579:, Sam McCall, Yong Hee Lee and James Harbison) that demonstrated over 1 million VCSELs on a small chip. These first all-semiconductor VCSELs introduced other design features still used in all commercial VCSELs. "This demonstration marked a turning point in the development of the surface-emitting laser. Several more research groups entered the field, and many important innovations were soon being reported from all over the world". Andrew Yang of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) quickly initiated significant funding toward VCSEL R&D, followed by other government and industrial funding efforts. VCSELs replaced edge-emitting lasers in applications for short-range fiberoptic communication such as
425:
single devices operating around 100 mW were first reported in 1993. Improvements in the epitaxial growth, processing, device design, and packaging led to individual large-aperture VCSELs emitting several hundreds of milliwatts by 1998. More than 2 W continuous-wave (CW) operation at -10 degrees
Celsius heat-sink temperature was also reported in 1998 from a VCSEL array consisting of 1,000 elements, corresponding to a power density of 30 W/cm. In 2001, more than 1 W CW power and 10 W pulsed power at room temperature were reported from a 19-element array. The VCSEL array chip was mounted on a
298:"The stress results show that the activation energy and the wearout lifetime of oxide VCSEL are similar to that of implant VCSEL emitting the same amount of output power." A production concern also plagued the industry when moving the oxide VCSELs from research and development to production mode. The oxidation rate of the oxide layer was highly dependent on the aluminium content. Any slight variation in aluminium would change the oxidation rate sometimes resulting in apertures that were either too big or too small to meet the specification standards.
294:
to late 1990s, companies moved towards the technology of oxide VCSELs. The current is confined in an oxide VCSEL by oxidizing the material around the aperture of the VCSEL. A high content aluminium layer that is grown within the VCSEL structure is the layer that is oxidized. Oxide VCSELs also often employ the ion implant production step. As a result, in the oxide VCSEL, the current path is confined by the ion implant and the oxide aperture.
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199:
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In the early 1990s, telecommunications companies tended to favor ion-implanted VCSELs. Ions, (often hydrogen ions, H+), were implanted into the VCSEL structure everywhere except the aperture of the VCSEL, destroying the lattice structure around the aperture, thus inhibiting the current. In the mid
424:
High-power vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers can also be fabricated, either by increasing the emitting aperture size of a single device or by combining several elements into large two-dimensional (2D) arrays. There have been relatively few reported studies on high-power VCSELs. Large-aperture
369:
are optically pumped with conventional laser diodes. This arrangement allows a larger area of the device to be pumped and therefore more power can be extracted – as much as 30 W. The external cavity also allows intracavity techniques such as frequency doubling, single frequency operation and
297:
The initial acceptance of oxide VCSELs was plagued with concern about the apertures "popping off" due to the strain and defects of the oxidation layer. However, after much testing, the reliability of the structure has proven to be robust. As stated in one study by
Hewlett Packard on oxide VCSELs,
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of AlGaAs does vary relatively strongly as the Al fraction is increased, minimizing the number of layers required to form an efficient Bragg mirror compared to other candidate material systems. Furthermore, at high aluminium concentrations, an oxide can be formed from AlGaAs, and this oxide can be
225:
for the laser light generation in between. The planar DBR-mirrors consist of layers with alternating high and low refractive indices. Each layer has a thickness of a quarter of the laser wavelength in the material, yielding intensity reflectivities above 99%. High reflectivity mirrors are required
176:
There are several advantages to producing VCSELs, in contrast to the production process of edge-emitting lasers. Edge-emitters cannot be tested until the end of the production process. If the edge-emitter does not function properly, whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, the
409:
The small active region, compared to edge-emitting lasers, reduces the threshold current of VCSELs, resulting in low power consumption. However, as yet, VCSELs have lower emission power compared to edge-emitting lasers. The low threshold current also permits high intrinsic modulation bandwidths in
185:
material during the etch, an interim testing process will flag that the top metal layer is not making contact to the initial metal layer. Additionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands of
562:
VCSEL was done by
Kenichi Iga of Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1977. A simple drawing of his idea is shown in his research note. Contrary to the conventional Fabry-Perot edge-emitting semiconductor lasers, his invention comprises a short laser cavity less than 1/10 of the edge-emitting lasers
436:
In 2007, more than 200 W of CW output power was reported from a large (5 × 5mm) 2D VCSEL array emitting around the 976 nm wavelength, representing a substantial breakthrough in the field of high-power VCSELs. The high power level achieved was mostly due to improvements in
381:
are optimized as amplifiers as opposed to oscillators. VCSOAs must be operated below threshold and thus require reduced mirror reflectivities for decreased feedback. In order to maximize the signal gain, these devices contain a large number of quantum wells (optically pumped devices have been
382:
demonstrated with 21–28 wells) and as a result exhibit single-pass gain values which are significantly larger than that of a typical VCSEL (roughly 5%). These structures operate as narrow linewidth (tens of GHz) amplifiers and may be implemented as amplifying filters.
