6452:Anthony 2007 6424:Parpola 2015 6414:Anthony 2007 6394:Vedic people 6374:Anthony 2007 6368:Anthony 2007 6360: 6350: 6343: 6336: 6328: 6320: 6315: 6307: 6299: 6137:Demographics 6127:Architecture 5907:French India 5897:Danish India 5777:Bengal Subah 5767:Bhoi dynasty 5697:Koch Kingdom 5532:Ahom Kingdom 5406:Deva Kingdom 5098:Huna Kingdom 5038:Gupta Empire 4940:(AD 35–405 ) 4899:Kanva Empire 4871: 50 BC 4753:Chola Empire 4692:(312–303 BC) 4682:(321–184 BC) 4672:(330–323 BC) 4662:(380–321 BC) 4658:Nanda Empire 4652:(424–345 BC) 4634:(550–330 BC) 4590:(684–424 BC) 4580:(799–684 BC) 4570:(700–200 BC) 4521: 4492:Swat culture 4469: 4338:Chalcolithic 4250:Palaeolithic 4193: 4174:seven rishis 4155: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4117:include the 4112: 4083: 4058: 4046: 4033:Śrautasutras 4008: 4000: 3987:Kuru Kingdom 3979: 3971: 3966:Kuru Kingdom 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3887: 3870:Indo-Iranian 3863: 3859: 3853: 3848:Vedic accent 3835: 3793: 3775: 3757: 3755: 3743:Indo-Iranian 3680: 3675: 3661: 3651: 3638: 3624: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3584: 3581:Śrautasutras 3562: 3560: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3506: 3505: 3500: 3497:krishna–ayas 3496: 3489: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3402: 3398:Mahajanapada 3365:Kuru Kingdom 3358: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3230: 3170: 3166: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3090: 3086: 3084: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3049: 3043: 3039: 3037: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3022:. The words 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2975: 2931:Followed by 2869:Protohistory 2741:Tarumanagara 2631:Singhanavati 2626:Suvarnabhumi 2552:Ghana Empire 2482:Dhar Tichitt 2423:Guanahatabey 2363:Casma–Sechin 2188:Thule people 2098:Nanda Empire 2088:Vedic Period 2087: 1942:Central Asia 1849:Hephthalites 1844:Iranian Huns 1637:North Africa 1514:Land of Punt 1116:Preceded by 1096:Gupta Empire 1037: 994: 969:philosophers 934: 907: 905: 885:Kuru Kingdom 882: 877:Kuru Kingdom 834: 832: 816: 805: 803: 763: 751: 749: 736:Asko Parpola 730: 726: 722: 714: 712: 655: 641: 637: 627: 625: 618: 605:Copper Hoard 593:Indo-Iranian 575: 520:Indus Valley 506: 398:include the 393: 374: 352:culture, of 342:Kuru Kingdom 325: 316: 281: 276: 269:Kuru Kingdom 204: 201:Vedic period 200: 198: 109:Kuru Kingdom 29: 9535:(3): 1–115. 9346:, Longman, 9222:The Purāṇas 8921:: 1322–1339 8721:, Routledge 8387:, Routledge 8354:Bhan, Suraj 8248:: 199–219, 8190:Rocher 1986 8149:Mishra 2007 8034:, pp. 7913:Basham 2008 7810:Bellah 2011 7794:Bellah 2011 7780:, pp. 7766:pp. 697–698 7762:Bellah 2011 7746:Bellah 2011 7719:Basham 2008 7635:Basham 2008 7618:Witzel 1995 7518:Samuel 2010 7456:Basham 2008 7441:Basham 2008 7405:Basham 2008 7390:Samuel 2010 7375:Witzel 1995 7351:Sharma 1990 7303:Samuel 2010 7279:Samuel 2010 7267:Witzel 1995 7216:, p. . 7202:Tignor 2014 7190:Samuel 2010 7148:Basham 2008 7107:Erdosy 1995 7095:Samuel 2010 7004:, p. . 6962:Witzel 2019 6926:Witzel 2001 6887:Bryant 2001 6819:Samuel 2010 6807:Witzel 1995 6768:Witzel 1989 6749:, p. . 