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four times more likely to know about the syphilis trials than are whites, they are two to three times more willing to participate in biomedical studies. Some of the factors that continue to limit the credibility of these few studies is how awareness differs significantly across studies. For instance, it appears that the rates of awareness differ as a function of the method of assessment. Study participants who reported awareness of the
Tuskegee syphilis study are often misinformed about the results and issues, and awareness of the study is not reliably associated with unwillingness to participate in scientific research.
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231:. Of these men, 399 had latent syphilis, with a control group of 201 men who were not infected. As an incentive for participation in the study, the men were promised free medical care, but were deceived by the PHS, who never informed subjects of their diagnosis, despite the risk of infecting others, and the fact that the disease could lead to blindness, deafness, mental illness, heart disease, bone deterioration, the collapse of the central nervous system, and death. Instead, the men were told that they were being treated for "bad blood", a colloquialism that described various conditions such as syphilis,
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528:, a PHS venereal-disease investigator in San Francisco, sent a letter to the national director of the Division of Venereal Diseases expressing his concerns about the ethics and morality of the extended U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee. The CDC, which by then controlled the study, reaffirmed the need to continue the study until completion; i.e. until all subjects had died and been autopsied. To bolster its position, the CDC received unequivocal support for the continuation of the study, both from local chapters of the
821:, who had chaired the committee, addressed this in a seminal article published in 1997 after President Clinton's apology. She argued that while the Tuskegee Syphilis Study contributed to African Americans' continuing mistrust of the biomedical community, the study was not the most important reason. She called attention to a broader historical and social context that had already negatively influenced community attitudes, including countless prior medical injustices before the study's start in 1932. These dated back to the
421:, who had trained at Tuskegee Institute and worked at its hospital, was recruited at the start of the study to be the main point of contact with the participants. Rivers played a crucial role in the study because she served as the direct link to the regional African-American community. Vonderlehr considered her participation to be the key to gaining the trust of the subjects and promoting their participation. As a part of "Miss Rivers' Lodge", participants would receive free physical examinations at
136:. Of these men, 399 had latent syphilis, with a control group of 201 men who were not infected. As an incentive for participation in the study, the men were promised free medical care. While the men were provided with both medical and mental care that they otherwise would not have received, they were deceived by the PHS, who never informed them of their syphilis diagnosis and provided disguised placebos, ineffective methods, and diagnostic procedures as treatment for "bad blood".
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draft: "So far, we are keeping the known positive patients from getting treatment. Is a control case of any value to the study, if he has contracted syphilis? Shall we withhold treatment from the control case who has developed syphilis?" Vonderlehr replied that such cases "have lost their value to the study. There is no reason why these patients should not be given appropriate treatment unless you hear from Doctor Austin V. Deibert who is in direct charge of the study".
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treatment, thus depriving them of chances for a cure. Vonderlehr argued, "this study is of great importance from a scientific standpoint. It represents one of the last opportunities which the science of medicine will have to conduct an investigation of this kind. ... Doctor Smith ... asked that these men be excluded from the list of draftees needing treatment. ... in order to make it possible to continue this study on an effective basis."
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586:, at which Buxtun and HEW officials testified. As a result of public outcry, the CDC and PHS appointed an ad hoc advisory panel to review the study. The panel found that the men agreed to certain terms of the experiment, such as examination and treatment. However, they were not informed of the study's actual purpose. The panel then determined that the study was medically unjustified and ordered its termination.
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425:, free rides to and from the clinic, hot meals on examination days, and free treatment for minor ailments. Rivers was also key in convincing families to sign autopsy agreements in return for funeral benefits. As the study became long-term, Rivers became the chief person who provided continuity to the participants. She was the only study staff person to work with participants for the full 40 years.
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of his uncles, Ludie
Clements and Sylvester Carlis, were in the study. Original legal paperwork for Sylvester Carlis related to the study is on display at the museum as well. Lloyd Clements, Jr. has worked with noted historian Susan Reverby concerning his family's involvement with the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.
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area. The researchers reasoned that the knowledge gained would benefit humankind; however, it was determined afterward that the doctors did harm their subjects by depriving them of appropriate treatment once it had been discovered. The study was characterized as "the longest non-therapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history."
353:(PHS) formed a study group in 1932 at its national headquarters in Washington, D.C. Taliaferro Clark, head of the USPHS, is credited with founding it. His initial goal was to follow untreated syphilis in a group of African-American men for six months to one year, and then follow up with a treatment phase. When the
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been conducted in Oslo, Norway, and could provide the basis for comparison. The prevailing belief at the time was white people were more likely to develop neurosyphilis and that black people were more likely to sustain cardiovascular damage. Clark resigned before the study was extended beyond its original length.
