Tzeltal language - Knowledge

3751:, the perfective verb is almost always understood as having occurred in the past, but can signal either a recent or a distant past. It may correspond to the present tense if the terminating point of the event is understood as the present moment. For example, to announce one's immediate departure ("I'm going (now)"), the verb meaning "go" would be marked for the perfective aspect, even though the social circumstances of such a locution would necessitate that the action not yet be complete. Further, the perfective aspect can indicate a past, habitual action, similar to the English "used to" or "would" ("We used to/would go to the park everyday"). In this construction, adverbs such as 173: 419:

The Ethnologue classifies Tzeltal as a 5 out of 10 (Developing) on its scale of endangerment status, and additionally describes its use as "vigorous." Nevertheless, its usage is almost exclusively oral; schools rarely incorporate Tzeltal materials, and as a result almost everyone under the age of 30

4746:

The relative order of a verb and its active and patient arguments, and whether or not a passive construction may be used, can be affected by the definiteness and topicalization of the arguments. When the agent argument is a definite noun (phrase) and the patient argument is indefinite, only the

4157:

is usually used with definite nouns, that is, to reference a contextually identifiable entity (either because it was already mentioned, or because it is present or implicit in a situation) or to reference a unique entity ("the sun, the king", et cetera). In casual speech, Tzeltal speakers often

2053:

with which they may occur. The unique set for each stem class may be increased by up to four affixes. Although the total set representing each stem class is unique, certain subsets of affixes are shared by multiple stem classes. Kaufman describes six stem classes, followed by his abbreviations:

4755:

cat" could not be expressed in the passive voice, because the agent "the dog" is definite but the patient "a cat" is indefinite. Inversely, if the patient is definite and the agent indefinite, the passive voice is grammatically required. Whereas an English speaker could say either "A boy hit

461:

and Tzeltal. The translations include "the prayers used for Mass, marriage, baptisms, confirmations, confessions, ordinations and the anointing of the sick ... Bishop Arizmendi said Oct. 6 that the texts, which took approximately eight years to translate, would be used in his diocese and the

4626:

of a phrase can be syntactically expressed with non-verb-initial constructions, though these occur usually as a means to emphasize information rather than as a preferred construction. To topicalize the semantic active/subject, an AVP order is used, with the determinant-clitic circumfix

3136:

Ergative case is marked with prefixes, each of which has two allomorphs depending on whether the word begins with a vowel or a consonant. Rather than having different prefixes for singular and plural person, the plural is expressed with the addition of a suffix as well as the prefix:

4737:

Focus in Tzeltal behaves such that noun phrases are more or less focalized depending on their degree of predictability in a given context; noun phrases that are more surprising or unexpected in a given context will be said to be more marked for focus that those which are expected.

2592:

verbs include at least a transitive or intransitive theme (formed from either an unaffixed root or a root with derivational affixes), one person marker (if transitive) or two (if intransitive), and an aspectual mark (which can be a zero-mark in the case of intransitive verbs with

4636:

and with P unaffixed. If the subject is topicalized and the object is focalized, an APV order is used, with A circumfixed and P unaffixed. Though these are not the only possible orders, it is clear that a focalized element occurring before a verb does not take the determinant

407:

called Cholan–Tzeltalan. All these languages are the most spoken Mayan languages in Chiapas today. Historically, the branches are believed to have split about 1,400 years ago. Also, some researchers believe that the Tzeltal language has been spoken as far away as in

4318:

by another noun, the possessor noun immediately follows the possessed noun. Possession takes many complex forms in Tzeltal (see Polian 2006, §5.5 for details). Most commonly and simply, it is marked with the prefixes corresponding to transitive verbs marked for

4649:

As was stated above, the more topicalized an element is, the more likely it is to be distanced from the predicate. Topic can be morphologically marked in a number of ways. Topicalized elements in the initial position can optionally be preceded by the particle

3781:

disappears, imperfective transitive verbs and perfective intransitive verbs would be marked for aspect in the same way, but recall that the presence of ergative person markers is required for transitive verbs and impossible in the case of intransitive verbs.

4475:

Polian (2006) provides the following table showing the relative frequencies of various constituent orders occurring with transitive, active verbs (in which V represents the verb, A the semantic agent or subject, and P the semantic passive or object):

4399:("my-older brother") the subject. In sentence 2, neither the object nor the subject argument appears as a noun phrase; Tzeltal almost never uses pronouns as unmarked topics. The presence of two affixes completes the meaning of the transitive 4346:. The relationship between arguments and predicates is mediated by the personal ergative and absolutive affixes, one affix occurring for each argument (though recall that those same affixes are used in other grammatical constructions, such as 2784:

and information structures), or immediately following the lexical predicate. There are eight second-position clitics, and several can appear on the same word. When multiple second-position clitics appear, they follow the following order:

4631:

around both the A and P elements. To focalize the subject, the same AVP order is used, except that the determinant circumfix is absent on the A element. To focalize the object, PVA order is used, with the A element circumfixed with

3776:

In the above two examples, the first perfective and the second imperfective, the bolded portions correspond to respective aspect markers. The following chart briefly summarizes the above. Note that, in cases in which the auxiliary

2688:

Like many Mayan languages, Tzeltal has affect verbs, which can be thought of as a subcategory of intransitive verbs. They generally function as secondary predicates, with adverbial function in the phrase. In Tzeltal they are often

387:), south, and southeast, though the southeastern dialect is today spoken only by a few elderly and geographically dispersed speakers. It is a living language with some 371,730 speakers as of 2005, including approximately 50,000 1333:. In most dialects, most notably that of Bachajón, word-final is very light and in rapid speech often disappears entirely if not protected by some other element. For example, in the Bachajón dialect, the nominal root 1818:. Derivational affixes turn roots into stems and can change the grammatical category of the root, thought not all roots need to be affixed to become a stem. Inflectional affixes denote syntactic relations, such as 3699:

do not take any markers in the perfective aspect, and an intransitive verb without aspectual markers is unambiguously understood as perfective. Compare the following two sentences, each with the intransitive verb

1317:

may occur with consecutive identical phonemes, either at a word- or morpheme-boundary. For example, the word /ta aʼtel/ ("at work") may be pronounced , the two phonemes having been pronounced as one.

1810:

to form full morphological words. Each root and stem belongs to a class, which determines the ways in which it may be affixed; see the section below for details. Affixes cannot appear alone; they are

4350:). The systematic appearance of one personal marker per argument means that corresponding arguments need not be realized as noun phrases, but can be implied when corresponding to an unmarked 3759:, it may be interpreted as a future factual; in the same context an imperfective clause would be interpreted as a conditional statement, with a lesser degree of factuality and punctuality. 1423:

has been lost in verbal forms. Thus, words beginning or ending with a vowel and not a glottal stop should be pronounced together with the word preceding or following it. For example,

4226:

and classifier, or by a quantifier (analogous to the English "all" or "many", for example). Various classifiers exist, each associated with a specific semantic domain (for example,

486:

of Tzeltal is quite straightforward with a common vowel inventory and a typical consonant inventory for Mayan languages. Some phonological processes do occur, however, including

3747:

Though tense is not morphologically indicated in Tzeltal, the perfective aspect can be used in certain constructions to indicate or suggest location in time. In an independent

3050:, typically classified as a subcategory of morphology, describes the ways in which words are modified to express grammatical categories. With regards to verbs it may be called 3224:

is characteristic of central Tzeltal. Thought often pre-aspirated, the prevocalic second person ergative form is the sole case of a Tzeltal initial vowel not preceded by a

435: 4863: 3971:

Perfect constructions in Tzeltal can also signal a "persistent state," similar to the function described above but without the necessity that the characterization be the

3635:, though variation and conditioning vary greatly across dialects. In the Bachajón dialect it has been morphologically reanalyzed as a prefix (rather than an auxiliary or 4611:=verb marked for passivity). If the subject is not the more topicalized element, then the active voice will take the form VAP and the passive voice will take the form V 4009:

typically signals an event or action still occurring when another, more temporally located event took/takes/will take place. It is expressed with the auxiliary

3031:

always follows the lexical predicate of a phrase, regardless of the phrase's other constituents. Its signification is similar to those of the Spanish word

379:, while the eastern portion was settled primarily in the second half of the twentieth century. Partially as a result of these migrations, during which the 1896:

is particularly prominent, often used to produce a noun marked for non-referentiality in cases of interrogation. It is followed by the additional suffix

4957: 4407:

arguments. Because of this paradigm, a transitive verb with both third-person affixes appearing only with one argument (noun phrase) can be ambiguous:

4468:("buy") is marked with the first-person ergative prefix corresponding to "I," and with the second-person ergative suffix corresponding to "you," while 1766:

of an intransitive verb takes the same form as the object of a transitive verb, and differently from the subject of a transitive verb. It is also an

463: 383:

and other cultural groups found each other in close proximity, four different dialects of Tzeltal have been described: north, central (including

4021:

with an infinitive. In the first, the subject is marked by an absolutive suffix on the auxiliary, while infinitive is marked by the preposition

4429:

However, in the case of passive phrases, the semantic agent may appear unmarked, while the absolutive suffix is preceded by the passive suffix,

2731:

they take the same person markers as intransitive verbs (the absolutive suffixes), but aspect–tense markers appear only in the imperfective; and

2004:

Compounding is most commonly used to compound a transitive verb with its object, in so doing creating a noun describing the action in question.