241:
junction. In more complex structures, the p-type and n-type regions may be embedded between the mirrors, requiring a more complex semiconductor process to make electrical contact to the active region, but eliminating electrical power loss in the DBR structure.
786:
D. D. John, C. Burgner, B. Potsaid, M. Robertson, B. Lee, W. J. Choi, A. Cable, J. Fujimoto, and V. Jayaraman, "Wideband
Electrically-Pumped 1050 nm MEMS-Tunable VCSEL for Ophthalmic Imaging", Jnl. Lightwave Tech., vol. 33, no. 16, pp. 3461 - 3468, Feb.
359:
A photodiode is integrated under the back mirror of the VCSEL. VCSEL with transversally integrated monitor diode: With suitable etching of the VCSEL's wafer, a resonant photodiode can be manufactured that may measure the light intensity of a neighboring
766:
V. Jayaraman, J. Jiang, B. Potsaid, G. Cole, J Fujimoto, and Alex Cable "Design and performance of broadly tunable, narrow linewidth, high repetition rate 1310nm VCSELs for swept source optical coherence tomography", SPIE volume 8276 paper 82760D,
776:
C. Gierl, T. Gruendl, P. Debernardi, K. Zogal, C. Grasse, H. Davani, G. Böhm, S. Jatta, F. Küppers, P. Meißner, and M. Amann, "Surface micromachined tunable 1.55 μm-VCSEL with 102 nm continuous single-mode tuning," Opt. Express 19, 17336-17343
1095:
Van
Leeuwen, R.; Seurin, J-F.; Xu, G.; Ghosh, C. (February 2009). Clarkson, W. Andrew; Hodgson, Norman; Shori, Ramesh K (eds.). "High power pulsed intra-cavity frequency doubled vertical extended cavity blue laser arrays".
177:
production time and the processing materials have been wasted. VCSELs however, can be tested at several stages throughout the process to check for material quality and processing issues. For instance, if the
1051:
Seurin, J-F.; G. Xu; V. Khalfin; A. Miglo; J. D. Wynn; P. Pradhan; C. L. Ghosh; L. A. D'Asaro (February 2009). Choquette, Kent D; Lei, Chun (eds.). "Progress in high-power high-efficiency VCSEL arrays".
796:
V. Jayaraman, G. D. Cole, M. Robertson, A. Uddin, and A. Cable, "High-sweep-rate 1310 nm MEMS-VCSEL with 150 nm continuous tuning range", Electronics
Letters, vol. 48, no. 14, pp. 867–869, 2012.
253:, usually another laser. This allows a VCSEL to be demonstrated without the additional problem of achieving good electrical performance; however such devices are not practical for most applications.
406:
The larger output aperture of VCSELs, compared to most edge-emitting lasers, produces a lower divergence angle of the output beam, and makes possible high coupling efficiency with optical fibers.
444:
At that point, the VCSEL technology became useful for a variety of medical, industrial, and military applications requiring high power or high energy. Examples of such applications are:
1311:
Jewell, J.L.; Scherer, A.; McCall, S.L.; Lee, Y.H.; Walker, S.; Harbison, J.P.; Florez, L.T. (August 1989). "Low-threshold electrically pumped vertical-cavity surface-emitting microlasers".
327:
Using a tunnel junction (np), an electrically advantageous n-np-p-i-n configuration can be built that also may beneficially influence other structural elements (e.g. in the form of a
711:
1999 Digest of the LEOS Summer
Topical Meetings: Nanostructures and Quantum Dots/WDM Components/VCSELs and Microcavaties/RF Photonics for CATV and HFC Systems (Cat. No.99TH8455)
558:
The surface emission from a bulk semiconductor at ultra-low temperature and magnetic carrier confinement was reported by Ivars
Melngailis in 1965. The first proposal of short
1266:
Christensen, D. H.; Barnes, F. S. (February 1987). "Vertical Cavity
Surface Emitting Laser in Molecular Beam Epitaxial GaAs/AlGaAs using a Multilayer Dielectric Mirror".
1550:
884:
Grabherr, M.; R. Jager; M. Miller; C. Thalmaier; J. Herlein; R. Michalzik; K. Ebeling (August 1998). "Bottom-emitting VCSEL's for high-CW optical output power".
