1566:, with the parasitic ability to enter a cell. However, if the bacteria were capable of respiration, it would have been beneficial for the larger cell to allow the parasite to live in return for energy and detoxification of oxygen. Chloroplasts probably became symbionts through a similar set of events, and are most likely descendants of cyanobacteria. While not all eukaryotes have mitochondria or chloroplasts, mitochondria are found in most eukaryotes, and chloroplasts are found in all plants and algae. Photosynthesis and respiration are essentially the reverse of one another, and the advent of respiration coupled with photosynthesis enabled much greater access to energy than
1756:
1259:
29:
1579:
5323:
5333:
1346:
1250:, which is in contrast to eukaryotes, which typically have linear chromosomes. Nutritionally, prokaryotes have the ability to utilize a wide range of organic and inorganic material for use in metabolism, including sulfur, cellulose, ammonia, or nitrite. Prokaryotes are relatively ubiquitous in the environment and some (known as extremophiles) thrive in extreme environments.
1799:, unicellular algae that have siliceous cell walls. They are the most abundant form of algae in the ocean, although they can be found in fresh water as well. They account for about 40% of the world's primary marine production, and produce about 25% of the world's oxygen. Diatoms are very diverse, and comprise about 100,000 species.
1531:
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles. Some examples include mitochondria, a nucleus, or the Golgi apparatus. Prokaryotic cells probably transitioned into eukaryotic cells between 2.0 and 1.4 billion years ago. This was an important step in evolution. In contrast to prokaryotes,
1361:
growth. Archaea are generally similar in appearance to bacteria, hence their original classification as bacteria, but have significant molecular differences most notably in their membrane structure and ribosomal RNA. By sequencing the ribosomal RNA, it was found that the
Archaea most likely split
1274:, which are short, circular, self-replicating DNA molecules that are separate from the bacterial chromosome. Plasmids can carry genes responsible for novel abilities, of current critical importance being antibiotic resistance. Bacteria predominantly reproduce asexually through a process called
1514:
are a significant subset of archaea and include many extremophiles, but are also ubiquitous in wetland environments as well as the ruminant and hindgut of animals. This process utilizes hydrogen to reduce carbon dioxide into methane, releasing energy into the usable form of
1222:, with the hydrophilic ends facing outwards. Primitive cells likely used self-assembling fatty-acid vesicles to separate chemical reactions and the environment. Because of their simplicity and ability to self-assemble in water, it is likely that these simple
1833:
108:, they are not specialised cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive.
1309:
and trapped sediment left over from cyanobacteria and associated community bacteria, left behind extensive fossil records. The existence of stromatolites gives an excellent record as to the development of cyanobacteria, which are represented across the
1523:, some species of archaea aggregate and transfer DNA between cells. The function of this transfer appears to be to replace damaged DNA sequence information in the recipient cell by undamaged sequence information from the donor cell.
1559:
holds that mitochondria and chloroplasts have bacterial origins. Both organelles contain their own sets of DNA and have bacteria-like ribosomes. It is likely that modern mitochondria were once a species similar to
1369:
Some archaea inhabit the most biologically inhospitable environments on earth, and this is believed to in some ways mimic the early, harsh conditions that life was likely exposed to. Examples of these
Archaean
1708:, which are spear-like organelles that can be discharged to catch prey, anchor themselves, or for defense. Ciliates are also capable of sexual reproduction, and utilize two nuclei unique to ciliates: a
1642:
are capable of producing their energy using photosynthesis, while heterotrophic protozoa consume food by either funneling it through a mouth-like gullet or engulfing it with pseudopods, a form of
1604:. While there has been considerable debate on the classification of protozoa caused by their sheer diversity, in one system there are currently seven phyla recognized under the kingdom Protozoa:
2743:
Barton, Larry L.; Fardeau, Marie-Laure; Fauque, Guy D. (2014-01-01). "Hydrogen
Sulfide: A Toxic Gas Produced by Dissimilatory Sulfate and Sulfur Reduction and Consumed by Microbial Oxidation".
1793:(green algae), mostly unicellular algae found in fresh water. The chlorophyta are of particular importance because they are believed to be most closely related to the evolution of land plants.
3352:
Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M. (2015-04-29).
1195:
Compartmentalization was necessary for chemical reactions to be more likely as well as to differentiate reactions with the external environment. For example, an early RNA replicator
1199:
may have replicated other replicator ribozymes of different RNA sequences if not kept separate. Such hypothetic cells with an RNA genome instead of the usual DNA genome are called '
1362:
from bacteria and were the precursors to modern eukaryotes, and are actually more phylogenetically related to eukaryotes. As their name suggests, Archaea comes from a Greek word
1704:. Ciliates are widely abundant in almost all environments where water can be found, and the cilia beat rhythmically in order to propel the organism. Many ciliates have
5055:
3510:
Sugibayashi, Rika; Harumoto, Terue (2000-12-29). "Defensive function of trichocysts in
Paramecium tetraurelia against heterotrich ciliate Climacostomum virens".
2520:
Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard P, Claverys JP (2014). "Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control".
897:
3953:
1407:
4804:
4104:
160:
1777:, flagellated, mostly unicellular algae that occur often in fresh water. In contrast to most other algae, they lack cell walls and can be
3902:
3435:
1934:, examples have been reported up to a centimetre thick with a surface area of over a square metre and weighed up to around 20 kg
1849:. Fungi are found in most habitats, although most are found on land. Yeasts reproduce through mitosis, and many use a process called
2915:
Falb, Michaela; Pfeiffer, Friedhelm; Palm, Peter; Rodewald, Karin; Hickmann, Volker; Tittor, Jörg; Oesterhelt, Dieter (2005-10-01).
5308:
4763:
190:
4114:
3802:
1270:
Bacteria are one of the world's oldest forms of life, and are found virtually everywhere in nature. Many common bacteria have
5071:
4831:
3994:
3563:"Entamoeba histolytica Dmc1 Catalyzes Homologous DNA Pairing and Strand Exchange That Is Stimulated by Calcium and Hop2-Mnd1"
3182:
2760:
2654:
2418:
2402:
2244:
4428:
1282:. Transformation is a bacterial process for transferring DNA from one cell to another, and is apparently an adaptation for
42:
with a diameter that ranges typically from 1 to 4 centimetres (0.4 to 1.6 in) is among the largest unicellular species
1867:
is also an important model organism, since it is a eukaryotic organism that is easy to grow. It has been used to research
5154:
4074:
4816:
4476:
2719:
1519:. They are the only known organisms capable of producing methane. Under stressful environmental conditions that cause
3777:
2289:
115:, for example, are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms. Additionally, multicellularity appears to have
4883:
3732:
1322:(540 million years ago to present day) eons. Much of the fossilized stromatolites of the world can be found in
4888:
4486:
3561:
Kelso AA, Say AF, Sharma D, Ledford LL, Turchick A, Saski CA, King AV, Attaway CC, Temesvari LA, Sehorn MG (2015).