4575:(its presence marked only on the verb itself), it can be said that Tzeltal speakers prefer to omit arguments if they are evident from context. 3744:("come") have similarly become usable as auxiliaries, and when used as such appear without person markers, which appear on the following verb. 5293: 2685:("for me to look for you") correspond to (first-person ergative marker)-"look for"-(infinitive marker)-(second person absolutive marker). 4583:

Though there is minor disagreement among linguists as to the placement of post-verbal noun phrases, the most recent studies suggest that

3584:, it is generally interpreted as an expression of habit. All verbs can, but do not have to, be marked as imperfective with the auxiliary 2605:

markers. In almost every case, these markers differ between transitive and intransitive verbs, a difference further systematized by the

1770:, which means that words are typically formed by placing affixes on a root, with each affix representing one morpheme (as opposed to a 3000:, though the possible semantic outcomes are numerous and governed by complex rules. The remaining four final-position clitics are all 5876: 3580:

corresponds to an event or action considered as ongoing or unbound. If the action marked as imperfective is understood to be in the

4894: 4192:

function in reinforcing the act of signaling. They are analogous to the demonstratives "this" and "that" in English; for example,

3639:), but only when the verb is marked for the second-person ergative. Thus, to say "You know that," speakers from Bachajón may say 2657:

suffix is used along with a third-person ergative prefix which must agree with the subject of the verb. Thus, the transitive verb

6378: 3736:

dialect only when the auxiliary appears alone, as an affirmation. This auxiliary historically comes from the intransitive verb

3066:

The affixes of person marking depend on the case of the verb. In the absolutive case, all person-marking affixes are suffixes:

4871: 2754:

my heart"). As a secondary predicate, an effect verb is typically exhortative, or indicative/descriptive as in the sentence

2182:

When roots function as stems, they belong to the following stem classes (expressed using the abbreviations described above):

423:

One of the primary differences between the Tzeltalan and the Chʼol languages today is that while the Chʼol languages feature

3058:. In Tzeltal, inflection is most commonly achieved through affixation, though other inflectional processes exist as well. 2669:("to look (for something)/looking for something"). Alternatively, a transitive infinitive can be expressed with the suffix 1435:

The following is a general list of common root shapes in Tzeltal. For further examples and detail, see section 3.3 below.

376: 4587:

is the principal factor in determining their order; with few exceptions, noun phrases are arranged in order from the most

1269: 1243: 1193: 969: 949: 195: 5103: 1392:. is only lost when the root is closely related to the preceding word. For example, the glottal stop in the particle - 5113: 1499:

These final three bisyllabic root constructions result almost always from the combination of two roots, and are always

842: 5286: 5233: 5071: 5011: 3882:

seem to be changes in progress. Observe the following two sentences and their translations, the first with the verb

3228:. The sets of phrases below demonstrate various combinations of person marking, one with the consonant-initial verb 6363: 4017:

together with an infinitive verb construction (of which there are four in Tzeltal). There are two ways to combine

1759: 885: 807: 6373: 561: 185: 1345:, the word will be pronounced . This process does not hold true for word-final . All dialects retain before 367:

The area in which Tzeltal is spoken can be divided in half by an imaginary north-south line; to the west, near

4925: 5869: 5608: 4973: 3679:

is commonly reduced to , though not systematically. It is, however, systematically absent after the negation

466:. Mass has been celebrated in the diocese in recent years with the assistance of translators – except during 4234:

with animals). In the absence of a semantically associated classifier, numerals take the general classifier

321: 5279: 4599:

constructions will take the order VPA (A=semantic active/object, V=verb, P=semantic passive/object), while

4342:. The order of arguments in the phrase is variable, but the most frequent order for transitive phrases is 2606: 1349:. Similarly, medial has disappeared from the Oxchuc dialect but not from the Bachajón dialect, such that 875: 797: 568: 428: 159: 1288: 5829: 4343: 905: 832: 540: 959: 708: 698: 582: 487: 2891:

Certain pairs of second-position clitics may be phonologically altered when appearing consecutively.

5558: 4756:

Michael" or "Michael was hit by a boy," Tzeltal speakers are obligated to use the passive construct.

4391:

nature of the verb meaning "sow" and because VOS is the "unmarked" constituent order, we assume that

1845:

in Tzeltal is highly productive as a means of noun-to-noun, noun-to-adjective, and adjective-to-noun

1369:. Further, in the Oxchuc dialect, an preceding a plain consonant will change the consonant into an 1277: 1275: 1267: 1241: 1208: 1206: 1191: 1119: 1111: 1099: 1091: 1083: 1072: 1039: 998: 983: 895: 864: 4439:("Mikel was bitten by a dog"; the verb takes only the absolutive person marker -Ø, while, the agent 6368: 6093: 5862: 5819: 5743: 5647: 5533: 5510: 4243: 1958: 1932: 1846: 1838: 547: 6047: 4458:, the indirect object corresponds to an absolutive marker, while the direct object goes unmarked: 5588: 4419:, "the girl") could mean either "The girl saw it/him/her," or "He/she saw the girl," because the 3051: 2589: 1819: 1121: 1093: 1085: 1041: 720: 443: 277: 1834:

are syntactically and prosodically conditioned morphemes and only occur as satellites to words.

6328: 6256: 6012: 6006: 5902: 5578: 5063: 4717:("other") appears before the contrastive topic ("John" in the example), along with the pronoun 3608:

marks both case (absolutive) and person/number (first singular). Compare this to the sentence

2171: 2099: 2091: 1928: 1767: 1763: 1514: 1397: 1101: 1074: 1000: 985: 759: 749: 6067: 5430: 345: 6321: 6297: 6209: 5995: 5959: 5834: 5814: 5738: 5618: 5435: 5387: 5337: 4584: 4223: 2781: 1775: 1440: 1118:. In the initial position of a suffix following a consonant, it is realized as the true stop 1113: 924: 670: 660: 6240: 6219: 5407: 4772: 6314: 5598: 4347: 4315: 4096:

The following schematic represents the full range of possible elements that may exist in a

2777: 2602: 1806:. Kaufman distinguishes between roots, from which stems are derived, and stems, which are 1522: 1506: 1346: 1326: 615:, the bracketed letters in the chart below represent one orthography heavily derivative of 403:, a branch of the Mayan languages, called Tzeltalan, which in turn forms a branch with the 301: 5980: 5465: 4690:

is marking a change in topic within a discourse, it is immediately followed by the adverb

4262:

One or more adjectives may appear in the position labeled . When the adjective serves an

404: 8: 6261: 5918: 5893: 5824: 5733: 5633: 5548: 5480: 5425: 5372: 5367: 5302: 4400: 4335: 4025:. In the second, which only occurs with inflected transitive infinitives, the auxiliary 3976: 3577: 3549: 2594: 1978: 1537:

from "dialects other than that of Aguacatenango," though recall that, for example, is a

1314: 771: 616: 5688: 5673: 1957:

can only occur with monosyllablic roots, and is typically used with numbers and numeral

1919:

In addition to suffixation and prefixation, Tzeltal uses the morphological processes of

1774:, in which affixes may include multiple morphemes). Tzeltal is further classified as a 6214: 6189: 5628: 5573: 5352: 5056: 4967: 4006: 3557: 3537: 2386: 2110: 1827: 1795: 1779: 1069: 823: 742: 632: 627: 413: 309: 6109: 5663: 3755:("before") may additionally be used for clarity. Lastly, when a perfective clause is 1973:("group by group/one group after the other"). When a redoubled root takes the suffix 151: 6271: 6266: 6175: 6149: 6088: 5954: 5773: 5703: 5668: 5653: 5593: 5583: 5563: 5515: 5490: 5402: 5357: 5229: 5109: 5067: 5007: 4451: 4447: 4376: 4142: 3944:

are typically conjugated as intransitive (passive transitive verbs taking the suffix

3845: 3696: 3692: 3553: 3533: 2365: 2332: 2321: 2299: 2277: 2154: 2079: 1823: 1771: 1214: 1080: 647: 637: 454: 6000: 5933: 5377: 4962:. Translated by Robinson, Stuart P. Archived from the original on 27 September 2006. 4907: 2609:

case system. Among the affixes shared by both transitive and intransitive verbs are

341: 191: 6235: 6134: 6033: 5908: 5793: 5788: 5753: 5723: 5658: 5613: 5553: 5450: 5445: 5397: 5382: 5347: 5255: 4150: 2622: 458: 424: 400: 337: 222: 100: 20: 4029:

is unmarked while the second verb, still in the infinitive, takes person markers:

6083: 5885: 5846:

Note: The list of official languages is ordered by decreasing size of population.

5798: 5778: 5768: 5758: 5748: 5728: 5693: 5638: 5568: 5543: 5470: 5455: 5440: 5327: 5102:

Luraghi, Silvia; Claudia Parodi (2013). Luraghi, Silvia; Parodi, Claudia (eds.).

4747:

active construction is grammatical. Thus, the Tzeltal equivalent of the phrase "

4623: 4619: 4592: 4588: 4572: 4351: 4146: 3721: 2678: 2382: 2361: 2354: 2343: 2328: 2317: 2310: 2295: 2273: 2137: 2071: 916: 654: 642: 555: 329: 317: 293: 261: 95: 87: 3740:("finish, die"). Certain other "aspectual" or movement-oriented verbs, such as 1939:, and only appears in CVC roots, yielding a CVjC root. With a transitive verb, 164: 6344: 6289: 5938: 5783: 5683: 5623: 5500: 5485: 5392: 5362: 4311: 4170: 3849: 3756: 3561: 2765:

Tzeltal uses receive, the verb of reception in a kind of periphrastic passive.