190:
wafer. Thus, although the VCSEL production process is more labor and material intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable and higher outcome.
1399:
Towe, Elias; Leheny, Robert F.; Yang, Andrew (December 2000). "A historical perspective of the development of the vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser".
927:
Francis, D.; Chen, H.-L.; Yuen, W.; Li, G.; Chang-Hasnain, C. (October 1998). "Monolithic 2D-VCSEL array with >2 W CW and >5 W pulsed output power".
305:. VCSELs at even higher wavelengths are experimental and usually optically pumped. 1310 nm VCSELs are desirable as the dispersion of silica-based
849:
Peters, F.; M. Peters; D. Young; J. Scott; B. Thibeault; S. Corzine; L. Coldren (January 1993). "High-power vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers".
54:
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709:
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Lei, C.; Deng, H.; Dudley, J.J.; Lim, S.F.; Liang, B.; Tashima, M.; Herrick, R.W. (1999). "Manufacturing of oxide VCSEL at
Hewlett Packard".
256:
VCSELs for wavelengths from 650 nm to 1300 nm are typically based on gallium arsenide (GaAs) wafers with DBRs formed from GaAs and
962:
Miller, M.; M. Grabherr; R. Jager; K. Ebeling (March 2001). "High-power VCSEL arrays for emission in the watt regime at room temperature".
413:
The wavelength of VCSELs may be tuned, within the gain band of the active region, by adjusting the thickness of the reflector layers.
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The main methods of restricting the current in a VCSEL are characterized by two types: ion-implanted VCSELs and oxide VCSELs.
301:
Longer wavelength devices, from 1300 nm to 2000 nm, have been demonstrated with at least the active region made of
140:
beam emission perpendicular from the top surface, contrary to conventional edge-emitting semiconductor lasers (also called
665:
433:. A record 3 W CW output power was reported in 2005 from large diameter single devices emitting around 980 nm.
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vertical to a wafer surface. In 1979, a first demonstration on a short cavity VCSEL was done by Soda, Iga, Kitahara and
234:
230:
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1188:
1148:
731:
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Koyama, Fumio; et al. (1988). "Room temperature cw operation of GaAs vertical cavity surface emitting laser".
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While early VCSELs emitted in multiple longitudinal modes or in filament modes, single-mode VCSELs are now common.
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441:
and packaging. In 2009, >100 W power levels were reported for VCSEL arrays emitting around 808 nm.
399:
cost of the devices. It also allows VCSELs to be built not only in one-dimensional, but also in two-dimensional
50:
571:
operation at room temperature were not reported until 1988. The term VCSEL was coined in a publication of the
335:
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of the material does not vary strongly as the composition is changed, permitting multiple "lattice-matched"
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214:
181:, which are the electrical connections between layers of a circuit, have not been completely cleared of
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1628:
1528:
1510:
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572:
469:
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Combination of semiconductor materials that can be fabricated using different types of substrate wafers
257:
806:
Iga, Kenichi (2000). "Surface-emitting laser—Its birth and generation of new optoelectronics field".
396:
153:
1607:
1354:
Lee, Y.H.; Jewell, J.L.; Scherer, A.; McCall, S.L.; Harbison, J.P.; Florez, L.T. (September 1989).
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321:
Allows for differential quantum efficiency values in excess of 100% through carrier recycling
17:
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In laboratory investigation of VCSELs using new material systems, the active region may be
8:
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621:
611:
218:
145:
1412:
1374:
1356:"Room-temperature continuous-wave vertical-cavity single-quantum-well microlaser diodes"
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1324:
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1109:
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449:
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1233:
1204:
Soda, Haruhisa; et al. (1979). "GaInAsP/InP Surface Emitting Injection Lasers".
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1144:
1081:
727:
587:, and are now used for link bandwidths from 1 to 400 gigabits per second or greater.
564:
459:
178:
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1428:
1125:
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in 1987. In 1989, Jack Jewell led a Bell Labs / Bellcore collaboration (including
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1612:
568:
488:
144:
lasers) which emit from surfaces formed by cleaving the individual chip out of a
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601:
559:
484:
480:
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used to restrict the current in a VCSEL, enabling very low threshold currents.
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584:
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500:
476:
306:
157:
149:
130:
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528:
353:
Two VCSELs on top of each other. One of them optically pumps the other one.