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The
Tuskegee University Legacy Museum has on display a check issued by the United States government on behalf of Dan Carlis to Lloyd Clements, Jr., a descendant of one of the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee participants. Lloyd Clements, Jr.'s great-grandfather Dan Carlis and two
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specified that experiments involving human beings needed the "informed consent" of participants. In spite of these events, the protocols of the study were not re-evaluated according to the new standards, even though whether or not the study should continue was re-evaluated several times (including in
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Distrust of the government, in part formed through the study, contributed to persistent rumors during the 1980s in the black community that the government was responsible for the HIV/AIDS crisis by having deliberately introduced the virus to the black community as some kind of experiment. In
February
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Studies that have investigated the willingness of black
Americans to participate in medical studies have not drawn consistent conclusions related to the willingness and participation in studies by racial minorities. The Tuskegee Legacy Project Questionnaire found that, even though black Americans are
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and
Marianne Wanamaker found "that the historical disclosure of the in 1972 is correlated with increases in medical mistrust and mortality and decreases in both outpatient and inpatient physician interactions for older black men. Our estimates imply life expectancy at age 45 for black men fell by up
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observation of individuals with late latent syphilis. However, despite clinicians' attempts to justify the study as necessary for science, the study itself was not conducted in a scientifically viable way. Because participants were treated with mercury rubs, injections of neoarsphenamine, protiodide,
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During World War II, 256 of the infected subjects registered for the draft and were consequently diagnosed as having syphilis at military induction centers and ordered to obtain treatment for syphilis before they could be taken into the armed services. PHS researchers prevented these men from getting
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Taliaferro Clark said, "The rather low intelligence of the Negro population, depressed economic conditions, and the common promiscuous sex relations not only contribute to the spread of syphilis but the prevailing indifference with regards to treatment." In reality, the promise of medical treatment,
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Aside from a study of racial differences, one of the main goals that researchers in the study wanted to accomplish was to determine the extent to which treatment for syphilis was necessary and at what point in the progression of the disease it should be treated. For this reason, the study emphasized
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What was done cannot be undone. But we can end the silence. We can stop turning our heads away. We can look at you in the eye and finally say on behalf of the
American people, what the United States government did was shameful, and I am sorry... To our African American citizens, I am sorry that your
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on behalf of study participants and their descendants, the U.S. government paid $ 10 million ($ 51.8 million in 2019) and agreed to provide free medical treatment to surviving participants and surviving family members infected as a consequence of the study. Congress created a commission empowered to
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Another dissenter was Irwin Schatz, a young
Chicago doctor only four years out of medical school. In 1965, Schatz read an article about the study in a medical journal and wrote a letter directly to the study's authors confronting them with a declaration of brazen unethical practice. His letter, read
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for testing with penicillin. Instead, they continued the study without treating any participants; they withheld treatment and information about penicillin from the subjects. In addition, scientists prevented participants from accessing syphilis treatment programs available to other residents in the
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The study continued, under numerous Public Health
Service supervisors, until 1972, when a leak to the press resulted in its termination on November 16 of that year. By then, 28 patients had died directly from syphilis, 100 died from complications related to syphilis, 40 of the patients' wives were
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interviewed Dr. Sidney
Olansky, Public Health Services director of the study from 1950 to 1957. When asked about the lies that were told to the study subjects, Olansky said, "The fact that they were illiterate was helpful, too, because they couldn't read the newspapers. If they were not, as things
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The presidential apology led to progress in addressing the second goal of the Legacy Committee. The federal government contributed to establishing the National Center for Bioethics in Research and Health Care at Tuskegee, which officially opened in 1999 to explore issues that underlie research and
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should publicly apologize to the survivors and their community for past government wrongdoing related to the study due to the harm done to the Macon County community and Tuskegee University, and the fears of government and medical abuse the study created among African Americans. No apology had yet
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also helped develop a non-treatment study in Macon County, Alabama. As the Health Commissioner of New York State (and former head of the PHS Venereal Disease Division), Parran was asked by the Rosenwald Fund to assess their serological survey of syphilis and demonstration projects in five Southern
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withdrew its financial support, a treatment program was deemed too expensive. Clark, however, decided to continue the study, interested in determining whether syphilis had a different effect on African-Americans than it did on Caucasians. A regressive study of untreated syphilis in white males had
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to complement it. The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee began as a 6-month descriptive epidemiological study of the range of pathology associated with syphilis in the population of Macon County. The researchers involved with the study reasoned that they were not harming the men
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The revelations of mistreatment under the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee are believed to have significantly damaged the trust of the black community toward public health efforts in the United States. Observers believe that the abuses of the study may have contributed to the
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The five survivors who attended the White House ceremony in 1997 were Charlie Pollard, Herman Shaw, Carter Howard, Fred Simmons, and Frederick Moss. The remaining three survivors had family members attend the ceremony in their name. Sam Doner was represented by his daughter, Gwendolyn Cox; Ernest
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formally apologized on behalf of the United States to victims of the study, calling it shameful and racist. "What was done cannot be undone, but we can end the silence," he said. "We can stop turning our heads away. We can look at you in the eye, and finally say, on behalf of the American people,
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Austin V. Deibert of the PHS recognized that since the study's main goal had been compromised in this way, the results would be meaningless and impossible to manipulate statistically. Even the toxic treatments that were available before the availability of penicillin, according to Deibert, could
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Writer James Jones said that the physicians were fixated on African-American sexuality. They believed that African-Americans willingly had sexual relations with infected persons (although no one had been told his diagnosis). Due to the lack of information, the participants were manipulated into
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While the final report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee noted that the study had contributed to fears among the African American community of abuse and exploitation by government officials and medical professionals, medical mistreatment of African Americans and resulting mistrust
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Later, Smith, a local PHS representative involved in the study, wrote to Vonderlehr to ask what should be done with patients who had tested negative for syphilis at the time of enrollment in the study and were being used as control subjects but had later tested positive when registering for the
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The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee published its first clinical data in 1934 and issued its first major report in 1936. This was before the discovery of penicillin as a safe and effective treatment for syphilis. The study was not secret, since reports and data sets were
649:, communication of diagnosis and accurate reporting of test results. Institutional review boards (IRBs), including laypeople, are established in scientific research groups and hospitals to review study protocols, protect patient interests, and ensure that participants are fully informed.