2742:

can function as a primary predicate in describing the beating of one's heart:

2614: 1811: 380: 372: 68: 2268:. Kaufman supplies this list, but does not say whether or not it is complete. 1126:, but in the postvocalic position it is preceded by a glottal stop, such that 6357: 6204: 6154: 6062: 5678: 5603: 5538: 5505: 5475: 5460: 4600: 4339: 4126: 3941: 3860:, which changes between transitive, intransitive, and passive constructions. 3581: 3564:. Each aspect is marked differently for transitive and intransitive verbs. 2674: 2650: 1954: 1924: 499: 357: 265: 4709:

To mark a contrastive topic, as in the English sentence "Michael I saw, but

4298:"white"). Nouns can appear in this position when used as a modifier, as in 3620:

but instead receives, like all transitive verbs, two person/number markers (

3568:

are the only grammatical component able to receive aspect marks in Tzeltal.

3054:, and in the case of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and particles it is called 2405:

C root. The following forms are the most common, in which C represents any

6170: 5643: 5495: 5259: 4903: 4596: 4138: 3225: 2690: 2390: 1534: 1416: 1408: 1385: 1308: 730: 608: 592: 450: 305: 1337:("corncob/field mouse") in isolation would lose the final and sound like 135: 5698: 4420: 4387:

and the third-person absolutive, -Ø. In sentence 1, both because of the

4097: 1389: 941: 612: 534: 522: 388: 3852:

generally signals the resultant state of an action or event, similar to

2776:

appear in one of three places in a clause: in the second position ("the

4320: 4275: 4111: 3853: 3545: 3055: 3047: 2852: 2830: 2258: 2047: 1807: 1199: 576: 527: 491: 471: 5271: 4443:("dog") doesn't correspond to an ergative person marker on the verb.) 4110:

The initial position of the noun phrase may be occupied by either the

3948:), passives in the perfect aspect do not take the intransitive suffix 1916:("mountain") receives these suffixes as it is the thing in question . 289: 281: 5251: 4388: 4383:("sow") takes two personal affixes, the third-person ergative prefix 3986:("eat ") were marked for the perfect aspect in such a construction, ( 3864: 2406: 2288: 2127: 2103: 2063: 2043: 1444: 991: 857: 784: 604: 483: 409: 172: 144: 128: 4595:. In short, if the semantic agent is the more topicalized element, 1961:. With classifiers, reduplication also entails the insertion of a V 1870:("field mouse"); this is a case of noun-to-adjective derivation, as 1307:

When a vowel is found in the context , the vowel is pronounced with

313: 297: 4864:"In Chiapas, Mayans get Mass, sacraments in two of their languages" 3975:

of an action or event. Further, when following the clause-initial

3663:

in this dialect is shown by the fact that they may be separated by

3544:

auxiliaries" and/or verbal affixes, whereas temporal relations are

2265: 1814:

found only attached to roots and stems, and in Tzeltal are usually

1791: 1518: 1370: 495: 467: 349: 285: 273: 203: 5854: 2673:

to the verbal theme; notably, these forms are fully inflected for

2613:(derives a verbal noun, similar to an infinitive marker), and the 2257:

There is a small set of multivalent stems that may occur with the

5332: 4729:. ("I saw Petul, but Mikel, on the other hand, did not appear.") 4682:

may also be used to mark topicalization, also phrase-initially: '

4263: 3636: 3541: 1538: 1330: 1322: 687: 361: 333: 269: 199: 58: 5252:"dictionaria/tseltal: Tseltal-Spanish multidialectal dictionary" 4338:

occur phrase-initially; non-final position for predicates is an

1785: 5763: 4956:

Smith, Joshua Hinmán (27 April 1999). Bertens, Madelief (ed.).

4404: 4189: 4182: 4130: 4118: 3857: 3748: 3733: 3724:

in the perfective aspect are marked with the auxiliary preverb

3664: 3001: 2780:

position"), in the final position (determined in particular by

2773: 1831: 1815: 1803: 1510: 1509:

always falls on the last syllable of a word. If a root takes a

1401: 1366: 1065: 384: 368: 353: 325: 48: 5062:. Berkeley: University of California Berkeley Press. pp. 4831: 3874:

follows polysyllabic verb stems, though the generalization of

360:, primarily as a result of unfavorable economic conditions in 4137:

serves two functions in the noun phrase, as a marker of both

2410: 2398: 2261: 2102:, exists but is never inflected; they are radical or derived 2050: 1920: 1799: 511: 439: 249: 5226:Éléments de grammaire du Tseltal: Une langue maya du Mexique 4323:, such that the phrase "John's house" would be expressed as 3982:, it is interpreted experientially. If the transitive verb 2409:(unless otherwise indicated), and in which V represents any 4571:

As the three most frequent constructions omit at least one

3624:, first person ergative, and -Ø, third person absolutive). 3565: 2996:. It is typically used in conjunction with the determiner 2645:("to sleep without waking"). Transitive verbs marked with 2598: 2369: 2350: 2339: 2306: 2284: 2117: 2055: 1778:, meaning that grammatical marking typically occurs on the 1500: 1412: 240: 4997: 4995: 4145:. In this sense it is similar to the definite articles in 3704:("go"), the first perfective and the second imperfective: 2697:

they have their own derivational morphology (the suffixes

1090:. Phonemic charts representing this dialect would include 202:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

4354:. The two following examples illustrate both scenarios: 4133:, phonologically joining the following independent word. 2506:"house," "earth," "fire," "guava," "man," "gift," "heart" 1989:("a network of roads"). With redoubled adjective roots, 3856:

in English. The perfect aspect is always marked with a

3604:("to eat") as both imperfective and intransitive, while 3236:("see") (all are in the imperfective aspect, denoted by 2637:("to collect multiple scattered objects"), and the verb 2397:

C, and most longer words can be analyzed in terms of an

1782:

of phrases, rather than on its modifiers or dependents.

1151:

is found in the final position, it can be pronounced as

5085: 5083: 5037: 5035: 4992: 3647:

occurring as a verbal prefix before person/case marker

2629:(expresses plurality of action). For example, the verb 2376: 470:– Bishop Arizmendi said in an article in the newspaper 4796: 4794: 1686:/ʃpululét/ ("bubbling") and /ʃpururét/ ("fluttering") 1566:/hpʼál/ ("one word") and /hbál/ ("my brother-in-law") 5201: 5189: 5177: 5165: 5101: 4870:. Portland, OR. Catholic News Service. Archived from 3993:) it would translate as "Have you ever eaten monkey ( 3915:

following a labial consonant (in Tzeltal, /p, b, w/)

2734:

they may function as primary or secondary predicates.

1466:

CCVC (in which the initial consonants are limited to

1430: 237: 5153: 5141: 5129: 5080: 5032: 4980: 3695:is used to present an event as bound or completed. 3596:("I eat (habitually)" or "I'm going to eat (now)"), 2693:. Affect verbs have the following characteristics: 1646:/kól/ ("he escaped") and /tʃól/ ("it was lined up") 427:, the Tzeltalan languages are fully morphologically 412:. While Greenberg groups Tzeltal with the proposed 252: 246: 243: 231: 5020: 4791: 4773:

Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020

3717:("He's going to go to Cancuc/He will go to Cancuc") 2106:that function as words in syntactic constructions. 1965:syllable between the repeated roots. For example, 1892:In the case of noun-to-noun derivation, the suffix 1678:/stám/ ("he picks it up") and /stán/ ("his ashes") 434:Tzeltal language programming is carried out by the 416:superfamily, this hypothesis is not well attested. 225: 5055: 2264:of more than one stem class with no change in the 1734:/haláw/("agouti") and /snàu/ ("he spins thread") 1638:/tám/ ("it was picked up") and /tʃám/ ("he died") 1558:/spók/ ("he washes") and /sbók/ ("his vegetable") 1396:("already") will never be pronounced, because the 4330: 4181:, and both are accompanied by the final-position 4105: 2653:. To create a transitive, active infinitive, the 6355: 4403:, without the need, as in English, for separate 4290:("A ferocious big white dog is sleeping there": 4278:of color applied to animals, as in the sentence 1517:, the accent falls on the latter. Many Spanish 5001: 3548:inferred. There are four aspects in Tzeltal: 1912:("Which mountain is your house on?"), the word 1874:("mouse") is modified by the derived adjective 1726:/yútʃʼ/ ("he drinks") and /yítʃʼ/ ("he takes") 1590:/stsák/ ("he grabs") and /stsʼák/ ("he mends") 1541:in some dialects and does not exist in others. 4951: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4937: 2503:/nà, lùm, kʼàhkʼ, páta, wìnik, màhtan, ʔòʔtan/ 1993:attenuates the quality of the verb, such that 1622:/súl/ ("fish-scale") and /ʃul/ ("he arrives") 1550:/hpís/ ("one stone") and /hpʼís/ ("I measure) 1266:Note, however, that it can be interchangeably 611:. Though Tzeltal does not have a standardized 394: 348:, among others. There is also a small Tzeltal 5870: 5287: 3631:is a reduced form of the imperfective marker 3612:("I know that") in which the transitive verb 3588:, intransitives further requiring the prefix 1786:Types of morphemes and derivational processes 1702:/htén/ ("one level") and /htán/ ("my ashes") 1388:is pronounced, though it is often omitted in 1283: 1249: 1223: 1183: 1177: 1171: 1156: 1142: 1127: 1047: 1023: 1006: 36: 4826: 4824: 4815:The linguistics of Southeast Chiapas, Mexico 4694:("more"), often reduced in casual speech to 2720:but never its auxiliary imperfective marker 1606:/kúʃ/ ("he woke up") and /kʼùʃ/ ("painful") 1582:/htúl/ ("one man") and /htʼúl/ ("one drop") 1400:always attaches to the preceding word. The 1079:does not exist, having been replaced by the 5004:Parlons Tzeltal: Une langue Maya du Mexique 4934: 4686:(As for) my little brother(, he) came. If 4049:("The child is currently crying hot tears") 3907:Perfect intransitive verbs take the suffix 3035:; it is semantically opposed to the clitic 2762:("his injured leg he walks," "he limped"). 2576:"theme formative," "intransitive," "plural" 1742:/ʔáj/ ("there is") and /ʔai/ ("particle") 1694:/wilél/ ("flying") and /welél/ ("fanning") 5877: 5863: 5294: 5280: 4775:INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020. 2738:For example, the onomatopoeic affect verb 2544:"yet/still," "only," "who," "until," "now" 2500:Cv, CVC, CVhC, CVCV, CVCVC, CVhCVC, CVʔCVC 1718:/kót/ ("my tortilla") and /kút/ ("I say") 1630:/tám/ ("it was picked up) /tsám/ ("nice") 171: 4892: 4847:Greenberg, Joseph H. (4 September 2007). 4846: 4821: 4379:. In both examples, the transitive verb 2992:The most common final-position clitic is 2601:are also the only part of speech to take 1670:/hám/ ("it opened") and /ʔám/ ("spider") 1377:("he/she went") in Oxchuc corresponds to 1302: 453:approved translations of the prayers for 177:Map showing languages of the Mayan family 4812: 4667:(As for) my little brother(, he) came. ( 4578: 4395:("corn") is the object of the verb, and 4254:("a lot") also appear in this position. 3675:"already"). Further, in other dialects 3133:in the third person plural is optional. 2037: 1662:/hákʼ/ ("I answer") and /háʔ/ ("water") 1598:/tʃín/ ("pimple") and /tʃʼín/ ("small") 5301: 5053: 4426:could be either the subject or object. 4361:. ("My older brother sowed some corn.") 3870:follows monosyllabic verb stems, while 2884:") both use the second-position clitic 1614:/tsám/ ("nice") and /tʃám/ ("he died") 1533:Kaufman provides the following list of 1427:("he already came") would sound like . 1384:In the majority of cases, root-initial 457:and the celebration of sacraments into 196:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 6356: 5249: 5223: 5207: 5195: 5183: 5171: 5159: 5147: 5135: 5089: 5041: 5026: 4986: 4923: 4836:(unknown ed.). SIL International. 4800: 4117:(often followed by the final-position 3886:("take") and the second with the verb 3651:, whereas other speakers would prefer 3232:("follow") and the vowel-initial verb 1654:/sík/ ("cold") and /síʔ/ ("firewood") 1574:/bá/ ("gopher") and /wá/ ("tortilla") 1453:CVC (including CVʼ, CVh, CVw, and CVy) 1341:, but if the root takes the particle - 5858: 5275: 4955: 3952:but instead receive a unique suffix, 1155:, or even disappear completely; thus 1106:. In this dialect, suffixes carrying 624: 595:is phonemic in Tzeltal is debatable. 4896:Person Marking in Petalcingo Tzeltal 4302:("sheep," literally "cotton deer"). 4238:, with the exception of the numeral 2526:"bitter," "stupid," "used up," "dry" 2377:Typical phonetic shapes of morphemes 1710:/tán/ ("ashes") and /tón/ ("stone") 1357:("smoke") in Bachajón would be said 1213:when it is the first member of a CC- 5884: 4222:This position may be occupied by a 3956:. Thus to translate "He is seen" ( 2393:. The basic structure is CVC or CV 1407:("you/your") sometimes retains the 332:spoken near this eastern region of 13: 5243: 5105:The Bloomsbury Companion to Syntax 5006:. Paris: L'Harmattan. p. 65. 4849:An Amerind Etymological Dictionary 4833:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 4786:The Linguistics Student's Handbook 3922:("He washed himself/He is clean": 2716:they take the imperfective prefix 2541:/to, naʃ, màt͡ʃʼa, kʼàlal, yaʔtik/ 2331:) or "to go out/be extinguished" ( 2046:classes defined by unique sets of 1431:Root syllable structure and stress 1282:in the beginning of a word, as in 1222:or if it is at the end of a word: 272:, mostly in the municipalities of 14: 6390: 5267: 3932:("He tired himself/He is tired": 3671:("You already know that": clitic 3527: 3061: 2661:("look for") could be affixed as 2560:"third person," "agent," "plural" 1478:Common bisyllabic roots include: 968: 958: 948: 923: 904: 894: 884: 874: 863: 841: 831: 806: 796: 770: 758: 748: 729: 719: 707: 697: 669: 659: 581: 567: 560: 546: 539: 399:Tzeltal forms, together with the 5058:Tzeltal phonology and morphology 5002:Monod-Becquelin, Aurore (1997). 4713:(on the other hand) I did not," 3878:and subsequent disappearance of 2724:, which is usually present with 2327:/tùpʼ/ "to put out/extinguish" ( 1528: 221: 5095: 5047: 4091: 3571: 2926:"still", emphasizes continuity 464:Archdiocese of Tuxtla Gutierrez 371:, is the ancestral home of the 6379:Indigenous languages of Mexico 5108:. A&C Black. p. 243. 4917: 4893:Shklovsky, Kirill (May 2005). 4886: 4855: 4840: 4806: 4778: 4766: 4654:, followed by the determinant 4603:constructions take the order V 4331:Order of arguments in a phrase 4266:function, it takes the suffix 4106:Determiners and demonstratives 4000: 3772:(", the work will go faster.") 3616:("to know ") does not receive 3012:(distal or adverbial marker), 2633:("collect") may be affixed to 2468:"to grow," "enter," "contract" 1411:, but not when it occurs in a 1: 5217: 4305: 4257: 4080:("I'm currently helping you") 3686: 3042: 1977:, it creates the effect of a 1748: 598: 4906:. p. 11. Archived from 4741: 4359:La s-tsʼun ixim te h-bankile 3844:Not to be confused with the 2665:("to be looked for") and as 2641:("sleep") can be affixed to 2538:CV, CVC, CVCV, CVCVC, CVʔCVC 2342:) or "to stretch a string" ( 1760:ergative–absolutive language 477: 7: 5830:Plains Indian Sign Language 4817:. Provo: Bringham Young UP. 4464:("I bought you some eggs"; 4217: 3903:("I wrote it/It's written") 2861:For example, the sentences 2164:inflectable particle root ( 2109:There are seven classes of 2025:("strike with the hand") + 1943:derives a passive; compare 1753: 395:Overview and current status 10: 6395: 5054:Kaufman, Terrence (1971). 3863:For transitive verbs, the 3839: 3364:You (pl.) are following me 3347:We are following you (pl.) 3330:you (pl.) are following us 2768: 2750:(essentially, "to me goes 2649:are interpreted as having 2385:, the majority of Tzeltal 1935:words. The only infix is 1849:, each exemplified below: 1762:, meaning that the single 322:San Cristóbal de las Casas 80:590,000 (2020 census) 18: 6338: 6306: 6288: 6249: 6228: 6197: 6188: 6163: 6142: 6133: 6126: 6102: 6076: 6055: 6046: 6021: 5988: 5979: 5972: 5947: 5926: 5917: 5892: 5843: 5807: 5716: 5524: 5416: 5318: 5309: 4972:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4924:Gerdel, Florence (1955). 4437:Tiʼ-ot(-Ø) tsʼiʼ te Mikel 4203:("I like this book") and 4086: 3911:, which has an allomorph 3770:, ya x-lokʼ ora te atʼele 3627:In reality the auxiliary 2713:being the most frequent); 2523:/t͡sʼà, bòl, poko, tàkin/ 1790:There are three types of 1329:depending on context and 1110:often may be realized as 940: 915: 856: 821: 788: 783: 740: 691: 686: 653: 580: 505: 420:is bilingual in Spanish. 