1552:. Metabolic functions in eukaryotes are more specialized as well by sectioning specific processes into organelles.
1520:
1326:. There, some of the oldest stromatolites have been found, some dating back to about 3,430 million years ago.
5133:
5123:
5047:
4322:
1337:, and is apparently due to the accumulation of damage that can happen even in the absence of external stressors.
1219:
2996:
1901:, causing infections of the mouth and/or throat (known as thrush) and vagina (commonly called yeast infection).
1192:, early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication.
5261:
5128:
4908:
4652:
4450:
4354:
4243:
3924:
3681:
3292:
2313:
Kleckner, Nancy; Fisher, Jay K.; Stouf, Mathieu; White, Martin A.; Bates, David; Witz, Guillaume (2014-12-01).
1548:
repair of DNA damage and a greater range of genetic diversity by combining the DNA of the parents followed by
957:
755:
3313:
5326:
4913:
4657:
4396:
4858:
1301:
are arguably the most successful bacteria, and changed the early atmosphere of the earth by oxygenating it.
5266:
4768:
815:
5336:
4930:
431:
183:
2442:
5032:
4206:
3961:
1728:
that likely employ meiotic recombination for repairing DNA damage acquired under stressful conditions.
3708:
519:
4826:
4623:
4433:
4201:
4094:
4035:
1946:
1872:
1863:
ferments carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and alcohol, and is used in the making of beer and bread.
1279:
1058:
775:
4955:
3831:
5249:
5113:
5085:
5060:
5017:
4920:
4853:
4728:
4601:
4569:
4542:
4532:
1881:
1859:
1636:. Protozoa, like plants and animals, can be considered heterotrophs or autotrophs. Autotrophs like
735:
399:
124:
4733:
4010:
3655:"Algae – Biology Encyclopedia – cells, plant, body, human, organisms, cycle, life, used, specific"
3411:
5357:
5254:
5184:
5093:
4821:
4703:
4471:
4067:
2010:
2002:
3778:"Microbiology Online | Microbiology Society | About Microbiology – Introducing microbes – Fungi"
5293:
4942:
4811:
4773:
4674:
4645:
4618:
4613:
4211:
3023:
2236:
2071:
1646:. While protozoa reproduce mainly asexually, some protozoa are capable of sexual reproduction.
1516:
1169:
795:
463:
176:
66:
4799:
2469:
Cui, Yanhua; Hu, Tong; Qu, Xiaojun; Zhang, Lanwei; Ding, Zhongqing; Dong, Aijun (2015-06-10).
5234:
5108:
5027:
5022:
5007:
4992:
4982:
4898:
4873:
4708:
4664:
4628:
4596:
4537:
4515:
4496:
4359:
4312:
4263:
4258:
4216:
3984:
2972:
2819:
2066:
1886:
1815:
1739:
1733:
1652:
1549:
1545:
1467:), prefer high pressure up to 130 MPa, such as deep ocean environments, including the genera
1291:
1144:
856:
5208:
5103:
5037:
4838:
4753:
4669:
4581:
4564:
4491:
4481:
4191:
4099:
4083:
3855:
3574:
3365:
3237:
3119:
2362:
2046:
1686:, or ciliates, are a group of protists that utilize cilia for locomotion. Examples include
116:
4843:
4713:
2917:"Living with two extremes: Conclusions from the genome sequence of Natronomonas pharaonis"
1286:
damage in the recipient cell. In addition, plasmids can be exchanged through the use of a
1278:. However, about 80 different species can undergo a sexual process referred to as natural
8:
5271:
5229:
5179:
5098:
4946:
4938:
4868:
4848:
4794:
4638:
4391:
4334:
4196:
4179:
4157:
2076:
917:
876:
4549:
3578:
3369:
3241:
3123:
2792:
5244:
5196:
5189:
4786:
4698:
4559:
4520:
4344:
4288:
4278:
4238:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4060:
3939:
3709:"Diatoms are the most important group of photosynthetic eukaryotes – Site du Genoscope"
3597:
3562:
3388:
3353:
3260:
3225:
3188:
3142:
3107:
3083:
3048:
2949:
2916:
2696:
2671:
2545:
2497:
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2391:
2339:
2314:
2229:
2198:
2171:
2026:
1962:
1838:
1693:
1670:
1664:
1266:
in Shark Bay, Western
Australia. It can take a century for a stromatolite to grow 5 cm.
1038:
937:
835:
34:
3523:
2471:"Plasmids from Food Lactic Acid Bacteria: Diversity, Similarity, and New Developments"
5332:
5286:
5012:
4960:
4738:
4554:
4455:
4418:
4413:
4369:
4364:
4317:
4283:
3990:
3920:
3750:
3602:
3459:
3393:
3265:
3178:
3147:
3088:
3070:
2954:
2936:
2879:
2774:
2766:
2756:
2701:
2650:
2612:
2591:
2537:
2502:
2398:
2344:
2240:
2203:
2152:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2018:
1918:
1910:
1755:
1658:
1401:
1323:
1306:
1275:
1242:. Instead, most prokaryotes have an irregular region that contains DNA, known as the
3192:
2549:
1731:
The
Amebozoa utilize pseudopodia and cytoplasmic flow to move in their environment.
4878:
4445:
4423:
4231:
3879:
3592:
3582:
3519:
3383:
3373:
3255:
3245:
3170:
3137:
3127:
3078:
3060:
2944:
2928:
2895:
2891:
2748:
2691:
2683:
2581:
2529:
2492:
2482:
2334:
2326:
2193:
2183:
2142:
1994:
1926:
1894:
1783:
1354:
105:
4723:
3654:
2102:
5239:
4863:
4690:
4679:
4633:
4576:
4525:
4305:
4109:
3587:
3537:
3378:
2752:
2644:
2586:
2569:
2147:
2130:
1820:
1486:
1358:
1018:
5079:
4951:
4893:
4253:
4248:
4186:
4164:
3982:
3627:
1802:
1185:
62:
3174:
2330:
2265:
97:. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early
5351:
5281:
5159:
5118:
4964:
4718:
4386:
4381:
3074:
2940:
2770:
2081:
1971:
1937:
1914:
1629:
1556:
1469:
1419:
1381:, optimum growth temperature of 50 °C-110 °C, including the genera
1298:
1235:
1223:
1188:
is largely still a mystery, in the currently prevailing theory, known as the
1099:
129:
69:
that consists of multiple cells. Organisms fall into two general categories:
3628:"algae Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about algae"
3486:
3250:
3132:
2843:
2670:Łapińska, U; Glover, G; Capilla-Lasheras, P; Young, AJ; Pagliara, S (2019).