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As). The GaAs–AlGaAs system is favored for constructing VCSELs because the
222:
165:
1382:
1332:
948:
870:
1504:
1279:
1225:
463:
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Because VCSELs emit from the top surface of the chip, they can be tested
133:
1420:
827:
250:
182:
1117:
1073:
983:
905:
1098:
Proceedings SPIE, in Solid State Lasers XVIII: Technology and Devices
883:
669:
395:, before they are cleaved into individual devices. This reduces the
961:
1054:
Proceedings SPIE, in Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers XIII
543:
426:
279:
161:
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in VCSELs to balance the short axial length of the gain region.
848:
685:"Introduction of VCSEL: Working Principles And Characteristics"
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85:
121:
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533:
510:
238:
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137:
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1027:
1004:
650:
318:
Multiple active region devices (aka bipolar cascade VCSELs)
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In common VCSELs the upper and lower mirrors are doped as
1268:
Topical Meeting on Semiconductor Lasers, Technical Digest
112:
1094:
148:. VCSELs are used in various laser products, including
429:
heat spreader, taking advantage of diamond’s very high
334:
Tunable VCSELs with micromechanically movable mirrors (
186:
VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three-inch
1401:
IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
1353:
1310:
1030:"A New Application for VCSELs: High-Power Pump Lasers"
1005:
D’Asaro, L. A.; J. Seurin and J.Wynn (February 2005).
808:
IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
1445:
Long Wavelength Surface Emitting Lasers: Introduction
282:
layers to be grown on a GaAs substrate. However, the
118:
115:
1100:. Solid State Lasers XVIII: Technology and Devices.
1007:"High-power, high efficiency VCSELs pursue the goal"
217:(DBR) mirrors parallel to the wafer surface with an
109:
1028:Seurin, J-F.; L. A. D’Asaro; C. Ghosh (July 2007).
106:
45:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
356:VCSEL with longitudinally integrated monitor diode
1265:
1141:Semiconductor Lasers II: Materials and Structures
926:
1674:
1450:Britney's Guide to Semiconductor Physics: VCSELs
1163:
1056:. Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers XIII.
707:
375:Vertical-cavity semiconductor optical amplifiers
1591:Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser
455:Infrared illuminators for military/surveillance
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1088:
202:A realistic VCSEL device structure. This is a
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1470:
1178:
877:
682:
920:
666:"Intel made smart glasses that look normal"
341:(either optically or electrically pumped )
249:by an external light source with a shorter
1517:Separate confinement heterostructure laser
1477:
1463:
1240:
1044:
1021:
998:
955:
842:
1138:
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
57:, without removing the technical details.
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549:Lidar for automobile collision avoidance
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171:
84:
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1392:
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363:VCSELs with external cavities (VECSELs)
14:
1675:
1585:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
1246:
350:Monolithically optically pumped VCSELs
95:vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
1458:
1274:. Optical Society of America: WA7-1.
799:
647:"Faces light up over VCSEL prospects"
542:(e.g. the "dot projector" for iPhone
309:is minimal in this wavelength range.
55:make it understandable to non-experts
1389:
1203:
663:
506:Analog broadband signal transmission
419:
213:The laser resonator consists of two
89:Diagram of a simple VCSEL structure.
29:
1206:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
1181:Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary
805:
24:
386:
25:
1694:
1523:Distributed Bragg reflector laser
1438:
964:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
886:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
344:Wafer-bonded or wafer-fused VCSEL
27:Type of semiconductor laser diode
1485:
664:Bohn, Dieter (5 February 2018).
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102:
34:
1662:List of semiconductor materials
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645:Extance, Andy (9 April 2018).
638:
370:femtosecond pulse modelocking.
13:
1:
632:
1511:Double heterostructure laser
324:VCSELs with tunnel junctions
193:
7:
1166:Physics of Photonic Devices
683:SEO_INPHENIX (2021-09-24).
590:
215:distributed Bragg reflector
10:
1699:
1634:Laser diode rate equations
1629:Semiconductor laser theory
1529:Distributed-feedback laser
724:10.1109/LEOSST.1999.794691
627:Parallel optical interface
573:Optical Society of America
553:
524:Biological tissue analysis
470:second harmonic generation
258:aluminium gallium arsenide
221:consisting of one or more
154:fiber optic communications
1642:
1621:
1577:
1560:
1497:
1164:Shun Lien Chuang (2009).
509:Absorption spectroscopy (
1608:Semiconductor ring laser
1183:. Taylor & Francis.
718:. pp. III11–III12.
1602:Interband cascade laser
597:Interconnect bottleneck
468:High-power/high-energy
452:, laser wrinkle removal
1179:J.K. Peterson (2002).