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938:. The latter requires the establishment of institutional review boards (IRBs) at institutions receiving federal support (such as grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts). Foreign consent procedures can be substituted which offer similar protections and must be submitted to the
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The men were initially told that the experiment was only going to last six months, but it was extended to 40 years. After funding for treatment was lost, the study was continued without informing the men that they would never be treated. None of the infected men were treated with
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involved in the study, under the presumption that they were unlikely to ever receive treatment. At that time, it was believed that the effects of syphilis depended on the race of those affected. Physicians believed that syphilis had a more pronounced effect on African-Americans'
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391:) was by advertising this diagnostic test as a "special free treatment". He also met with local black doctors and asked them to deny treatment to participants in the Tuskegee Study. Vonderlehr retired as head of the venereal disease section in 1943, shortly after
117:. The purpose of the study was to observe the effects of the disease when untreated, though by the end of the study medical advancements meant it was entirely treatable. The men were not informed of the nature of the experiment, and more than 100 died as a result.
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Throughout, participants remained ignorant of the study clinicians' true purpose, which was to observe the natural course of untreated syphilis. Study clinicians could have chosen to treat all syphilitic subjects and close the study, or split off a
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Several men employed by the PHS, namely Austin V. Deibert and Albert P. Iskrant, expressed criticism of the study, primarily on the grounds of poor scientific practice. The first dissenter against the study who was not involved in the PHS was
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continuing the study without full knowledge of their role or their choices. Since the late 20th century, IRBs established in association with clinical studies requirements that all involved in the study be willing and voluntary participants.
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By the end of the study in 1972, only 74 of the test subjects were still alive. Of the original 399 men, 28 had died of syphilis, 100 died of related complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children were born with
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came to Macon County, study researchers prevented their subjects from participating. Although some of the men in the study received arsenical or penicillin treatments elsewhere, for most of them this did not amount to "adequate therapy".
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states. Among his conclusions was the recommendation that: "If one wished to study the natural history of syphilis in the African American race uninfluenced by treatment, this county (Macon) would be an ideal location for such a study."
773:"greatly lower, if not prevent, late syphilitic cardiovascular disease ... increas the incidence of neuro-recurrence and other forms of relapse." Despite their effectiveness, these treatments were never prescribed to the participants.
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The conception which lay behind the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee in 1932, in which 100% of its participants were poor, rural African-American men with very limited access to health information, reflects the
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The Committee and relevant federal agencies should develop a strategy to redress the damages, specifically recommending the creation of a center at Tuskegee University for public education about the study, "training programs for
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373:. He and his staff took the lead in developing study procedures. Wenger continued to advise and assist the study when it was adapted as a long-term, no-treatment observational study after funding for treatment was lost.
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Charlie Pollard appealed to civil rights attorney Fred D. Gray, who also attended the White House ceremony, for help when he learned the true nature of the study he had been participating in for years. In 1973,
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By 1947, penicillin had become standard therapy for syphilis. The U.S. government sponsored several public health programs to form "rapid treatment centers" to eradicate the disease. When campaigns to eradicate
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258:, which were mildly effective and highly toxic. Additionally, men in the study were administered disguised placebos, ineffective methods, and diagnostic procedures, which were misrepresented as treatments.
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Gjestland T (1955). "The Oslo study of untreated syphilis: an epidemiologic investigation of the natural course of the syphilitic infection based upon a re-study of the Boeck-Bruusgaard material".
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Katz, Ralph V.; Green, B. Lee; Kressin, Nancy R.; Kegeles, S. Stephen; Wang, Min Qi; James, Sherman A.; Russell, Stefanie L.; Claudio, Cristina; McCallum, Jan M. (November 1, 2008).
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Poythress, N.; Epstein, M.; Stiles, P.; Edens, J. (October 9, 2011). "Awareness of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Impact on Offenders' Decisions to Decline Research Participation".
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At the study's commencement, major medical textbooks had recommended that all syphilis be treated, as the consequences were quite severe. At that time, treatment included
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1969 by the CDC). U.S. government officials and medical professionals kept silent and the study did not end until 1972, nearly three decades after the Nuremberg trials.
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was appointed on-site director of the research program and developed the policies that shaped the long-term follow-up section of the project. His method of gaining the "
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Table depicting number of subjects with syphilis and number of controlled non-syphilitic patients, and how many of the subjects have died during the experiments, 1969
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Schuman, S. H.; S. Olansky; et al. (1955). "Untreated syphilis in the male African American; background and current status of patients in the Tuskegee study".
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A year later on May 16, 1997, Bill Clinton formally apologized and held a ceremony at the White House for surviving Tuskegee study participants. He said:
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since investigators pieced together information from the histories of patients who had already contracted syphilis but remained untreated for some time.