2188:
1770:. They include groups that have both multicellular and unicellular species:
1258:
5276:
5224:
5169:
5002:
4997:
4591:
4349:
3606:
3397:
3269:
3151:
3092:
2958:
2778:
2705:
2687:
2595:
2541:
2506:
2348:
2207:
2156:
1978:
1941:
1713:
1709:
1643:
1567:
1437:
1417:, optimum growth temperature of less than 15 °C, including the genera
1414:
1371:
1302:
1263:
1239:
977:
715:
3065:
2487:
5303:
5174:
4903:
4438:
4268:
4174:
4132:
3226:"Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life"
2041:
1898:
1790:
1767:
1724:
1601:
1578:
1453:
1432:
1389:
1383:
1378:
1319:
1315:
661:
623:
145:
70:
28:
4743:
3917:
The myxomycetes of
Britain and Ireland : an identification handbook
3047:
Hook, Sarah E.; Wright, André-Denis G.; McBride, Brian W. (2010-01-01).
2745:
2568:
Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol; Michod, Richard E. (January 2018).
2533:
1809:. Dinoflagellates can be mixotrophic, and are the algae responsible for
1540:. Sex appears to be a ubiquitous and ancient, and inherent attribute of
5164:
5065:
4987:
4974:
4608:
4408:
4295:
4273:
4226:
4221:
4169:
4137:
4052:
3049:"Methanogens: methane producers of the rumen and mitigation strategies"
2932:
2231:
The Vital
Question – Energy, Evolution, and the Origins of Complex Life
1931:
1876:
1718:
1705:
1700:
1688:
1676:
1625:
1605:
1562:
1511:
1503:
1491:
1475:
1464:
1449:
1444:
1425:
1395:
1283:
1247:
1207:
997:
140:
74:
2880:"Extremophiles: An Overview of Microorganism from Extreme Environment"
85:. Many eukaryotes are multicellular, but some are unicellular such as
5298:
5149:
4758:
4376:
4124:
2224:
1954:
1854:
1806:
1778:
1613:
1609:
1593:
1541:
1497:
1485:, grow optimally in high salt concentrations between 0.2 M and 5.2 M
1482:
1460:
1200:
1189:
1181:
507:
447:
98:
3105:
1885:
has played a central role in understanding the mechanism of meiotic
77:
organisms. Most prokaryotes are unicellular and are classified into
5201:
4403:
2884:
International
Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Biotechnology
2669:
2172:"Understanding "green" multicellularity: do seaweeds hold the key?"
1986:
1810:
1774:
1647:
1633:
1621:
1589:
1334:
1243:
1196:
1184:
were the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. Although the
1079:
528:
510:
134:
86:
78:
58:
2419:"Nature Fact Sheets – Stromatolites of Shark Bay » Shark Bay"
2170:
Coates, Juliet C.; Umm-E-Aiman; Charrier, Bénédicte (2015-01-01).
1345:
111:
Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage.
4586:
4300:
2315:"The bacterial nucleoid: nature, dynamics and sister segregation"
1890:
1850:
1805:, unicellular flagellated algae, with some that are armored with
1744:
1683:
1638:
1537:
1533:
1311:
1271:
1215:
595:
562:
82:
2747:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 14. pp. 237–277.
2006:
is the largest bacterium, reaching a length of up to 20 mm
1868:
1796:
1760:
1597:
1330:
572:
544:
112:
2878:
Gupta, G.N.; Srivastava, S.; Khare, S.K.; Prakash, V. (2014).
1349:
A bottom-dwelling community found deep in the European Arctic.
4507:
3223:
1846:
1592:
are largely defined by their method of locomotion, including
1287:
1214:
are placed in water, the hydrophobic tails aggregate to form
1211:
1124:
479:
94:
90:
3983:
John Wesley Tunnell; Ernesto A. Chávez; Kim Withers (2007).
3106:
van Wolferen M, Wagner A, van der Does C, Albers SV (2016).
3800:
2877:
2519:
1974:, can reach a diameter of 1 to 4 cm (0.4 to 2 in)
1967:
1544:
life. Meiosis, a true sexual process, allows for efficient
1435:, optimum growth pH of greater than 8, including the genus
553:
39:
3351:
2997:""Extremophiles: Archaea and Bacteria" : Map of Life"
2720:"NOAA Ocean Explorer: Arctic Exploration 2002: Background"
3940:
Researchers Identify Mysterious Life Forms in the Desert.
3880:"Candidiasis | Types of Diseases | Fungal Diseases | CDC"
2873:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2169:
1447:, optimum growth pH of less than 3, including the genera
1161:
1120:
2914:
2567:
2312:
2131:"Self-assembly and function of primitive cell membranes"
1766:
Unicellular algae are plant-like autotrophs and contain
3649:
3647:
3354:"A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms"
2672:"Bacterial ageing in the absence of external stressors"
4011:"What is the Largest Biological Cell? (with pictures)"
3801:
Alba-Lois, Luisa; Segal-Kischinevzky, Claudia (2010).
3772:
3770:
2860:
1950:
achieving a diameter of up to 20 cm (7.9 in)
1917:. However, some unicellular protists and bacteria are
1832:
1716:
that undergoes meiosis. Examples of such ciliates are
1650:
with sexual capability include the pathogenic species
1318:(2.5 billion to 540 million years ago), and
3560:
2563:
2561:
2559:
3803:"Yeast Fermentation and the Making of Beer and Wine"
3644:
1904:
1781:(both autotrophic and heterotrophic). An example is
1234:
Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles, such as
1226:
predated other forms of early biological molecules.
3767:
3509:
2742:
2321:. Growth and development: eukaryotes/ prokaryotes.
155:
2556:
2390:
2363:"Eukaryotic Chromosome Structure | Science Primer"
2228:
1836:Transmission electron microscope image of budding
101:possibly emerging 3.5–4.1 billion years ago.
3046:
5349:
4033:
3919:. Slough, England: Richmond Pub. Co. p. 4.
2607:
2605:
2384:
2382:
1921:and visible to the naked eye. Examples include:
1314:(4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago),
2129:Pohorille, Andrew; Deamer, David (2009-06-23).
2128:
122:Some organisms are partially unicellular, like
4029:
4027:
3989:. Texas A&M University Press. p. 91.
3737:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
4068:
3481:
3479:
3204:
3202:
2602:
2379:
2219:
2217:
184:
128:. Additionally, unicellular organisms can be
3703:
3701:
3554:
3314:"Endosymbiosis and The Origin of Eukaryotes"
3217:
3099:
2513:
2468:
1998:, amoeba, 5 to 38 mm (0.2 to 1 in)
1712:for normal metabolic control and a separate
4036:"What Is the Largest Unicellular Organism?"
4024:
3018:
3016:
2814:
2812:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2475:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2260:
2258:
2256:
2124:
2122:
2120:
1246:. Most prokaryotes have a single, circular
4075:
4061:
3986:Coral reefs of the southern Gulf of Mexico
3476:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3224:Speijer, D.; Lukeš, J.; Eliáš, M. (2015).