328:. Tzeltal is one of many 182: 170: 158: 142: 126: 121: 84: 74: 64: 54: 44: 35: 30: 5820:Albarradas Sign Language 4959:Manual of Spoken Tzeltal 4862:Written at Mexico City. 4759: 4732: 4644: 4472:("egg") goes unmarked.) 4280:Le way-al aa te j-kojtʼ 2681:. Thus the morphemes in 2584: 1837:In addition to denoting 1325:may undergo a number of 19:Not to be confused with 16:Mayan language of Mexico 6364:Agglutinative languages 5250:Polian, Gilles (2020). 5224:Polian, Gilles (2006). 4927:Tzeltal (Maya) Phonemes 4813:Campbell, Lyle (1988). 4721:: Te Petule, la jk-il; 4684:(Jaʼ) te k-ijtsʼine tal 4671:, "my little brother", 4658:or by a demonstrative: 4327:, or "his-house John". 3960:: "see") one would say 3897:("I have it (with me)") 3715:Ya x-bajtʼ ta Kʼanjujkʼ 3655:. The independence of 2966:"same" + interrogative 2811:("already/until/since") 2728:for intransitive verbs; 1284: 1250: 1224: 1184: 1178: 1172: 1157: 1143: 1128: 1068:(central) dialect, the 1048: 1024: 1007: 444:Las Margaritas, Chiapas 37: 6374:Mesoamerican languages 5260:10.5281/zenodo.3668865 5228:. Paris: L'Harmattan. 4678:Further, the particle 4409:La y-il(-Ø) te achʼixe 4375:marks the verb in the 4314:of the noun phrase is 4214:("I like that book"). 3381:They are following you 2986:emphasizes continuity 2748:-ton nax te jk-otʼan e 2465:/t͡ʃʼì, ʔòt͡ʃ, ʔòht͡s/ 2320:) or "to gush forth" ( 2147:positional verb root ( 2019:("house construction") 1839:grammatical possession 1768:agglutinative language 1525:in the Spanish style. 1441:glottalized consonants 1415:form. Similarly, the 1303:Phonological processes 1005:at the end of a word: 184:This article contains 6077:Qʼanjobʼalan–Jakaltek 5835:Chatino Sign Language 5815:Mexican Sign Language 4585:information structure 4579:Information structure 3711:("He went to Cancuc") 3540:distinctions, using " 3538:grammatical aspectual 2381:As is typical of the 2316:/pùl/ "to pour out" ( 2038:Stem and root classes 1969:("group") can become 1776:head-marking language 4913:on 30 December 2008. 4784:Laurie Bauer, 2007, 4013:or its reduced form 3991:bal a-tiʼ-oj-ix max? 3326:You are following us 3313:We are following you 3296:We are following him 3266:You are following me 3027:Finally, the clitic 2841:(expresses surprise) 2520:CV, CVC, CVCV, CVCVC 2360:/ʔùtʃʼ/ "to drink" ( 2098:). A seventh class, 1347:voiceless consonants 442:, broadcasting from 302:Amatenango del Valle 6048:Qʼanjobalan–Chujean 5825:Mayan Sign Language 5303:Languages of Mexico 5254:(Data set). 1.0.1. 4462:La h-man-b-at tumut 4310:If the noun at the 4129:. They behave like 3940:While verbs in the 3793:Intransitive verbs 3592:. In the sentence 3578:imperfective aspect 3016:(proximal marker), 2851:(context-sensitive 2607:ergative-absolutive 2595:imperfective aspect 2448:"seek," "eat fruit" 2276:) or "to be lost" ( 2272:/tʃʼày/ "to lose" ( 2090:), and inflectible 2033:("tortilla baking") 1979:distributive plural 1900:. In the sentence 1521:retain penultimate 1513:or if it follows a 1381:in other dialects. 847:⟨chʼ⟩ 837:⟨tzʼ⟩ 5436:Chontal de Tabasco 4874:on 29 October 2013 4450:, marked with the 4448:ditransitive verbs 4367:. ("He sowed it.") 4007:progressive aspect 3926:"to wash oneself") 3709:Bajtʼ ta Kʼankujkʼ 3697:Intransitive verbs 3279:He is following us 3253:I am following you 3216:Variation between 2880:("I don't have it 2487:"leaning," "fixed" 2298:) or "to be cut" ( 2080:intransitive verbs 1951:("to be closed"). 1153:⟨ʼm⟩ 1149:⟨ʼb⟩ 812:⟨ch⟩ 802:⟨tz⟩ 776:⟨kʼ⟩ 764:⟨tʼ⟩ 754:⟨pʼ⟩ 352:in other parts of 6351: 6350: 6345:extinct languages 6329:Classical Kʼicheʼ 6284: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6184: 6183: 6122: 6121: 6118: 6117: 6042: 6041: 5968: 5967: 5852: 5851: 5712: 5711: 5534:Chontal of Oaxaca 4868:Catholic Sentinel 4569: 4568: 4377:perfective aspect 4188:, which serves a 4143:grammatical topic 3846:perfective aspect 3837: 3836: 3764:Ya sujtʼ-on tel 3693:perfective aspect 3534:grammatical tense 3214: 3213: 3127: 3126: 2990: 2989: 2859: 2858: 2582: 2581: 2509:/ʔànt͡s/ "woman" 2451:/ʔaʔi/ "to hear" 2366:intransitive verb 2353:) or "to snare" ( 2333:intransitive verb 2322:intransitive verb 2309:) or "to sweep" ( 2300:intransitive verb 2294:/kʼòk/ "to cut" ( 2283:/kʼàhkʼ/ "fire" ( 2278:intransitive verb 2155:intransitive verb 2086:), affect verbs ( 1985:("road") becomes 1947:("to close") and 1772:fusional language 1746: 1745: 1248:everywhere else: 1215:consonant cluster 1170:could sound like 1108:⟨b⟩ 1046:everywhere else: 981: 980: 974:⟨w⟩ 964:⟨y⟩ 954:⟨l⟩ 929:⟨r⟩ 910:⟨h⟩ 900:⟨j⟩ 890:⟨x⟩ 880:⟨z⟩ 869:⟨w⟩ 826: 791: 745: 735:⟨'⟩ 725:⟨k⟩ 713:⟨t⟩ 703:⟨p⟩ 694: 675:⟨n⟩ 665:⟨m⟩ 589: 588: 438:'s radio station 405:Chʼolan languages 377:Spanish colonials 210: 209: 192:rendering support 188:phonetic symbols. 6386: 6195: 6194: 6190:Greater Quichean 6140: 6139: 6131: 6130: 6053: 6052: 5986: 5985: 5981:Cholan–Tzeltalan 5977: 5976: 5948:Yucatec–Lacandon 5924: 5923: 5909:Huastec (Wastek) 5879: 5872: 5865: 5856: 5855: 5559:Chichimeca Jonaz 5316: 5315: 5296: 5289: 5282: 5273: 5272: 5263: 5239: 5211: 5205: 5199: 5193: 5187: 5181: 5175: 5169: 5163: 5157: 5151: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5099: 5093: 5087: 5078: 5077: 5061: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5030: 5024: 5018: 5017: 4999: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4971: 4963: 4953: 4932: 4931: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4901: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4859: 4853: 4852: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4828: 4819: 4818: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4789: 4782: 4776: 4770: 4479: 4478: 4250:("a little") or 3790:Transitive verbs 3785: 3784: 3766:("I'll return ") 3728:, the full form 3722:Transitive verbs 3536:, Tzeltal makes 3505:You (pl.) see me 3488:We see you (pl.) 3471:You (pl.) see us 3140: 3139: 3069: 3068: 2894: 2893: 2847:(interrogative) 2788: 2787: 2760:y-akan ya x-been 2679:absolutive cases 2623:iterative aspect 2425:Example (in IPA) 2416: 2415: 2072:transitive verbs 1997:("red") becomes 1544: 1543: 1419:in the particle 1299: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1281: 1273: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1247: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1212: 1197: 1187: 1181: 1175: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1125: 1117: 1109: 1105: 1097: 1089: 1078: 1064:However, in the 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1045: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1022:between vowels: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1004: 989: 975: 972: 965: 962: 955: 952: 930: 927: 911: 908: 901: 898: 891: 888: 881: 878: 870: 867: 848: 845: 838: 835: 822: 813: 810: 803: 800: 789: 777: 774: 765: 762: 755: 752: 741: 736: 733: 726: 723: 714: 711: 704: 701: 692: 676: 673: 666: 663: 622: 621: 607:, including the 585: 571: 564: 550: 543: 517: 516: 425:split ergativity 401:Tzotzil language 259: 258: 255: 254: 251: 248: 245: 242: 239: 234: 233: 228: 227: 175: 154: 138: 131: 101:Cholan–Tzeltalan 90: 40: 28: 27: 21:Tzotzil language 6394: 6393: 6389: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6384: 6383: 6369:Mayan languages 6354: 6353: 6352: 6347: 6334: 6302: 6276: 6245: 6224: 6198:Quichean proper 6180: 6159: 6114: 6098: 6072: 6038: 6017: 5964: 5943: 5913: 5888: 5886:Mayan languages 5883: 5853: 5848: 5839: 5803: 5708: 5648:whistled speech 5526: 5520: 5456:Sierra Popoluca 5418: 5412: 5320: 5311: 5305: 5300: 5270: 5246: 5244:Further reading 5236: 5220: 5215: 5214: 5206: 5202: 5194: 5190: 5182: 5178: 5170: 5166: 5158: 5154: 5146: 5142: 5134: 5130: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5100: 5096: 5088: 5081: 5074: 5052: 5048: 5040: 5033: 5025: 5021: 5014: 5000: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4965: 4964: 4954: 4935: 4922: 4918: 4910: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4877: 4875: 4861: 4860: 4856: 4845: 4841: 4830: 4829: 4822: 4811: 4807: 4799: 4792: 4783: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4744: 4735: 4647: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4581: 4573:verbal argument 4333: 4308: 4260: 4230:with humans or 4220: 4177:and the distal 4173:, the proximal 4108: 4094: 4089: 4003: 3842: 3689: 3600:marks the verb 3574: 3530: 3064: 3045: 3024:(exclamative). 