716:IEEE Photonics Society
329:Buried Tunnel Junction
210:
90:
1551:External-cavity laser
1545:Quantum-cascade laser
607:Optical communication
536:for cellphone cameras
237:materials, forming a
207:multiple-quantum-well
201:
172:Production advantages
88:
1683:Semiconductor lasers
1597:Hybrid silicon laser
1568:Volume Bragg grating
1491:Semiconductor lasers
1280:10.1364/SLA.1987.WA7
1226:10.1143/JJAP.18.2329
617:Optical interconnect
439:wall-plug efficiency
431:thermal conductivity
1421:10.1109/2944.902201
1413:2000IJSTQ...6.1458T
1383:10.1049/el:19890921
1375:1989ElL....25.1377L
1363:Electronics Letters
1333:10.1049/el:19890754
1325:1989ElL....25.1123J
1313:Electronics Letters
1218:1979JaJAP..18.2329S
1110:2009SPIE.7193E..1DV
1066:2009SPIE.7229E..03S
976:2001IPTL...13..173M
949:10.1049/el:19981517
941:1998ElL....34.2132F
929:Electronics Letters
898:1998IPTL...10.1061G
871:10.1049/el:19930134
863:1993ElL....29..200P
851:Electronics Letters
828:10.1109/2944.902168
820:2000IJSTQ...6.1201I
748:on 10 November 2016
622:Optical microcavity
612:Optical fiber cable
448:Medical/cosmetics:
1535:Quantum well laser
1139:Eli Kapon (1998).
567:, but devices for
472:(blue/green light)
460:solid-state lasers
450:laser hair removal
211:
91:
1670:
1669:
1540:Quantum dot laser
1369:(20): 1377–1378.
1319:(17): 1123–1124.
1212:(12): 2329–2330.
1118:10.1117/12.816035
1074:10.1117/12.808294
1034:Photonics Spectra
1011:Photonics Spectra
984:10.1109/68.914311
935:(22): 2132–2133.
906:10.1109/68.701502
503:data transmission
475:Laser machining:
420:High-power VCSELs
83:
82:
75:
16:(Redirected from
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1656:Gallium arsenide
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1407:(6): 1458–1464.
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1255:(11): 1089–1090.
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892:(8): 1061–1063.
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814:(6): 1201–1215.
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744:. Archived from
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581:Gigabit Ethernet
540:Structured light
303:indium phosphide
284:refractive index
276:lattice constant
188:gallium arsenide
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1650:Indium arsenide
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1613:Polariton laser
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1104:: 771931D–1–9.
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1060:: 722903–1–11.
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489:laser engraving
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387:Characteristics
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204:bottom-emitting
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129:) is a type of
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51:help improve it
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63:February 2017
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1561:Hybrid types
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1249:Trans. IEICE
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692:. Retrieved
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577:Axel Scherer
557:
529:atomic clock
495:Applications
464:fiber lasers
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1578:Other Types
1505:Laser diode
1498:Basic types
1017:(2): 62–66.
527:Chip scale
458:Pumping of
397:fabrication
134:laser diode
694:2023-12-21
633:References
251:wavelength
183:dielectric
1643:Materials
1341:111035374
1298:257137192
1234:122958383
1082:109520958
670:The Verge
280:epitaxial
194:Structure
1677:Category
1593:(VECSEL)
1429:46544782
1126:21109187
992:22964703
914:22839700
836:10550809
742:39634122
689:INPHENIX
591:See also
565:Suematsu
410:VCSELs.
393:on-wafer
142:in-plane
1587:(VCSEL)
1409:Bibcode
1371:Bibcode
1321:Bibcode
1214:Bibcode
1106:Bibcode
1062:Bibcode
972:Bibcode
937:Bibcode
894:Bibcode
859:Bibcode
816:Bibcode
554:History
544:Face ID
427:diamond
367:VECSELs
331:(BTJ)).
162:Face ID
49:Please
1658:(GaAs)
1652:(InAs)
1622:Theory
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401:arrays
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360:VCSEL.
247:pumped
235:n-type
231:p-type
209:VCSEL.
164:, and
1604:(ICL)
1570:laser
1553:(ECL)
1547:(QCL)
1531:(DFB)
1525:(DBR)
1519:(SCH)
1425:S2CID
1359:(PDF)
1337:S2CID
1294:S2CID
1230:S2CID
1122:S2CID
1078:S2CID
988:S2CID
910:S2CID
832:S2CID
787:2015.
738:S2CID
534:Lidar
511:TDLAS
239:diode
146:wafer
138:laser
136:with
99:VCSEL
18:VCSEL
1513:(DH)
1507:(LD)
1284:ISBN
1185:ISBN
1145:ISBN
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777:2011
767:2012
754:2021
728:ISBN
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336:MEMS
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