3199:
2214:
1759:A scanning electron microscope image of a
1357:, allowing extremophiles to survive using
191:
177:
151:
3751:"BL Web: Growing dinoflagellates at home"
3698:
3596:
3586:
3387:
3377:
3259:
3249:
3141:
3131:
3082:
3064:
2948:
2695:
2585:
2496:
2486:
2464:
2462:
2338:
2197:
2187:
2146:
1366:meaning original, ancient, or primitive.
5309:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
4082:
3903:Max Planck Society Research News Release
3832:"Saccharomyces cerevisiae – MicrobeWiki"
3676:
3674:
3013:
2809:
2642:
2629:
2253:
2117:
2022:, ciliates nicknamed trumpet animalcules
1831:
1754:
1577:
1344:
1257:
3436:"Ciliophora: ciliates, move with cilia"
3276:
3164:
2397:. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science.
2266:"Exploring Life's Origins: Fatty Acids"
1944:, are the largest examples known, with
16:Organism that consists of only one cell
5350:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3341:. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science.
3213:. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science.
2459:
1157:
5072:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
4056:
3951:
3945:
3671:
3336:
3330:
3108:"The archaeal Ced system imports DNA"
2388:
1585:, a ciliate, with oral groove visible
169:
3208:
2613:"Fossil Record of the Cyanobacteria"
2223:
1827:
1750:
1353:Hydrothermal vents release heat and
1133:
1109:
1088:
1068:
1047:
1027:
1007:
986:
966:
946:
926:
906:
886:
865:
845:
824:
804:
784:
764:
744:
724:
704:
158:
3914:
3613:
119:many times in the history of life.
13:
4477:Evolutionary developmental biology
2676:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
1990:, algae, may grow to 3 metres long
1909:Most unicellular organisms are of
1737:is the cause of amebic dysentery.
1305:, structures made up of layers of
104:Although some prokaryotes live in
14:
5369:
3733:"Algae Classification: DINOPHYTA"
2574:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
1905:Macroscopic unicellular organisms
5331:
5322:
5321:
3512:European Journal of Protistology
2643:McNamara, Kenneth (2009-09-01).
1913:size and are thus classified as
27:
5134:Extended evolutionary synthesis
4323:Gene-centered view of evolution
4034:Anne Helmenstine (2018-11-29).
4003:
3976:
3933:
3908:
3896:
3872:
3848:
3824:
3794:
3743:
3725:
3530:
3503:
3452:
3428:
3404:
3345:
3306:
3165:Witzany, Guenther, ed. (2017).
3158:
3040:
2989:
2965:
2908:
2836:
2785:
2736:
2712:
2663:
2435:
2411:
2319:Current Opinion in Microbiology
5262:Hologenome theory of evolution
5129:History of molecular evolution
4355:Evolutionarily stable strategy
4244:Last universal common ancestor
2896:10.5958/2230-732X.2014.00258.7
2355:
2306:
2282:
2163:
2095:
1879:. Furthermore, research using
1845:Unicellular fungi include the
1532:eukaryotes reproduce by using
1229:
703:
1:
5056:Renaissance and Enlightenment
3952:Bauer, Becky (October 2008).
3782:www.microbiologyonline.org.uk
3524:10.1016/S0932-4739(00)80047-4
3460:"Introduction to the Ciliata"
3440:www.microscope-microscope.org
2649:. Western Australian Museum.
2088:
2030:, largest colpodean ciliates.
1889:and the adaptive function of
1875:as well as to understand the
1813:. Some dinoflagellates, like
1526:
5267:Missing heritability problem
4894:Gamete differentiation/sexes
3588:10.1371/journal.pone.0139399
3379:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248
3230:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
3112:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
2753:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_10
2587:10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024
2570:"Sex in microbial pathogens"
2148:10.1016/j.resmic.2009.06.004
1857:is held by the mother cell.
7:
3167:Biocommunication of Archaea
2443:"Conjugation (prokaryotes)"
2034:
1940:, protozoans of the phylum
1573:
1253:
1158:
918:Earliest multicellular life
388:
10:
5374:
4899:Life cycles/nuclear phases
4451:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
4013:. Wisegeek.com. 2014-02-23
3538:"amoeba | protozoan order"
2176:Frontiers in Plant Science
1873:neurodegenerative diseases
1340:
61:that consists of a single
5317:
5217:
5142:
5046:
4973:
4929:
4784:
4688:
4505:
4464:
4397:Parent–offspring conflict
4333:
4202:Earliest known life forms
4123:
4090:
3954:"Gazing Balls in the Sea"
3175:10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9
2331:10.1016/j.mib.2014.10.001
1947:Syringammina fragilissima
1743:appears to be capable of
26:
21:
5250:Cultural group selection
5114:The eclipse of Darwinism
5086:On the Origin of Species
5061:Transmutation of species
3856:"Using yeast in biology"
3659:www.biologyreference.com
3337:Klose, Robert T (2015).
3293:"Origin of Mitochondria"
2389:Smith, Dwight G (2015).
2294:webprojects.oit.ncsu.edu
2135:Research in Microbiology
2104:An Introduction to Cells
2057:Individuality in biology
1860:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
344:−1000 —
324:−1500 —
304:−2000 —
284:−2500 —
264:−3000 —
244:−3500 —
224:−4000 —
204:−4500 —
201:
125:Dictyostelium discoideum
5255:Dual inheritance theory
5094:History of paleontology
3542:Encyclopedia Britannica
3491:Encyclopedia Britannica
3251:10.1073/pnas.1501725112
3133:10.1073/pnas.1513740113
2848:Encyclopedia Britannica
2189:10.3389/fpls.2014.00737
2011:Epulopiscium fishelsoni
2003:Thiomargarita magnifica
1489:, including the genera
364:−500 —
152:Evolutionary hypothesis
4943:Punctuated equilibrium
4264:Non-adaptive radiation
4212:Evolutionary arms race
3682:"siliceous cell walls"
2844:"archaea | prokaryote"
2724:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
2688:10.1098/rstb.2018.0442
2072:Multicellular organism
1897:. are responsible for
1842:
1763:
1586:
1583:Paramecium tetraurelia
1517:adenosine triphosphate
1350:
1290:in a process known as
1280:genetic transformation
1267:
67:multicellular organism
55:single-celled organism
5235:Evolutionary medicine
5109:Mendelian inheritance
4817:Biological complexity
4805:Programmed cell death
4497:Phenotypic plasticity
4217:Evolutionary pressure
4207:Evidence of evolution
4105:Timeline of evolution
3487:"ciliate | protozoan"
3464:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu
3209:Yett, Jay R. (2015).
2617:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu
2488:10.3390/ijms160613172
2235:. WW Norton. p.