2771: 2710: 2587: 2422:Phonetic shapes 2383:Mayan languages 2379: 2368:), or "louse" ( 2364:), "to drink" ( 2362:transitive verb 2355:transitive verb 2349:/yàk/ "snare" ( 2344:transitive verb 2329:transitive verb 2318:transitive verb 2311:transitive verb 2305:/mès/ "broom" ( 2296:transitive verb 2274:transitive verb 2138:transitive verb 2040: 1812:bound morphemes 1788: 1756: 1751: 1531: 1433: 1305: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1234: 1231: 1228: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1152: 1148: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1107: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1017: 1014: 1011: 973: 963: 953: 928: 909: 899: 889: 879: 868: 846: 836: 811: 801: 775: 763: 753: 734: 724: 712: 702: 674: 664: 603:Tzeltal has 21 601: 508: 480: 397: 330:Mayan languages 318:San Juan Cancuc 236: 230: 224: 220: 190:Without proper 178: 150: 134: 127: 117: 91: 88:Language family 86: 77: 76:Native speakers 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6392: 6382: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6349: 6348: 6339: 6336: 6335: 6333: 6332: 6325: 6318: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6294: 6292: 6290:Mixed language 6286: 6285: 6282: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6275: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6253: 6251: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6243: 6238: 6232: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6201: 6199: 6192: 6186: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6167: 6165: 6161: 6160: 6158: 6157: 6152: 6146: 6144: 6137: 6128: 6124: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6113: 6112: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6080: 6078: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6065: 6059: 6057: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6040: 6039: 6037: 6036: 6031: 6025: 6023: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6015: 6010: 6003: 5998: 5992: 5990: 5983: 5974: 5970: 5969: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5951: 5949: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5941: 5936: 5930: 5928: 5921: 5915: 5914: 5912: 5911: 5906: 5898: 5896: 5890: 5889: 5882: 5881: 5874: 5867: 5859: 5850: 5849: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5811: 5809: 5805: 5804: 5802: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5720: 5718: 5714: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5589:Western Apache 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5530: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5422: 5420: 5417:10,000-100,000 5414: 5413: 5411: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5324: 5322: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5299: 5298: 5291: 5284: 5276: 5269: 5268:External links 5266: 5265: 5264: 5245: 5242: 5241: 5240: 5234: 5219: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5210:, p. 177. 5200: 5198:, p. 167. 5188: 5186:, p. 164. 5176: 5174:, p. 133. 5164: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5115:978-1441124609 5114: 5094: 5079: 5072: 5046: 5031: 5019: 5012: 4991: 4979: 4933: 4916: 4885: 4854: 4839: 4820: 4805: 4790: 4777: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4743: 4740: 4734: 4731: 4665:k-ijtsʼine tal 4646: 4643: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4580: 4577: 4567: 4566: 4563: 4559: 4558: 4555: 4551: 4550: 4547: 4543: 4542: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4523: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4499: 4495: 4494: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4369: 4368: 4362: 4332: 4329: 4307: 4304: 4259: 4256: 4219: 4216: 4171:demonstratives 4169:There are two 4107: 4104: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4082: 4081: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4002: 3999: 3938: 3937: 3936:"to be tired") 3927: 3905: 3904: 3898: 3850:perfect aspect 3841: 3838: 3835: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3806: 3799: 3795: 3794: 3791: 3788: 3774: 3773: 3767: 3719: 3718: 3712: 3688: 3685: 3573: 3570: 3529: 3528:Aspect marking 3526: 3525: 3524: 3507: 3490: 3473: 3456: 3439: 3422: 3409: 3396: 3383: 3366: 3349: 3332: 3315: 3298: 3281: 3268: 3255: 3212: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3198: 3194: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3154: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3125: 3124: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3063: 3062:Person marking 3060: 3044: 3041: 3020:("also"), and 2988: 2987: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2857: 2856: 2842: 2824: 2818: 2812: 2805: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2795: 2792: 2770: 2767: 2736: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2714: 2708: 2615:lexical aspect 2586: 2583: 2580: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2564: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2536: 2530: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2511: 2510: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2498: 2491: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2472: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2460: 2453: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2440: 2433: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2373: 2358: 2347: 2338:/tʼìm/ "bow" ( 2336: 2325: 2314: 2303: 2292: 2281: 2255: 2254: 2244: 2234: 2224: 2214: 2204: 2194: 2180: 2179: 2169: 2162: 2152: 2145: 2135: 2125: 2042:There are six 2039: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2020: 1971:wojkʼ-ol-wojkʼ 1890: 1889: 1888:("well-being") 1879: 1861: 1787: 1784: 1758:Tzeltal is an 1755: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1735: 1732: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1712: 1711: 1708: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1696: 1695: 1692: 1688: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1671: 1668: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1648: 1647: 1644: 1640: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1604: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1592: 1591: 1588: 1584: 1583: 1580: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1560: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1530: 1527: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1486: 1483: 1476: 1475: 1464: 1461: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1439:VC (including 1432: 1429: 1353:("below") and 1304: 1301: 1264: 1263: 1238: 1237: 1219: 1218: 1062: 1061: 1037: 1020: 979: 978: 976: 966: 956: 946: 944: 938: 937: 935: 933: 931: 921: 919: 913: 912: 902: 892: 882: 872: 860: 854: 853: 851: 849: 839: 829: 827: 819: 818: 816: 814: 804: 794: 792: 787: 781: 780: 778: 768: 766: 756: 746: 738: 737: 727: 717: 715: 705: 695: 690: 684: 683: 681: 679: 677: 667: 657: 651: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 600: 597: 587: 586: 579: 573: 572: 565: 558: 552: 551: 544: 537: 531: 530: 525: 520: 510:Tzeltal has 5 507: 504: 479: 476: 396: 393: 381:Tzeltal people 373:Tzeltal people 264:spoken in the 262:Mayan language 208: 207: 194:, you may see 180: 179: 176: 168: 167: 162: 156: 155: 148: 140: 139: 132: 124: 123: 122:Language codes 119: 118: 116: 115: 114: 113: 112: 111: 94: 92: 85: 82: 81: 78: 75: 72: 71: 66: 62: 61: 56: 52: 51: 46: 45:Native to 42: 41: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6391: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6361: 6359: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6331: 6330: 6326: 6324: 6323: 6319: 6317: 6316: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6305: 6299: 6296: 6295: 6293: 6291: 6287: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6187: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6164:Mamean proper 6162: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6132: 6129: 6125: 6111: 6108: 6107: 6105: 6103:Mototzintleco 6101: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6045: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6020: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6008: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5993: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5975: 5971: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5903:Chicomuceltec 5900: 5899: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5873: 5868: 5866: 5861: 5860: 5857: 5847: 5842: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5806: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5649: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5323: 5317: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5297: 5292: 5290: 5285: 5283: 5278: 5277: 5274: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5247: 5237: 5235:9782296009790 5231: 5227: 5222: 5221: 5209: 5204: 5197: 5192: 5185: 5180: 5173: 5168: 5162:, p. 77. 5161: 5156: 5150:, p. 73. 5149: 5144: 5138:, p. 68. 5137: 5132: 5117: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5098: 5092:, p. 35. 5091: 5086: 5084: 5075: 5073:9780520092587 5069: 5065: 5060: 5059: 5050: 5044:, p. 57. 5043: 5038: 5036: 5028: 5023: 5015: 5013:9782738457998 5009: 5005: 4998: 4996: 4989:, p. 18. 4988: 4983: 4975: 4969: 4961: 4960: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4929: 4928: 4920: 4909: 4905: 4902:(BA thesis). 4898: 4897: 4889: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4858: 4850: 4843: 4835: 4834: 4827: 4825: 4816: 4809: 4803:, p. 12. 