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Hendon by his brother, North Hendon; and George Key by his grandson, Christopher Monroe. The last man who was a participant in the study died in 2004.
660:. Following that, interested parties formed the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee to develop ideas that had arisen at the symposium, chaired by
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usually reserved only for emergencies among the rural black population of Macon County, Alabama, was what secured subjects' cooperation in the study.
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Depression-era U.S. poster advocating early syphilis treatment. Although treatments were available, participants in the study did not receive them.
664:. It issued its final report in May 1996, having been established at a meeting on January 18β19 of that year. The Committee had two related goals:
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3189:"Awareness of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the US Presidential Apology and Their Influence on Minority Participation in Biomedical Research"
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246:(branded as the "606" formula). Initially, subjects were studied for six to eight months and then treated with contemporary methods, including
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517:, an associate professor at the Medical College of Virginia in Richmond. He expressed his ethical concerns to PHS's Sidney Olansky in 1955.
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The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee highlighted issues in race and science. The aftershocks of this study, and other
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to 1.4 years in response to the disclosure, accounting for approximately 35% of the 1980 life expectancy gap between black and white men."
769:, and bismuth, the study did not follow subjects whose syphilis was untreated, however minimally effective these treatments may have been.
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played a critical role in the study's progress. The extent to which they knew about the full scope of the study is not clear in all cases.
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235:, and fatigue. The collection of illnesses the term included was a leading cause of death within the southern African-American community.
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171:(HHS). Its revelation has also been an important cause of distrust in medical science and the US government amongst African Americans.
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Document from Tuskegee Syphilis Study, requesting that after test subjects die, an autopsy be performed, and the results sent to the
2762:"A Survivor's Grace At 95, Tuskegee study participant Herman Shaw prefers reconciliation to recrimination, forgiveness to bitterness"
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2917:"The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: implications for HIV education and AIDS risk education programs in the black community"
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by Anne R. Yobs, one of the study's authors, was immediately ignored and filed away with a brief memo that no reply would be sent.
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led to major changes in U.S. law and regulation concerning the protection of participants in clinical studies. Studies now require
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Crenner, Christopher (February 12, 2011). "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the Scientific Concept of Racial Nervous Resistance".
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813:. A 1999 survey showed that 80% of African-American men wrongly believed the men in the study had been injected with syphilis.
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3273:"The legacy of Tuskegee and trust in medical care: is Tuskegee responsible for race differences in mistrust of medical care?"
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and has been cited as "arguably the most infamous biomedical research study in U.S. history." Its revelation led to the 1979
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Rockwell, D. H.; A. R. Yobs; et al. (1964). "The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis; the 30th Year of Observation".
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because of their race, and they assumed that the study's participants were not interested in receiving medical treatment.
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Perkiss, Abigail (2008). "Public Accountability And The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments: A Restorative Justice Approach".
1026:(1992), based on the history of the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee, was a runner-up for the 1992
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despite the fact that, by 1947, the antibiotic was widely available and had become the standard treatment for syphilis.
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The Tuskegee Study Group Letter inviting subjects to receive "special treatment", actually a diagnostic lumbar puncture
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Benedek, Thomas G.; Erlen, Jonathon (1999). "The Scientific Environment of the Tuskegee Study of Syphilis, 1920β1960".
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4254:"The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932β1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Programs in the Black Community"
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Caldwell, J. G; E. V. Price; et al. (1973). "Aortic regurgitation in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis".
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1904:"The legacy of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: assessing its impact on willingness to participate in biomedical studies"
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International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use
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Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans From Colonial Times to the Present
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Katz, R.; Kegeles, S.; Kressin, N. R.; Green, B.; James, S.A.; Wang, M.; James, J.; Russel, S.; Claudio, C. (2008).
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Although Clark is usually assigned blame for conceiving the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee,
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The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee group decided to build on the Oslo work and perform a
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In 1994, a multi-disciplinary symposium was held on the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee:
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1282:"Effects of untreated syphilis in the negro male, 1932 to 1972: a closure comes to the Tuskegee study, 2004"
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3793:"'We are going to have to save ourselves,' Black community fights deadly COVID vaccine conspiracy theories"
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To ensure that the men would show up for the possibly dangerous, painful, diagnostic, and non-therapeutic
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health orders were inherently discriminatory against African Americans due to the "historical context".
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In 2009, the Legacy Museum opened in the Bioethics Center, to honor the hundreds of participants of the
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explores the exploitation of certain races for scientific research, as in the Tuskegee syphilis trials.
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3605:"J.I.D pays homage to the historical Tuskegee experiments in Alabama in "Skegee" video β Music News"
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792:. The clinicians who led the study assumed that African-Americans were particularly susceptible to
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to provide cadavers for dissection, a practice that continued, along with other abuses, after the
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2403:"Did a U.S. surgeon general come up with the idea of the notorious Tuskegee syphilis experiment?"
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559:, Jenkins called for an end to the study. He did not succeed; it is not clear who read his work.