2067:Modularity in biology
1835:
1816:Pyrocystis fusiformis
1758:
1740:Entamoeba histolytica
1734:Entamoeba histolytica
1653:Plasmodium falciparum
1581:
1348:
1261:
117:evolved independently
5209:Teleology in biology
5104:Blending inheritance
4482:Genetic assimilation
4345:Artificial selection
4084:Evolutionary biology
3964:on 17 September 2010
3942:Accessed 2011-10-24.
3905:Accessed 21 May 2009
3755:biolum.eemb.ucsb.edu
3713:www.genoscope.cns.fr
3632:www.encyclopedia.com
3416:www.microbeworld.org
2820:"Archaeal Ribosomes"
2797:www.microbeworld.org
2270:exploringorigins.org
2047:Asexual reproduction
1853:, where most of the
1557:endosymbiotic theory
1333:occurs naturally in
1190:RNA world hypothesis
51:unicellular organism
22:Unicellular organism
5272:Molecular evolution
5230:Ecological genetics
5099:Transitional fossil
4889:Sexual reproduction
4729:endomembrane system
4658:pollinator-mediated
4614:dolphins and whales
4392:Parental investment
3915:Ing, Bruce (1999).
3579:2015PLoSO..1039399K
3370:2015PLoSO..1019248R
3242:2015PNAS..112.8827S
3124:2016PNAS..113.2496V
3066:10.1155/2010/945785
2534:10.1038/nrmicro3199
2522:Nat. Rev. Microbiol
2423:www.sharkbay.org.au
2077:Sexual reproduction
1297:The photosynthetic
898:Sexual reproduction
877:Huronian glaciation
5245:Cultural evolution
4360:Fisher's principle
4289:Handicap principle
4279:Parallel evolution
4143:Adaptive radiation
4038:. sciencenotes.org
3860:www.yourgenome.org
2933:10.1101/gr.3952905
2682:(1786): 20180442.
2481:(6): 13172–13202.
1963:Valonia ventricosa
1843:
1839:Ogataea polymorpha
1764:
1671:Giardia duodenalis
1665:Trypanosoma brucei
1587:
1351:
1268:
1203:' or 'ribocytes'.
1145:Quaternary ice age
1080:Earliest tetrapods
1039:Cambrian explosion
998:Cryogenian ice age
857:Atmospheric oxygen
836:Pongola glaciation
464:Multicellular life
416:Single-celled life
93:, and unicellular
53:, also known as a
35:Valonia ventricosa
5345:
5344:
4961:Uniformitarianism
4914:Sex-determination
4419:Sexual dimorphism
4414:Natural selection
4318:Unit of selection
4284:Signalling theory
3996:978-1-58544-617-9
3184:978-3-319-65535-2
3001:www.mapoflife.org
2927:(10): 1336–1343.
2762:978-94-017-9268-4
2656:978-1-920843-88-5
2404:978-1-58765-084-0
2367:scienceprimer.com
2246:978-0-393-08881-6
2062:Largest organisms
2052:Colonial organism
1828:Unicellular fungi
1819:, are capable of
1751:Unicellular algae
1659:Toxoplasma gondii
1463:, (also known as
1402:Thermus aquaticus
1359:chemolithotrophic
1324:Western Australia
1307:calcium carbonate
1178:
1177:
1162:million years ago
1153:
1152:
1132:
1131:
1108:
1107:
1087:
1086:
1067:
1066:
1059:Andean glaciation
1046:
1045:
1026:
1025:
1006:
1005:
985:
984:
965:
964:
945:
944:
925:
924:
905:
904:
885:
884:
864:
863:
844:
843:
823:
822:
803:
802:
783:
782:
763:
762:
743:
742:
723:
722:
47:
46:
5365:
5335:
5325:
5324:
5124:Modern synthesis
4884:Multicellularity
4879:Mosaic evolution
4764:auditory ossicle
4446:Social selection
4429:Flowering plants
4424:Sexual selection
4077:
4070:
4063:
4054:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4043:
4031:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4018:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3960:. Archived from
3949:
3943:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3912:
3906:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3876:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3818:
3807:Nature Education
3798:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3774:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3761:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3705:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3678:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3651:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3624:
3611:
3610:
3600:
3590:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3483:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3470:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3391:
3381:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3289:
3274:
3273:
3263:
3253:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3206:
3197:
3196:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3145:
3135:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3086:
3068:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3034:
3028:www.vet.ed.ac.uk
3020:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3007:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2952:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2875:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2816:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2699:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2640:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2609:
2600:
2599:
2589:
2565:
2554:
2553:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2500:
2490:
2466:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2396:
2386:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2262:
2251:
2250:
2234:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2201:
2191:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2150:
2126:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2099:
1995:Gromia sphaerica
1958:, foraminiferans
1927:Brefeldia maxima
1784:Euglena gracilis
1374:are as follows:
1355:hydrogen sulfide
1139:
1134:
1115:
1110:
1094:
1089:
1074:
1069:
1053:
1048:
1033:
1028:
1013:
1008:
992:
987:
978:Earliest animals
972:
967:
952:
947:
932:
927:
912:
907:
892:
887:
871:
866:
851:
846:
830:
825:
810:
805:
790:
785:
776:Earliest fossils
770:
765:
750:
745:
730:
725:
710:
705:
684:
653:
615:
613:
587:
585:
492:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
193:
186:
179:
173:
163:
156:
31:
19:
18:
5373:
5372:
5368:
5367:
5366:
5364:
5363:
5362:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5341:
5313:
5240:Group selection
5213:
5138:
5042:
4969:
4931:Tempo and modes
4925:
4780:
4684:
4501:
4460:
4336:
4329:
4306:Species complex
4119:
4110:History of life
4086:
4081:
4051:
4050:
4041:
4039:
4032:
4025:
4016:
4014:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3997:
3981:
3977:
3967:
3965:
3950:
3946:
3938:
3934:
3927:
3913:
3909:
3901:
3897:
3888:
3886:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3864:
3862:
3854:
3853:
3849:
3840:
3838:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3816:
3814:
3799:
3795:
3786:
3784:
3776:
3775:
3768:
3759:
3757:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3731:
3730:
3726:
3717:
3715:
3707:
3706:
3699:
3690:
3688:
3680:
3679:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3653:
3652:
3645:
3636:
3634:
3626:
3625:
3614:
3573:(9): e0139399.
3559:
3555:
3546:
3544:
3536:
3535:
3531:
3508:
3504:
3495:
3493:
3485:
3484:
3477:
3468:
3466:
3458:
3457:
3453:
3444:
3442:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3420:
3418:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3364:(4): e0119248.
3350:
3346:
3335:
3331:
3322:
3320:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3298:
3296:
3291:
3290:
3277:
3236:(29): 8827–34.
3222:
3218:
3207:
3200:
3185:
3163:
3159:
3118:(9): 2496–501.