6717:Samuel 2010 6702:Witzel 1995 6687:Witzel 2005 6589:Mahabharata 6560:Witzel 2019 6538:Witzel 2001 6520:Bryant 2001 6434:Joseph 2019 6429:Joseph 2018 6404:Witzel 2001 6122:Agriculture 6092:South India 6067:Maharashtra 6017:Balochistan 5957:Afghanistan 5931:(1858–1947) 5927:British Raj 5921:(1757–1858) 5917:Company Raj 5911:(1759–1954) 5901:(1620–1869) 5891:(1605–1825) 5887:Dutch India 5881:(1510–1961) 5868:(1510–1961) 5851:(1799–1849) 5847:Sikh Empire 5841:(1729–1947) 5831:(1707–1799) 5821:(1674–1818) 5811:(1650–1948) 5801:(1642–1975) 5791:(1600–1750) 5781:(1576–1757) 5771:(1541–1804) 5761:(1532–1673) 5751:(1529–1736) 5741:(1540–1556) 5731:(1526–1858) 5718:(1526–1858) 5701:(1515–1947) 5691:(1499–1763) 5681:(1518–1687) 5670:(1492–1686) 5659:(1492–1619) 5648:(1490–1574) 5637:(1490–1636) 5626:(1490–1596) 5616:(1470–1842) 5606:(1434–1541) 5596:(1399–1947) 5586:(1358–1803) 5576:(1352–1576) 5566:(1336–1646) 5556:(1325–1448) 5546:(1300–1779) 5536:(1228–1826) 5526:(1451–1526) 5515:(1414–1451) 5504:(1320–1414) 5493:(1290–1320) 5482:(1206–1290) 5471:(1206–1526) 5461:(1170–1206) 5438:(1206–1526) 5419: 1300 5415: 1200 5400:(1187–1673) 5390:(1156–1184) 5370:(1102–1766) 5360:(1083–1323) 5350:(1078–1434) 5340:(1070–1230) 5336:Sena Empire 5330:(1040–1347) 5320:(1003–1320) 5246:Pala Empire 5108:Rai Kingdom 4950:(AD 60–240) 4883:(185–73 BC) 4639:Ror Dynasty 4359: 3950 4162:Mahabharata 4109:Archaeology 4074:Visual arts 3897:Atharvaveda 3814:Mahabharata 3717:(the Sun), 3663:Atharvaveda 3635:Vedic chant 3587:record the 3501:shyama–ayas 3476:Atharvaveda 3423:pastoralism 3408:, with the 3379:in ancient 2836:Philippines 2681:Tambralinga 2636:Sungai Batu 2591:Melanesians 2532:Igodomigodo 2466:West Africa 2318:Teotihuacan 2211:Mesoamerica 2023:Tarim Basin 1988:Transoxiana 1339:Mesopotamia 1309:Sea Peoples 1080:Indo-Greeks 1009:West Bengal 973:Yajnavalkya 937:Salva tribe 552:Yaz culture 548:Afghanistan 524:Indo-Aryans 459:Indo-Aryans 322: 1200 300:Indo-Aryans 296:patrilineal 239: 1500 212: 1500 184:Followed by 176:Preceded by 166: 1100 104:Followed by 78:Preceded by 18:Vedic times 9675:Categories 9311:8126902868 9069:Upanis̥ads 8657:: 255–261. 8202:Singh 2009 8166:Hedge 2015 8128:Zahir 2016 8072:Singh 2008 7970:, p. 7925:Nigal 1986 7901:Singh 2008 7865:Singh 2008 7796:, p. 7748:, p. 7734:Singh 2008 7683:Singh 2008 7659:Singh 2008 7647:Singh 2008 7606:Singh 2008 7581:Staal 2008 7327:Avari 2016 7238:Singh 2008 7160:Reddy 2011 7131:Singh 2008 7056:Singh 2008 6978:Flood 1996 6964:, p. 6950:Flood 1996 6938:Flood 1996 6899:Singh 2008 6831:Flood 1996 6732:Flood 1996 6675:Stein 2010 6648:References 6562:, p. 6495:Singh 2008 6202:Philosophy 6182:Metallurgy 6172:Literature 6097:Tamil Nadu 5962:Bangladesh 5737:Sur Empire 5451:(977–1186) 5417: – c. 5380:(675–1210) 5310:(973–1189) 5300:(942–1244) 5290:(882–1110) 5280:(850–1334) 5270:(800–1327) 5250:(750–1174) 5230:(694–1947) 5210:(650–1036) 5190:(624–1075) 5158: 700 5156: – c. 5154: 550 5127: 500 5072:(350–1100) 5062:(350–1000) 5030: 600 5028: – c. 5026: 250 5009: 500 5007: – c. 5005: 250 4928: 130 4903:(75–26 BC) 4869: – c. 4867: 150 4798: – c. 4764:– AD 1279) 4747:– AD 1102) 4730:– AD 1345) 4709: – c. 4622: 600 4607:– AD 1600) 4415:Bronze Age 4078:See also: 4059:Upanishads 4017:Upanishads 3976:injunctive 3960:(BRW) and 3906:Shaunmkiya 3902:Paippalada 3844:Devanagari 3820:Literature 3806:Upanishads 3656:, and the 3577:Upanishads 3567:, but the 3481:Bronze Age 3471:śyāma ayas 3390:Upanishads 3257:indologist 3101:Kshatriyas 2879:Bronze Age 2874:Copper Age 2786:Shailendra 2701:Sri Ksetra 2686:Langkasuka 2606:Micronesia 2507:Senegambia 2358:Caral-Supe 2298:Teuchitlán 2283:Chupícuaro 2253:Gran Coclé 2183:Pre-Dorset 2076:South Asia 1983:Badakhshan 1799:Tocharians 1774:Afanasievo 1384:Pelasgians 1334:The Levant 1118:prehistory 967:sages and 909:Ashvamedha 897:Janamejaya 869:Agnicayana 850:Upanishads 745:Indo-Aryan 688:See also: 666:Uzbekistan 615:movements. 613:Indo-Aryan 601:Cemetery H 468:Afanasievo 427:See also: 350:Indo-Aryan 334:Iron tools 265:liturgical 261: 600 222:and early 220:Bronze Age 214: – c. 168: – c. 9426:854609153 9169:162246125 9022:0036-8075 8868:760610934 8822:. 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