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for the protection of human subjects in studies. The OHRP manages this responsibility within the
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3369:"Court orders Kennedy Krieger to pay woman harmed in 1990s-era lead paint study $ 1.84 million"
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1568:"Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Nurse Rivers, Silences, and the Meaning of Treatment"
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National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
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in Alabama. In the study, investigators enrolled a total of 600 impoverished African-American
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Clements, Lloyd Jr. (August 20, 2009). "Need commission to address Black health care needs".
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1117:(1997), a TV adaptation of David Feldshuh's eponymous 1992 stage play, was nominated for 11
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1050:(1977) LP, details and condemns the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.
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to study and write regulations governing studies involving human participants. Within the
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2162:. Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky College of Public Health. 2004. p. 17.
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Another participant of the study was Freddie Lee Tyson, a sharecropper who helped build
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1414:
1162:
Kennedy Krieger Institute's Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study
897:
Kennedy Krieger Institute's Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study
846:
403:
399:
2369:
Critical Thinking in Clinical Research: Applied Theory and Practice Using Case Studies
1750:
1328:
The study was officially titled 'The Effects of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.'
476:
204:
manifestations of untreated syphilis in several hundred white males. This study was a
5119:
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4749:
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3971:
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3913:
3892:
3888:
3762:"Covid's devastation of Black community used as 'marketing' in new anti-vaccine film"
3728:"Covid's devastation of Black community used as 'marketing' in new anti-vaccine film"
3493:
3423:"Pro-Trump doctors invoke civil rights in bid to overturn New York's vaccine mandate"
3317:
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Times of triumph, times of doubt : science and the battle for the public trust
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2936:
2928:
2887:
2631:"Bill Jenkins, epidemiologist who tried to end Tuskegee syphilis study, dies at 73"
2523:
2515:
2238:
1933:
1917:
1711:
1669:
1584:
1406:
1296:
940:
903:
646:
414:, both lent their endorsement and institutional resources to the government study.
380:
346:
330:
291:
110:
4213:
2661:"Documents on the origin and development of the Tuskegee syphilis study 1921-1973"
1300:
1274:
Known officially as the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male ...
562:
Buxtun finally went to the press in the early 1970s. The story broke first in the
227:
Investigators enrolled in the study a total of 600 impoverished, African-American
5024:
4774:
4759:
4627:
4617:
4516:
4441:
3757:
3723:
2187:
2030:"Remarks by the President Bill Clinton in Apology for the Study Done in Tuskegee"
1402:
1066:
1041:
1001:
867:
810:
740:
682:
564:
384:
369:
Oliver C. Wenger was the director of the regional PHS Venereal Disease Clinic in
271:
4363:
715:
apologized to descendants of the study's victims for its the role in the study.
4769:
4734:
4729:
4531:
4521:
4506:
4461:
2519:
1027:
1019:
999:
comic book series inspired by the Tuskegee trials. Written as a prequel to the
956:
853:
842:
574:
354:
156:
152:
3697:
2892:
2879:
876:
moved on they might have been reading newspapers and seen what was going on."
5063:
4806:
4632:
4541:
4481:
4446:
3395:"In Tuskegee, Painful History Shadows Efforts To Vaccinate African Americans"
3338:"Johns Hopkins, Bristol-Myers must face $ 1 billion syphilis infections suit"
3204:
3076:
1929:
1719:
996:
948:
452:
418:
407:
388:
323:
263:
4269:
3479:
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1334:
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infected with syphilis, and 19 children were born with congenital syphilis.
4739:
4662:
4511:
4501:
4084:
4055:
4026:
3917:
3497:
3298:
3257:
3222:
3160:
3152:
3004:
2901:
2250:
1947:
1596:
1355:
It was called the 'Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.'
1308:
1256:
872:
766:
751:
669:
601:
A collection of materials compiled to investigate the study is held at the
590:
525:
514:
326:
318:
Researcher collecting a blood sample as part of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
247:
243:
228:
175:
129:
4287:
3975:
3946:
3896:
3186:
3094:
2950:
2242:
2051:
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Access and Control over Controversial Records
955:
brought about changes in international law. Western allies formulated the
654:
Doing Bad in the Name of Good?: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and Its Legacy
398:
Several African-American health workers and educators associated with the
120:
The Public Health Service started the study in 1932 in collaboration with
5019:
4491:
3954:
Kampmeier, R. H. (1974). "Final report on the "Tuskegee syphilis study".
3668:"HBO's adaptation of Feldshuh's play Miss Evers' Boys is up for 12 Emmys"
2986:
2702:"Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee β May 1996"
1426:
1203:
1093:
juxtaposes his life to the Tuskegee Experiment in his 2021 song "Skegee".
1053:
906:
due to the Tuskegee experiments. In September 2021, the right-wing group
736:
579:
569:
3634:
2463:
The Tuskegee Veterans Hospital and Its Black Physicians: The Early Years
1625:"'You've got bad blood': The horror of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment"
4612:
4496:
4486:
4436:
4382:
4008:
3857:"The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and Its Implications for the 21st Century"
1921:
1418:
1118:
1058:
838:
830:
645:(OHRP) was established to oversee clinical trials. Now studies require
392:
141:
30:"Tuskegee experiments" redirects here. For the album by Don Byron, see
4859:
3574:
2528:
4826:
3925:
Kampmeier, R. H. (1972). "The Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis".
3447:
Chadwick, A. (July 25, 2002). "Remembering the Tuskegee Experiment".