3104:
3100:
3045:
3041:
3032:
3030:
3022:
3021:
3014:
3005:
3003:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2981:
2979:
2971:
2970:
2966:
2921:Genome Research
2913:
2909:
2900:
2898:
2876:
2861:
2852:
2850:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2828:
2826:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2801:
2799:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2763:
2741:
2737:
2728:
2726:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2641:
2630:
2621:
2619:
2611:
2610:
2603:
2566:
2557:
2518:
2514:
2467:
2460:
2451:
2449:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2427:
2425:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2387:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2311:
2307:
2298:
2296:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2274:
2272:
2264:
2263:
2254:
2247:
2222:
2215:
2168:
2164:
2127:
2118:
2110:
2108:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2037:
1907:
1830:
1821:bioluminescence
1803:Dinoflagellates
1753:
1576:
1546:recombinational
1529:
1343:
1256:
1232:
1174:
1173:
1165:
1149:
1148:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1113:
1104:
1103:
1092:
1083:
1082:
1072:
1063:
1062:
1051:
1042:
1041:
1031:
1022:
1021:
1019:Ediacaran biota
1011:
1002:
1001:
990:
981:
980:
970:
961:
960:
958:Earliest plants
950:
941:
940:
930:
921:
920:
910:
901:
900:
890:
881:
880:
869:
860:
859:
849:
840:
839:
828:
819:
818:
816:Earliest oxygen
808:
799:
798:
788:
779:
778:
768:
759:
758:
748:
739:
738:
728:
719:
718:
708:
701:
700:
699:
694:
693:
692:
687:
686:
685:
681:
679:
677:
675:
673:
671:
669:
667:
665:
663:
660:
656:
655:
654:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
640:
638:
636:
634:
632:
630:
629:
628:
627:
626:
625:
624:
622:
618:
617:
616:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
598:
597:
596:
594:
590:
589:
588:
583:
581:
579:
577:
575:
573:
571:
567:
566:
565:
558:
557:
556:
549:
548:
547:
540:
539:
538:
533:
532:
531:
524:
523:
522:
515:
514:
513:
503:
502:
501:
496:
495:
494:
490:
488:
486:
484:
482:
480:
475:
474:
473:
468:
467:
466:
459:
458:
457:
452:
451:
450:
443:
442:
441:
436:
435:
434:
427:
426:
425:
420:
419:
418:
411:
410:
409:
404:
403:
402:
395:
394:
393:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
197:
171:
165:
161:
154:
43:
38:, a species of
17:
12:
11:
5:
5371:
5361:
5360:
5358:Microorganisms
5343:
5342:
5340:
5339:
5329:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5312:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5258:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5221:
5219:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5211:
5206:
5205:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5193:
5192:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5152:
5146:
5144:
5140:
5139:
5137:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5090:
5089:
5080:Charles Darwin
5077:
5076:
5075:
5063:
5058:
5052:
5050:
5044:
5043:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5018:Non-ecological
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4979:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4968:
4967:
4958:
4949:
4935:
4933:
4927:
4926:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4917:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4802:
4791:
4789:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4769:nervous system
4766:
4761:
4756:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4695:
4693:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4650:
4649:
4648:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4636:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4605:
4604:
4599:
4589:
4579:
4574:
4573:
4572:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4546:
4545:
4535:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4518:
4512:
4510:
4503:
4502:
4500:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4468:
4466:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4394:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4341:
4339:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4325:
4315:
4310:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4269:Origin of life
4266:
4261:
4256:
4254:Microevolution
4251:
4249:Macroevolution
4246:
4241:
4236:
4235:
4234:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4187:Common descent
4184:
4183:
4182:
4172:
4167:
4165:Baldwin effect
4162:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4129:
4127:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4091:
4088:
4087:
4080:
4079:
4072:
4065:
4057:
4049:
4048:
4023:
4002:
3995:
3975:
3944:
3932:
3925:
3907:
3895:
3871:
3847:
3823:
3793:
3766:
3742:
3724:
3697:
3670:
3643:
3612:
3553:
3529:
3518:(4): 415–422.
3502:
3475:
3451:
3427:
3403:
3344:
3329:
3305:
3275:
3216:
3198:
3183:
3157:
3098:
3039:
3012:
2988:
2964:
2907:
2859:
2835:
2808:
2784:
2761:
2735:
2711:
2662:
2655:
2628:
2601:
2555:
2512:
2458:
2447:www.nature.com
2434:
2410:
2403:
2378:
2354:
2305:
2281:
2252:
2245:
2213:
2162:
2141:(7): 449–456.
2116:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2023:
2015:
2007:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1975:
1959:
1951:
1938:Xenophyophores
1935:
1915:microorganisms
1906:
1903:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1824:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1752:
1749:
1618:Cavalier-Smith
1575:
1572:
1528:
1525:
1509:
1508:
1480:
1458:
1442:
1430:
1412:
1342:
1339:
1276:binary fission
1255:
1252:
1231:
1228:
1186:origin of life
1176:
1175:
1166:
1159:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1143:
1142:
1140:
1130:
1129:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1106:
1105:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1085:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1065:
1064:
1057:
1056:
1054:
1044:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1024:
1023:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1004:
1003:
996:
995:
993:
983:
982:
976:
975:
973:
963:
962:
956:
955:
953:
943:
942:
938:Earliest fungi
936:
935:
933:
923:
922:
916:
915:
913:
903:
902:
896:
895:
893:
883:
882:
875:
874:
872:
862:
861:
855:
854:
852:
842:
841:
834:
833:
831:
821:
820:
814:
813:
811:
801:
800:
796:LHB meteorites
794:
793:
791:
781:
780:
774:
773:
771:
761:
760:
754:
753:
751:
741:
740:
736:Earliest water
734:
733:
731:
721:
720:
714:
713:
711:
702:
697:
696:
695:
690:
689:
688:
659:
658:
657:
621:
620:
619:
593:
592:
591:
570:
569:
568:
561:
560:
559:
552:
551:
550:
543:
542:
541:
536:
535:
534:
527:
526:
525:
518:
517:
516:
506:
505:
504:
499:
498:
497:
478:
477:
476:
471:
470:
469:
462:
461:
460:
455:
454:
453:
446:
445:
444:
439:
438:
437:
432:Photosynthesis
430:
429:
428:
423:
422:
421:
414:
413:
412:
407:
406:
405:
398:
397:
396:
391:
390:
389:
387:
384:0 —
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
199:
198:
196:
195:
188:
181:
170:
167:
166:
159:
153:
150:
89:, unicellular
73:organisms and
45:
44:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5370:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5328:
5320:
5319:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5282:Phylogenetics
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5242:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5216:
5210:
5207:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5186:
5185:Structuralism
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5160:Catastrophism
5158:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5119:Neo-Darwinism
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5088:
5087:
5083:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5074:
5073:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5049:
5045:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5033:Reinforcement
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4976:
4972:
4966:
4965:Catastrophism
4962:
4959:
4957:
4956:Macromutation
4953:
4952:Micromutation
4950:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4928:
4922:
4919:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4891:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4859:Immune system
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4783:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4719:symbiogenesis
4717:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4687:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4654:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4541:
4540:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4509:
4504:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4463:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4387:Kin selection
4385:
4383:
4382:Genetic drift
4380:
4378:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4332:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4294:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4233:
4230:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4122:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4085:
4078:
4073:
4071:
4066:
4064:
4059:
4058:
4055:
4037:
4030:
4028:
4012:
4006:
3998:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3979:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3948:
3941:
3936:
3928:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3904:
3899:
3885:
3881:
3875:
3861:
3857:
3851:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3771:
3756:
3752:
3746:
3738:
3734:
3728:
3714:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3687:
3686:www.mbari.org
3683:
3677:
3675:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3633:
3629:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3557:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3506:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3480:
3465:
3461:
3455:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3399:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3340:
3333:
3319:
3318:users.rcn.com
3315:
3309:
3294:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3212:
3205:
3203:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3161:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3043:
3029:
3025:
3024:"Methanogens"
3019:
3017:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2978:
2974:
2973:"Acidophiles"
2968:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2813:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2725:
2721:
2715:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2666:
2658:
2652:
2648:
2647:
2646:Stromatolites
2639:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2606:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2528:(3): 181–96.