4802: 4797: 4795: 4787: 4781: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4757: 4754: 4750: 4739: 4730: 4728: 4725:, ma chiknaj 4724: 4723:yan te Mikele 4720: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4664: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4642: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4621: 4616: 4602: 4601:passive voice 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4576: 4574: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4497: 4496: 4492: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4432: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4357: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4340:areal feature 4337: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4303: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4255: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4215: 4213: 4212: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4197: 4191: 4187: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4127:demonstrative 4124: 4120: 4116: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4079: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4067: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4056: 4053: 4048: 4046: 4045:yak ta okʼ-el 4041: 4040: 4039: 4035: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3990: 3985: 3981: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3942:passive voice 3935: 3931: 3928: 3925: 3921: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3902: 3899: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3866: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3798:Imperfective 3797: 3796: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3786: 3783: 3780: 3771: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3716: 3713: 3710: 3707: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3698: 3694: 3684: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3582:present tense 3579: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3546:pragmatically 3543: 3539: 3535: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3472: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3331: 3327: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3132: 3122: 3118: 3115: 3112: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3082: 3081: 3077: 3074: 3071: 3070: 3067: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2949: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2900:Second clitic 2899: 2896: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2877: 2872:have it) and 2871: 2867: 2866: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2695: 2694: 2692: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2651:passive voice 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2625:marker), and 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2496: 2493: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2473: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2462:CV, CVC, CVhC 2461: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2434: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2270: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2252: 2249:roots become 2248: 2245: 2242: 2239:roots become 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229:roots become 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219:roots become 2218: 2215: 2212: 2209:roots become 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199:roots become 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189:roots become 2188: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2177: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2119: 2116: 2115: 2114: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2049: 2045: 2032: 2029:("tortilla")→ 2028: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2002: 2001:("reddish"). 2000: 1999:tsaj-tsaj-tik 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1955:Reduplication 1952: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1925:reduplication 1922: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1910:ay te ja-na e 1909: 1905: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1841:, the suffix 1840: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1741: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1730: 1729: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1535:minimal pairs 1529:Minimal pairs 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1502: 1494: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1437: 1436: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1310: 1300: 1286: 1279: 1271: 1252: 1245: 1240: 1239: 1226: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1210: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1201: 1195: 1189: 1186: 1180: 1174: 1159: 1145: 1130: 1123: 1115: 1103: 1095: 1087: 1082: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1050: 1043: 1038: 1026: 1021: 1009: 1002: 997: 996: 995: 993: 987: 977: 971: 967: 961: 957: 951: 947: 945: 943: 939: 936: 934: 932: 926: 922: 920: 918: 914: 907: 903: 897: 893: 887: 883: 877: 873: 866: 861: 859: 855: 852: 850: 844: 840: 834: 830: 828: 825: 820: 817: 815: 809: 805: 799: 795: 793: 786: 782: 779: 773: 769: 767: 761: 757: 751: 747: 744: 739: 732: 728: 722: 718: 716: 710: 706: 700: 696: 689: 685: 682: 680: 678: 672: 668: 662: 658: 656: 652: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 623: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 596: 594: 584: 578: 575: 574: 570: 566: 563: 559: 557: 554: 553: 549: 545: 542: 538: 536: 533: 532: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 518: 515: 513: 503: 501: 500:reduplication 497: 493: 489: 485: 475: 473: 469: 465: 460: 456: 452: 447: 445: 441: 437: 432: 430: 426: 421: 417: 415: 411: 406: 402: 392: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 358:United States 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 266:Mexican state 263: 257: 218: 214: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 187: 181: 174: 169: 166: 163: 161: 157: 153: 149: 147: 146: 141: 137: 133: 130: 125: 120: 110: 107: 106: 104: 103: 102: 99: 98: 97: 93: 89: 83: 79: 73: 70: 67: 63: 60: 57: 53: 50: 47: 43: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 6340: 6327: 6322:Classic Maya 6320: 6313: 6298:Cauque Mayan 6028: 6005: 5960:Yucatec Maya 5901: 5845: 5739:Plautdietsch 5717:Non-official 5525:Under 10,000 5348:Tzotzil Maya 5343:Tzeltal Maya 5342: 5338:Yucatec Maya 5225: 5203: 5191: 5179: 5167: 5155: 5143: 5131: 5119:. Retrieved 5104: 5097: 5057: 5049: 5029:, p. 8. 5022: 5003: 4982: 4958: 4926: 4919: 4908:the original 4904:Reed College 4895: 4888: 4876:. Retrieved 4872:the original 4867: 4857: 4848: 4842: 4832: 4814: 4808: 4785: 4780: 4768: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4736: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4648: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4617: 4597:active voice 4591:to the most 4582: 4570: 4474: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4428: 4423: 4416: 4415:, "see" and 4412: 4408: 4396: 4392: 4384: 4380: 4372: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4334: 4324: 4309: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4281: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4261: 4251: 4247: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4210: 4206: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4193: 4185: 4178: 4175:ini ~ in ~ i 4174: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4139:definiteness 4134: 4122: 4114: 4109: 4102: 4095: 4092:Noun phrases 4076: 4072: 4068: 4065: 4064: 4058: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4004: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3939: 3933: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3908: 3906: 3901:J-tsʼibuy-ej 3900: 3894: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3843: 3830: 3824: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3778: 3775: 3769: 3763: 3752: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3732:used in the 3729: 3725: 3720: 3714: 3708: 3701: 3690: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3669:Yato k-a-naʼ 3668: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3575: 3572:Imperfective 3550:imperfective 3531: 3522:They see you 3521: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3487: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3393: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3363: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3318: 3312: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3295: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3271: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3226:glottal stop 3221: 3217: 3215: 3208: 3203: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3135: 3130: 3128: 3120: 3106: 3101: 3091: 3086: 3065: 3046: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2991: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2906:Translation 2897:First clitic 2890: 2885: 2881: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2848: 2844: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2772: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2737: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2691:onomatopoeic 2687: 2682: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2635:tam-tilay-el 2634: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2610: 2588: 2573:/t, et, tik/ 2557:/s, ah, lah/ 2533: 2514: 2494: 2484:/t͡sʼè, mèl/ 2475: 2456: 2436: 2402: 2394: 2391:monosyllabic 2380: 2287:) or "hot" ( 2259:inflectional 2256: 2250: 2246: 2240: 2236: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2206: 