3249:
1848:"'I Didn't Want to Believe It': Lessons from Tuskegee 40 Years Later"
1077:
698:
Five of the eight study survivors attended the White House ceremony.
598:
write regulations to deter such abuses from occurring in the future.
334:
302:
Subjects talking with study coordinator, Nurse Eunice Rivers, c. 1970
201:
4000:
1410:
200:
In 1928, the "Oslo Study of Untreated Syphilis" had reported on the
179:
what the United States government did was shameful and I am sorry."
4334:
4225:(1998). "History of an Apology: From Tuskegee to the White House".
3985:"Environmental factors in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis"
1280:
Baker, Shamim M.; Brawley, Otis W.; Marks, Leonard S. (June 2005).
1223:
114:
3464:"A Summary of Important Documents in the Field of Research Ethics"
3110:"Why Are Black Communities Being Singled Out as Vaccine Hesitant?"
1062:
was heavily inspired by the events of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
707:
Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the African American Male.
613:
555:, a newsletter devoted to ending racial discrimination in HEW. In
3528:
The Search for the Legacy of the USPHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee
3053:"Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care"
3019:"Tuskegee's ghosts: Fear hinders black marrow donation - CNN.com"
2853:
1754:
702:
medical care of African Americans and other under-served people.
255:
239:
192:
4371:
3904:
Hiltner, S. (1973). "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study under review".
4622:
1973:. Department of Health and Human Services. September 28, 2008.
1665:
492:
232:
4245:
Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and its Legacy
3511:
Jones, James H. (1993). "A Notoriously Syphilis-Soaked Race".
2849:"New York fund apologizes for role in Tuskegee syphilis study"
2317:"Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee"
1751:"AP WAS THERE: Black men untreated in Tuskegee Syphilis Study"
1539:
Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and its Legacy
1388:"Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study"
879:
On January 3, 2019, a United States federal judge stated that
621:
4352:
National Archives and Records Administration Southeast Region
2880:"Race and U.S. Medical Experimentation: The Case of Tuskegee"
594:
1970:
1702:"Syphilis Victims in U.S. Study Went Untreated for 40 Years"
1662:"Descendants of men in syphilis study emerging from shadows"
278:
published to the medical community throughout its duration.
3639:
3235:
914:, filed a lawsuit against New York City, claiming that its
53:
A doctor draws blood from one of the Tuskegee test subjects
694:
federal government orchestrated a study so clearly racist.
572:
of the Associated Press. It became front-page news in the
4848:
Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute
4251:
4236:
Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
3822:
Hale Spencer, Saranac; Fichera, Angelo (March 11, 2021).
3399:
2183:
Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
2003:
1337:. U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.
1090:
959:
to protect the rights of research subjects. In 1964, the
2371:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 11.
947:
In the period following World War II, the revelation of
944:
unless a statute or Executive Order requires otherwise.
4372:"U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee"
3824:"RFK Jr. Video Pushes Known Vaccine Misrepresentations"
2495:"Light on the Shadow of the Syphilis Study at Tuskegee"
1901:
1109:
series documentary "Bad Blood" is about the experiment.
4197:
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and Beyond
3141:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1793:
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and Beyond
829:
including tests of endurance against and remedies for
91:
Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male
3543:
Berkeley Journal of African-American Law & Policy
1044:'s 33-second song, "Tuskeegee #626", featured on the
891:
must face a $ 1 billion lawsuit for their roles in a
809:
reluctance of many poor black people to seek routine
639:
United States Department of Health and Human Services
169:
United States Department of Health and Human Services
101:) was a study conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the
2432:
Blumenthal, Daniel S.; DiClemente, Ralph J. (2003).
2431:
151:
The 40-year Tuskegee Study was a major violation of
27:
1932β1972 human experiment in Alabama, United States
3874:
3821:
3270:
2434:
Community-Based Health Research: Issues and Methods
2000:"Clinton Apologizes To Tuskegee Experiment Victims"
1909:
Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved
1795:. Montgomery, Alabama: NewSouth Books. p. 76.
532:(representing African-American physicians) and the
4033:
3271:Brandon, D.T.; Isaac, L.A.; LaVeist, T.A. (2005).
2492:
163:(OHRP) and federal laws and regulations requiring
4062:
3982:
2493:Thomas, Stephen B.; Crouse Quinn, Sandra (2000).
1994:
1992:
1279:
902:Some African Americans have been hesitant to get
5061:
4786:Moore v. Regents of the University of California
4143:Draft report of study results up to 1949, page 2
4131:Draft report of study results up to 1949, page 1
2884:Reports in Public Health, University of Michigan
2784:
500:venereal disease investigator, the whistleblower
4921:Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences
4252:Thomas, Stephen B; Sandra Crouse Quinn (1991).
1339:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1136:(2021) exploits the Tuskegee trials to promote
995:(published JanuaryβJuly 2003) is a seven-issue
912:COVID-19 conspiracy theories and misinformation
4933:Veterinary Medicine, Nursing and Allied Health
2968:
2366:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
1989:
5030:Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture
4875:
4398:
3983:Olansky, S.; L. Simpson; et al. (1954).
3756:
3722:
2969:Alsan, Marcella; Wanamaker, Marianne (2018).