2527:
2523:
2516:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2448:
2444:
2438:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2406:
2400:
2395:
2394:
2385:
2383:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2295:
2291:
2290:"Prokaryotes"
2285:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2248:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2232:
2226:
2220:
2218:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2106:
2105:
2098:
2094:
2083:
2082:Superorganism
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2014:, a bacterium
2013:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:Chlorophyceae
1970:of the class
1969:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1902:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1887:recombination
1884:
1883:
1882:S. cerevisiae
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1865:S. cerevisiae
1862:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1840:
1834:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
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1630:Microsporidia
1627:
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1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1584:
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1550:recombination
1547:
1543:
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1506:
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1500:
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1471:
1470:Methanococcus
1466:
1462:
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1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1431:
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1427:
1422:
1421:
1420:Methanogenium
1416:
1415:Psychrophiles
1413:
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1398:
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1372:extremophiles
1367:
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1332:
1327:
1325:
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1313:
1308:
1304:
1303:Stromatolites
1300:
1299:cyanobacteria
1295:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1284:repairing DNA
1281:
1277:
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1265:
1264:stromatolites
1260:
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1121:Earliest apes
1117:
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1100:Karoo ice age
1096:
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162:Life timeline
157:
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131:
130:multinucleate
127:
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109:
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41:
37:
36:
30:
25:
20:
5294:Polymorphism
5277:Astrobiology
5225:Biogeography
5180:Saltationism
5170:Orthogenesis
5155:Alternatives
5084:
5070:
5003:Cospeciation
4998:Cladogenesis
4947:Saltationism
4904:Mating types
4827:Color vision
4812:Avian flight
4734:mitochondria
4472:Canalisation
4350:Biodiversity
4095:Introduction
4040:. Retrieved
4015:. Retrieved
4005:
3985:
3978:
3966:. Retrieved
3962:the original
3957:
3947:
3935:
3916:
3910:
3898:
3887:. Retrieved
3883:
3874:
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3859:
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3835:
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3810:
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3541:
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3490:
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3439:
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3415:
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3317:
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3233:
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3210:
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3160:
3115:
3111:
3101:
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3027:
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3000:
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2976:
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2887:
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2796:
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2723:
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2366:
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2322:
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2293:
2284:
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2269:
2230:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2138:
2134:
2109:, retrieved
2107:, ThinkQuest
2103:
2097:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2001:
1993:
1985:
1979:Acetabularia
1977:
1961:
1953:
1945:
1942:Foraminifera
1925:
1908:
1880:
1864:
1858:
1844:
1837:
1814:
1782:
1775:Euglenophyta
1765:
1738:
1732:
1730:
1723:
1717:
1714:micronucleus
1710:macronucleus
1699:
1694:
1687:
1682:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1644:phagocytosis
1637:
1615:
1588:
1582:
1568:fermentation
1561:
1554:
1530:
1510:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1474:
1468:
1448:
1438:Natronomonas
1436:
1433:Alkaliphiles
1424:
1418:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1382:
1379:Thermophiles
1368:
1363:
1352:
1328:
1296:
1269:
1236:mitochondria
1233:
1205:
1194:
1179:
1168:
716:Earth formed
415:
139:
133:
123:
121:
110:
103:
54:
50:
48:
33:
5304:Systematics
5175:Mutationism
4993:Catagenesis
4921:Snake venom
4854:Eusociality
4832:in primates
4822:Cooperation
4750:In animals
4570:butterflies
4543:Cephalopods
4533:Brachiopods
4465:Development
4439:Mate choice
4192:Convergence
4175:Coevolution
4133:Abiogenesis
3884:www.cdc.gov
3836:MicrobeWiki
2977:www.els.net
2824:www.els.net
2325:: 127–137.
2042:Abiogenesis
1919:macroscopic
1911:microscopic
1899:candidiasis
1895:Candida spp
1791:Chlorophyta
1779:mixotrophic
1768:chlorophyll
1725:Tetrahymena
1706:trichocysts
1602:pseudopodia
1512:Methanogens
1461:Piezophiles
1454:Picrophilus
1445:Acidophiles
1408:Melanopyrus
1390:Pyrodictium
1384:Pyrobaculum
1320:Phanerozoic
1316:Proterozoic
1292:conjugation
1230:Prokaryotes
1208:amphiphiles
172:This box:
146:Myxogastria
71:prokaryotic
65:, unlike a
5165:Lamarckism
5143:Philosophy
5066:David Hume
5028:Peripatric
5023:Parapatric
5008:Ecological
4988:Anagenesis
4983:Allopatric
4975:Speciation
4939:Gradualism
4864:Metabolism
4724:chromosome
4714:Eukaryotes
4492:Modularity
4409:Population
4335:Population
4296:Speciation
4274:Panspermia
4227:Extinction
4222:Exaptation
4197:Divergence
4170:Cladistics
4158:Reciprocal
4138:Adaptation
4042:2020-01-07
4017:2014-03-01
3958:All at Sea
3926:0855462515
3889:2015-11-23
3865:2015-11-23
3841:2015-11-23
3817:2015-11-23
3787:2015-11-23
3760:2015-11-23
3718:2015-11-23
3691:2015-11-23
3664:2015-11-23
3637:2015-11-23
3547:2015-11-23
3496:2015-11-23
3469:2015-11-23
3445:2015-11-23
3421:2015-11-23
3412:"Protozoa"
3323:2015-11-23
3299:2015-11-23
3211:Eukaryotes
3059:: 945785.
3033:2015-11-22
3006:2015-11-22
2982:2015-11-22
2901:2015-11-22
2890:(2): 371.