2200: 2196: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2175: 2165: 2158: 2148: 2141: 2131: 2121: 2108: 2095: 2087: 2083: 2075: 2067: 2059: 2048:inflectional 2041: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1953: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1918: 1913: 1907: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1891: 1885: 1881: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1857: 1853: 1842: 1836: 1794:in Tzeltal: 1789: 1757: 1532: 1505: 1498: 1489: 1477: 1471: 1467: 1457: 1434: 1424: 1420: 1417:glottal stop 1409:glottal stop 1404: 1393: 1386:glottal stop 1383: 1378: 1374: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1320: 1313: 1309:creaky voice 1306: 1295:older sister 1265: 1190: 1141:sounds like 1063: 982: 609:glottal stop 602: 593:vowel length 590: 509: 488:assimilation 481: 462:neighboring 451:Pope Francis 448: 433: 422: 418: 398: 389:monolinguals 375:, predating 366: 336:, including 306:Socoltenango 216: 212: 211: 183: 143: 108: 38:Batsʼil Kʼop 25: 6315:Proto-Mayan 6267:Sipakapense 5599:Matlatzinca 5431:Tojol-abʼal 5208:Polian 2006 5196:Polian 2006 5184:Polian 2006 5172:Polian 2006 5160:Polian 2006 5148:Polian 2006 5136:Polian 2006 5090:Polian 2006 5042:Polian 2006 5027:Polian 2006 4987:Polian 2006 4801:Polian 2006 4788:, Edinburgh 4751:dog killed 4593:topicalized 4485:Percentage 4452:applicative 4421:noun phrase 4264:epithetical 4244:Quantifiers 4205:Ya j-mulan 4194:Ya j-mulan 4098:noun phrase 4001:Progressive 3890:("write"): 3854:participles 3821:Perfective 3757:topicalized 3594:Ya x-weʼ-on 3558:progressive 3129:Use of the 3052:conjugation 2837:("maybe"), 2778:Wackernagel 2683:j-le-bel-at 2643:way-ulay-el 2431:Exceptions 2428:Translation 2011:("make") + 1959:classifiers 1929:compounding 1902:Banti wits- 1868:lum-il chʼo 1595:/tʃ/≠/tʃʼ/ 1587:/ts/≠/tsʼ/ 1390:orthography 1373:stop; thus 1315:Contraction 942:Approximant 613:orthography 198:instead of 6358:Categories 6262:Sakapultek 6094:Qʼanjobʼal 6068:Tojolabʼal 5927:Mopan–Itza 5734:Portuguese 5634:Texistepec 5569:Chocholtec 5549:Chiricahua 5511:Qʼanjobʼal 5426:Tarahumara 5312:Indigenous 5218:References 4878:24 October 4675:, "come") 4424:te achʼixe 4417:te achʼixe 4365:La s-tsʼun 4348:possession 4336:Predicates 4321:ergativity 4306:Possession 4300:Tunim chij 4276:adjectives 4258:Adjectives 4131:proclitics 4112:determiner 3687:Perfective 3641:Ya k-a-naʼ 3554:perfective 3467:You see us 3454:We see you 3437:We see him 3420:He sees us 3407:You see me 3056:declension 3048:Inflection 3043:Inflection 2853:modal verb 2831:evidential 2590:Conjugated 2570:C, VC, CVC 2554:C, VC, CVC 2419:Root class 2064:adjectives 2015:("house")→ 1921:infixation 1866:("earth")→ 1856:("water")→ 1847:derivation 1749:Morphology 1611:/ts/≠/tʃ/ 1200:allophones 1182:, or even 992:allophones 990:has three 605:consonants 599:Consonants 492:epenthesis 472:La Jornada 346:Tojolabʼal 278:Altamirano 6343:indicate 6241:Poqomchiʼ 6220:Tzʼutujil 6215:Kaqchikel 6022:Tzeltalan 5919:Yucatecan 5894:Huastecan 5629:Kaqchikel 5609:Mezcalero 5574:Pima Bajo 5481:Popolocan 5408:Purépecha 5388:Chinantec 5310:Official/ 4968:cite book 4742:Obviation 4669:k-ijtsʼin 4639:te...(=e) 4618:Both the 4589:focalized 4401:predicate 4397:h-bankile 4325:s-na John 4316:possessed 4242:, "one". 3977:predicate 3895:K-ichʼ-oj 3865:allomorph 3653:Yak a-naʼ 3610:Ya j-naʼ 3542:preverbal 3394:I see you 2833:marker), 2617:suffixes 2603:aspectual 2445:/lè, lòʔ/ 2407:consonant 2401:CVC or CV 2289:adjective 2128:adjective 2100:particles 2092:particles 1987:be-be-tik 1886:lek-il-al 1884:("good")→ 1820:agreement 1808:inflected 1792:morphemes 1659:/kʼ/≠/ʔ/ 1643:/k/≠/tʃ/ 1635:/t/≠/tʃ/ 1627:/t/≠/ts/ 1603:/k/≠/kʼ/ 1579:/t/≠/tʼ/ 1563:/pʼ/≠/b/ 1547:/p/≠/pʼ/ 1519:loanwords 1327:processes 858:Fricative 785:Affricate 556:Close-mid 484:phonology 478:Phonology 449:In 2013, 410:Guatemala 310:Las Rosas 145:Glottolog 129:ISO 639-3 105:Tzeltalan 65:Ethnicity 6272:Uspantek 6176:Tektitek 6150:Awakatek 6089:Jakaltek 6013:Chʼortiʼ 6007:Chʼoltiʼ 5955:Lacandon 5774:Japanese 5744:Venetian 5704:Awakatek 5699:Ayapanec 5594:Jakaltek 5584:Lacandón 5564:Huarijío 5527:speakers 5491:Cuicatec 5466:Tepehuán 5419:speakers 5403:Tlapanec 5321:speakers 5319:100,000+ 4702:or even 4389:semantic 4246:such as 4218:Numerals 4158:replace 4125:), or a 4071:-koltay- 4047:te alale 3966:Il-ot-em 3964:and not 3726:la ~ laj 3667:, as in 3532:Lacking 3075:Singular 3039:("yet") 2946:"might" 2903:Compound 2863:Kichʼoj 2839:=kati(k) 2823:("same") 2817:("only") 2782:prosodic 2675:ergative 2567:Suffixes 2551:Prefixes 2266:morpheme 2172:particle 1860:("rain") 1816:suffixes 1764:argument 1754:Typology 1739:/j/≠/i/ 1731:/w/≠/u/ 1723:/u/≠/i/ 1715:/o/≠/u/ 1707:/a/≠/o/ 1699:/e/≠/a/ 1691:/i/≠/e/ 1683:/l/≠/r/ 1675:/m/≠/n/ 1667:/h/≠/ʔ/ 1651:/k/≠/ʔ/ 1619:/s/≠/ʃ/ 1571:/b/≠/w/ 1555:/p/≠/b/ 1515:particle 1398:particle 1371:ejective 1258:I feared 1198:has two 1098:but not 1070:ejective 824:ejective 743:ejective 633:Alveolar 628:Bilabial 591:Whether 496:lenition 468:homilies 429:ergative 414:Penutian 356:and the 350:diaspora 286:Tenejapa 274:Ocosingo 204:Help:IPA 152:tzel1254 6341:Italics 6307:History 6257:Qʼeqchi 6236:Poqomam 6210:Kʼicheʼ 6143:Ixilean 6127:Eastern 6056:Chujean 6034:Tzotzil 6029:Tzeltal 5996:Chontal 5973:Western 5794:Chinese 5789:Italian 5754:Catalan 5724:English 5689:Cochimí 5619:Kʼicheʼ 5614:Ixcatec 5579:Qʼeqchí 5554:Tacuate 5516:Tepehua 5451:Chatino 5446:Huichol 5398:Mazahua 5383:Huastec 5373:Mazatec 5368:Totonac 5358:Zapotec 5333:Nahuatl 5328:Spanish 4727:s-tukel 4663:(In) te 4634:te...=e 4629:te...=e 4454:suffix 4405:deictic 4294:"big," 4284:tiʼwal 4282:mukʼ-ul 4224:numeral 4190:deictic 4151:Spanish 4055:Yak(al) 4034:Yak(al) 4027:yak(al) 4019:yak(al) 3920:Atin-em 3888:tsʼibuy 3840:Perfect 3665:clitics 3637:preverb 3562:perfect 3152:Plural 3078:Plural 3002:deictic 2878:kichʼoj 2870:already 2774:Clitics 2769:Clitics 2667:s-le-el 2619:-(V)lay 2534:P roots 2481:CV, CVC 2442:CV, CVC 2399:affixed 2262:affixes 2051:affixes 2031:pakʼwaj 1981:; thus 1832:Clitics 1804:clitics 1800:affixes 1539:phoneme 1503:roots. 1501:nominal 1355:chʼahil 1331:dialect 1323:phoneme 1147:. When 1144:chaʼbek 1025:tzopʼol 688:Plosive 648:Glottal 638:Palatal 617:Spanish 459:Tzotzil 362:Chiapas 338:Tzotzil 334:Chiapas 290:Yajalón 282:Huixtán 270:Chiapas 260:) is a 217:Tseltal 213:Tzeltal 200:Unicode 165:Tzeltal 109:Tzeltal 69:Tzeltal 59:Chiapas 31:Tzeltal 6250:others 6135:Mamean 6110:Mochoʼ 6084:Akatek 5799:German 5779:Korean 5769:Romani 5764:Arabic 5759:Hebrew 5749:Basque 5729:French 5694:Kiliwa 5684:Olutec 5674:Pápago 5669:Kumiai 5664:Qatoʼk 5659:Cucapá 5644:Kikapú 5639:Paipai 5544:Akatek 5471:Triqui 5441:Amuzgo 5353:Mixtec 5232: 5121:17 May 5112: 5070: 5010: 4719:-tukel 4509:14.5% 4501:23.5% 4493:41.6% 4441:tsʼiʼ 4286:sak-im 4232:-kojtʼ 4183:clitic 4147:French 4119:clitic 4087:Syntax 4043:Tulan 3973:result 3962:Il-bil 3930:Lub-en 3858:suffix 3848:, the 3749:clause 3734:Oxchuc 3643:, the 3560:, and 3372:-tʼun- 3355:-tʼun- 3338:-tʼun- 3321:-tʼun- 3304:-tʼun- 3287:-tʼun- 3274:-tʼun- 3261:-tʼun- 3248:-tʼun- 3186:(h)aw- 3143:Person 3119:-Ø (+ 3072:Person 2962:=nibal 2942:=niwan 2922:=nanix 2845:=ba(l) 2827:=la(j) 2756:X-kox- 2705:, and 2627:-tilay 2174:root ( 2157:root ( 2140:root ( 2130:root ( 2120:root ( 1933:derive 1927:, and 1876:lum-il 1858:jaʼ-al 1828:aspect 1826:, and 1802:, and 1523:stress 1511:suffix 1507:Stress 1495:CVʼCVC 1445:glides 1425:tal ix 1402:prefix 1367:Oxchuc 1363:chʼail 1129:chabek 1066:Oxchuc 512:vowels 506:Vowels 385:Oxchuc 369:Oxchuc 354:Mexico 344:, and 326:Oxchuc 314:Chilón 298:Sitalá 294:Chanal 55:Region 49:Mexico 6229:Poqom 6001:Chʼol 5989:Chʼol 5939:Mopan 5934:Itzaʼ 5784:Greek 5624:Lipan 5501:Yaqui 5486:Huave 5378:Chʼol 5363:Otomí 4911:(PDF) 4900:(PDF) 4760:Notes 4733:Focus 4696:jaʼan 4645:Topic 4624:topic 4620:focus 4607:AP (V 4565:100% 4562:total 4557:0.4% 4549:0.9% 4541:3.2% 4533:3.6% 4525:4.5% 4517:7.7% 4482:Order 4470:tumut 4446:With 4381:tsʼun 4352:topic 4288:tsʼiʼ 4274:with 4270:, or 4252:bayal 4162:with 4066:Yakal 4011:yakal 3702:bajtʼ 3681:ma(ʼ) 3614:-naʼ 3598:Ya x- 3566:Verbs 3181:(h)a- 3166:(h)k- 3092:-otik 2982:=nime 2758:lajan 2703:lajan 2663:le-el 2599:Verbs 2585:Verbs 2517:roots 2497:roots 2478:roots 2459:roots 2439:roots 2411:vowel 2387:roots 2253:stems 2243:stems 2233:stems 2223:stems 2213:stems 2203:stems 2193:stems 2111:roots 2104:stems 2056:nouns 2017:pasna 1967:wojkʼ 1914:Banti 1824:tense 1796:roots 1780:heads 1485:CVCVC 1468:s, x, 1375:baht' 1280:] 1276:[ 1272:] 1268:[ 1251:ziwon 1246:] 1242:[ 1225:awlil 1211:] 1207:[ 1179:cheʼm 1173:cheʼb 1124:] 1120:[ 1116:] 1112:[ 1104:] 1100:[ 1096:] 1092:[ 1088:] 1084:[ 1081:phone 1077:] 1073:[ 1044:] 1040:[ 1015:early 1003:] 999:[ 917:Trill 790:plain 693:plain 655:Nasal 643:Velar 535:Close 523:Front 440:XEVFS 342:Chʼol 96:Mayan 6205:Achi 6155:Ixil 6063:Chuj 5808:Sign 5679:Ixil 5654:Teko 5604:Seri 5539:Chuj 5506:Pame 5476:Cora 5461:Mayo 5393:Mixe 5230:ISBN 5123:2014 5110:ISBN 5068:ISBN 5008:ISBN 4974:link 4880:2013 4711:John 4688:jaʼ 4680:jaʼ 4622:and 4615:PA. 4613:pas. 4609:pas. 4605:pas. 4393:ixim 4371:The 4312:head 4292:mukʼ 4228:-tul 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