4968:Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
4701:Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital
2346:. New York: The Free Press. pp. 17β19.
2284:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
2222:
549:Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
406:, then president of Tuskegee Institute, and
322:The revelation in 1972 of study failures by
5095:Human subject research in the United States
4362:. Michigan State University. Archived from
4206:Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
4178:
3513:Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
3264:
2914:
2367:Fregni, Felipe; Illigens, Ben M.W. (2018).
2344:Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
2166:
2128:Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
2090:Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
1850:. Planned Parenthood Advocates of Arizona.
4882:
4868:
4797:Medical Experimentation on Black Americans
4405:
4391:
4315:
4167:Memo ordering the termination of the study
3525:
1818:
543:, an African-American statistician in the
508:Group of Tuskegee Experiment test subjects
107:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
4277:
4016:
3953:
3924:
3487:
3316:. Simon & Schuster. pp. 220β41.
3288:
3212:
3084:
3046:
3044:
2994:
2940:
2891:
2527:
2488:
2486:
1937:
1875:
790:racial attitudes in the U.S. at that time
5090:Human rights abuses in the United States
4735:Albert Kligman's dermatology experiments
4412:
4337:. Claude Moore Health Sciences Library,
4335:"Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study"
3558:
3462:Fischer, Bernard A. IV. (October 2005).
3446:
2792:"About the Center | Tuskegee University"
2321:Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee
2160:Doctor of Public Health Student Handbook
1876:Kim, Oliver J.; Magner, Lois N. (2018).
893:similar experiment affecting Guatemalans
750:
620:
612:
589:In 1974, as part of the settlement of a
503:
491:
337:and accurate reporting of test results.
313:
297:
191:
4889:
4792:Surgery to try to improve mental health
4294:
4242:
4233:
4221:
3903:
3678:from the original on September 10, 2005
3540:
3515:. New York: Free Press. pp. 22β23.
3461:
3392:
3138:
2915:Thomas, SB; Quinn, SC (November 1991).
2772:from the original on September 24, 2020
2759:
2179:
2120:
2118:
2047:
1971:"Office for Human Research Protections"
1565:
1536:
1318:from the original on September 15, 2012
1249:
1073:, is about the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
921:
732:resulted in a $ 10 million settlement.
14:
5062:
4199:. Montgomery, Alabama: NewSouth Books.
3665:
3647:from the original on February 11, 2017
3615:from the original on February 25, 2021
3554:
3552:
3050:
3041:
2971:"Tuskegee and the Health of Black Men"
2964:
2962:
2960:
2877:
2873:
2871:
2846:
2755:
2753:
2706:Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
2696:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2483:
2460:
2400:
2311:
2309:
2154:
2152:
2043:
2041:
2039:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1871:
1869:
1699:
1543:The University of North Carolina Press
1385:
1264:from the original on December 18, 2020
1069:'s song "Tuskegee", from the 2020 EP
979:
928:human experiments in the United States
817:predates the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
759:
743:" learned to fly during World War II.
5105:Medical scandals in the United States
5080:Health disasters in the United States
4863:
4386:
4247:. University of North Carolina Press.
4238:. University of North Carolina Press.
4203:
3790:
3784:
3666:Geddes, Darryl (September 11, 1997).
3510:
3393:Elliott, Debbie (February 16, 2021).
3348:from the original on January 18, 2021
3311:
2822:"Legacy Museum | Tuskegee University"
2629:Smith, Harrison (February 27, 2019).
2628:
2341:
2270:
2268:
2204:from the original on January 18, 2021
2124:
2086:
1977:from the original on January 18, 2021
1814:
1812:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1726:from the original on February 9, 2014
1622:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1250:Newkirk, Vann R. II (June 17, 2016).
718:
643:Office for Human Research Protections
161:Office for Human Research Protections
4989:Alabama Cooperative Extension System
4191:
4172:
4093:Photocopied documents from the study
4048:10.1001/archinte.1964.03860120104011
3716:
3585:from the original on August 13, 2010
3526:Katz, Ralph; Warren, Rueben (2011).
3420:
3367:Cohn, Meredith (November 15, 2019).
3366:
3107:
3101:
3029:from the original on August 17, 2020
2732:"Apology For Study Done in Tuskegee"
2226:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
2115:
1845:
1819:Duff-Brown, Beth (January 6, 2017).
1790:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1209:Race and health in the United States
1172:Human experimentation in North Korea
487:
5130:United States Public Health Service
5070:African-American history of Alabama
4984:The George Washington Carver Museum
3834:from the original on March 12, 2021
3803:from the original on March 19, 2021
3772:from the original on March 14, 2021
3750:
3738:from the original on March 18, 2021
3704:from the original on March 14, 2016
3549:
3314:Bad Blood: New and Expanded Edition
2957:
2868:
2802:from the original on March 11, 2021
2750:
2683:
2671:from the original on August 9, 2020
2610:from the original on April 25, 2020
2306:
2294:from the original on March 28, 2016
2149:
2068:from the original on August 9, 2020
2036:
1954:
1888:
1866:
1676:from the original on August 9, 2020
783:Medical racism in the United States
340:
103:United States Public Health Service
24:
4217:, PBS/WGBH Nova documentary video.
3868:
3849:
3830:. Annenberg Public Policy Center.