2853:2015-11-22
2829:2015-11-22
2802:2015-11-22
2729:2015-11-22
2622:2015-11-22
2452:2015-11-22
2428:2015-11-22
2372:2015-11-22
2299:2015-11-22
2275:2015-10-28
2111:2013-05-30
2089:References
1932:slime mold
1877:cell cycle
1719:Paramecium
1701:Vorticella
1689:Paramecium
1684:Ciliophora
1677:Leishmania
1626:Percolozoa
1614:Choanozoa
1606:Euglenozoa
1563:Rickettsia
1542:eukaryotic
1527:Eukaryotes
1521:DNA damage
1504:Halococcus
1492:Haloarcula
1483:Halophiles
1476:Pyrococcus
1465:barophiles
1450:Sulfolobus
1426:Halorubrum
1396:Pyrococcus
1248:chromosome
1182:protocells
1180:Primitive
508:Arthropods
448:Eukaryotes
141:Plasmodium
99:protocells
75:eukaryotic
5299:Protocell
5150:Darwinism
5038:Sympatric
4787:processes
4675:Tetrapods
4624:Kangaroos
4550:Dinosaurs
4487:Inversion
4456:Variation
4377:Gene flow
4370:Inclusive
4180:Mutualism
4125:Evolution
3968:27 August
3075:1472-3654
2941:1088-9051
2793:"Archaea"
2771:1559-0836
1955:Nummulite
1855:cytoplasm
1807:cellulose
1680:species.
1610:Amoebozoa
1498:Haloferax
1364:archaios,
1224:membranes
1201:ribocells
529:Dinosaurs
5352:Category
5327:Category
5202:Vitalism
5197:Theistic
5190:Spandrel
4874:Morality
4869:Monogamy
4744:plastids
4709:Flagella
4665:Reptiles
4646:sea cows
4629:primates
4538:Molluscs
4516:Bacteria
4404:Mutation
4337:genetics
4313:Taxonomy
4259:Mismatch
4239:Homology
4153:Cheating
4148:Altruism
3607:26422142
3567:PLOS ONE
3398:25923521
3358:PLOS ONE
3339:Protozoa
3295:. Nature
3270:26195746
3193:26593032
3152:26884154
3093:21253540
2959:16169924
2779:25416397
2706:31587633
2596:29111273
2580:: 8–25.
2550:23559881
2542:24509783
2507:26068451
2393:Bacteria
2349:25460806
2227:(2015).
2208:25653653
2157:19580865
2035:See also
2027:Bursaria
1987:Caulerpa
1811:red tide
1695:Stentors
1648:Protozoa
1634:Sulcozoa
1622:Loukozoa
1594:flagella
1590:Protozoa
1574:Protozoa
1335:bacteria
1312:Archaean
1272:plasmids
1254:Bacteria
1244:nucleoid
1220:vesicles
1216:micelles
1197:ribozyme
1170:Ice Ages
563:Primates
511:Molluscs
135:Caulerpa
106:colonies
87:protozoa
79:bacteria
59:organism
57:, is an
5218:Related
5048:History
4909:Meiosis
4844:Empathy
4839:Emotion
4739:nucleus
4680:Viruses
4670:Spiders
4582:Mammals
4565:Insects
4365:Fitness
4301:Species
4100:Outline
3813:(9): 17
3598:4589404
3575:Bibcode
3389:4418965
3366:Bibcode
3261:4517231
3238:Bibcode
3143:4780597
3120:Bibcode
3084:3021854
3053:Archaea
2950:1240075
2697:6792439
2498:4490491
2340:4359759
2199:4299406
2182:: 737.
2019:Stentor
1982:, algae
1891:meiosis
1851:budding
1797:Diatoms
1745:meiosis
1639:Euglena
1570:alone.
1538:meiosis
1534:mitosis
1341:Archaea
1329:Clonal
1262:Modern
1240:nucleus
1138:←
1114:←
1093:←
1073:←
1052:←
1032:←
1012:←
991:←
971:←
951:←
931:←
911:←
891:←
870:←
850:←
829:←
809:←
789:←
769:←
749:←
729:←
709:←
545:Mammals
520:Flowers
379:–
374:—
369:–
359:–
354:—
349:–
339:–
334:—
329:–
319:–
314:—
309:–
299:–
294:—
289:–
279:–
274:—
269:–
259:–
254:—
249:–
239:–
234:—
229:–
219:–
214:—
209:–
132:, like
113:Gametes
83:archaea
5337:Portal
5013:Hybrid
4849:Ethics
4691:organs
4653:Plants
4639:lemurs
4634:humans
4619:horses
4609:hyenas
4597:wolves
4592:canids
4526:origin
3993:
3923:
3605:
3595:
3396:
3386:
3268:
3258:
3191:
3181:
3150:
3140:
3091:
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2495:
2401:
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2337:
2243:
2225:Lane N
2206:
2196:
2155:
1869:cancer
1847:yeasts
1761:diatom
1698:, and
1600:, and
1212:lipids
1125:humans
698:
691:
537:
500:
472:
456:
440:
424:
408:
392:
144:, and
4800:Death
4795:Aging
4774:brain
4560:Fungi
4521:Birds
4434:Fungi
4232:Event
4115:Index
3189:S2CID
2546:S2CID
1966:, an
1616:sensu
1598:cilia
1331:aging
1288:pilus
1238:or a
1210:like
1206:When
554:Birds
400:Water
95:fungi
91:algae
5287:Tree
4759:hair
4699:Cell
4602:dogs
4587:cats
4577:Life
4555:Fish
4508:taxa
3991:ISBN
3970:2010
3921:ISBN
3603:PMID
3394:PMID
3266:PMID
3179:ISBN
3148:PMID
3089:PMID
3071:ISSN
3057:2010
2955:PMID
2937:ISSN
2775:PMID
2767:ISSN
2757:ISBN
2702:PMID
2651:ISBN
2592:PMID
2538:PMID
2503:PMID
2399:ISBN
2345:PMID
2241:ISBN
2204:PMID
2153:PMID
1968:alga
1930:, a
1871:and
1722:and
1674:and
1632:and
1555:The
1536:and
1487:NaCl
1473:and
1452:and
1423:and
1405:and
1218:and
756:LUCA
192:edit
185:talk
178:view
81:and
63:cell
40:alga
4785:Of
4754:eye
4704:DNA
4689:Of
4506:Of
3593:PMC
3583:doi
3520:doi
3384:PMC
3374:doi
3256:PMC
3246:doi
3234:112
3171:doi
3138:PMC
3128:doi
3116:113
3079:PMC
3061:doi
2945:PMC
2929:doi
2892:doi
2749:doi
2692:PMC
2684:doi
2680:374
2582:doi
2530:doi
2493:PMC
2483:doi
2335:PMC
2327:doi
2194:PMC
2184:doi
2143:doi
2139:160
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610:a
608:e
606:h
604:c
602:r
600:A
584:n
582:a
580:e
578:d
576:a
574:H
491:s
489:t
487:n
485:a
483:l
481:P
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