3815:
2886:. 33Suppl 1 (Suppl 1): e00168016.
2760:Banisky, Sandy (August 24, 1997).
2734:. October 11, 2014. Archived from
2641:from the original on June 18, 2020
2565:
2413:from the original on June 18, 2020
2265:
2010:from the original on June 18, 2015
1827:from the original on June 17, 2020
1809:
1779:
1386:Brandt, Allan M. (December 1978).
930:, led to the establishment of the
25:
5141:
4327:
4258:American Journal of Public Health
3791:Guynn, Jessica (March 10, 2021).
3193:American Journal of Public Health
3108:Yuko, Elizabeth (March 9, 2021).
3057:American Journal of Public Health
2578:from the original on May 14, 2016
2401:Bender, William (July 20, 2017).
1854:from the original on May 19, 2020
1761:from the original on June 3, 2020
1738:
1688:
1649:
1637:from the original on May 13, 2020
1623:Brown, DeNeen L. (May 16, 2017).
1611:
1487:
1475:from the original on May 10, 2019
1448:
1362:
1345:from the original on May 10, 2019
1133:Medical Racism: The New Apartheid
827:unethical and harmful experiments
681:", and a center for the study of
124:(then the Tuskegee Institute), a
4927:Business and Information Science
4160:
4148:
4136:
4124:
4109:
4097:
3968:10.1097/00007611-197411000-00019
3939:10.1097/00007611-197210000-00016
3760:; Adams, Char (March 11, 2021).
3726:; Adams, Char (March 11, 2021).
3051:Gamble, V N (November 1, 1997).
2510:(3). Thousand Oaks, California:
1471:. CDC - NCHHSTP. March 2, 2020.
1214:Shiloh Missionary Baptist Church
895:. In 2001, a court compared the
825:, when slaves had been used for
475:
460:
445:
430:
412:John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital
187:
159:and to the establishment of the
47:
4568:Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital
4316:Washington, Harriet A. (2007).
3690:
3659:
3627:
3597:
3567:
3534:
3519:
3504:
3455:
3440:
3414:
3386:
3360:
3330:
3305:
3238:Behavioral Sciences and the Law
3229:
3132:
3011:
2908:
2840:
2814:
2724:
2653:
2622:
2590:
2559:
2454:
2425:
2394:
2385:
2360:
2335:
2216:
2186:. Chapel Hill, North Carolina:
2180:Reverby, Susan M., ed. (2012).
2080:
2048:Whorley, Tywanna Marie (2006).
2022:
1839:
1773:
1541:. Chapel Hill, North Carolina:
1219:Unethical human experimentation
803:
109:(CDC) on a group of nearly 400
93:(informally referred to as the
4958:Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium
4812:Radioactive iodine experiments
4354:. Morrow, GA. August 15, 2016.
2975:Quarterly Journal of Economics
2824:. May 14, 2017. Archived from
2235:Johns Hopkins University Press
1700:Heller, Jean (July 26, 1972).
1559:
1241:
1167:Guatemala syphilis experiments
568:on July 25, 1972, reported by
13:
1:
4755:Guatemala syphilis experiment
4118:National Institutes of Health
3698:"Awards for Miss Evers' Boys"
2847:Reeves, Jay (June 11, 2022).
2465:. Jefferson, North Carolina:
1301:10.1016/j.urology.2004.10.023
1235:
1187:Bill Jenkins (epidemiologist)
1157:Eugenics in the United States
899:to the Tuskegee experiments.
683:ethics in scientific research
629:In 1974, Congress passed the
395:was proven to cure syphilis.
5085:History of racism in Alabama
4301:. Cold Spring Harbor Press.
4077:10.1016/0021-9681(55)90153-3
3889:10.1016/0021-9681(73)90089-1
3575:"The Pulitzer Prizes: Drama"
1007:Truth: Red, White, and Black
992:Truth: Red, White, and Black
608:
603:National Library of Medicine
534:American Medical Association
530:National Medical Association
32:Tuskegee Experiments (album)
7:
5115:Social problems in medicine
4765:Human radiation experiments
4376:Centers for Disease Control
4295:Carlson, Elof Axel (2006).
1469:"Tuskegee Study - Timeline"
1252:"A Generation of Bad Blood"
1144:
1121:and won in four categories.
908:America's Frontline Doctors
904:vaccinated against COVID-19
578:the following day. Senator
196:Subject blood draw, c. 1953
174:On May 16, 1997, President
165:institutional review boards
10:
5146:
4822:Stanford prison experiment
4243:Reverby, Susan M. (2009).
4234:Reverby, Susan M. (2000).
3530:. Lanham: Lexington Books.
2520:10.1177/152483990000100306
2233:(1). Baltimore, Maryland:
1846:Matt (November 15, 2012).
1823:. Stanford Health Policy.
1395:The Hastings Center Report
1086:was inspired by the study.
819:Vanessa Northington Gamble
780:
662:Vanessa Northington Gamble
551:(HEW), founded and edited
410:, head of the Institute's
351:U.S. Public Health Service
182:
126:historically Black college
81:U.S. Public Health Service
29:
5043:
5002:
4976:
4940:
4914:
4899:
4724:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
4715:
4671:
4575:Commonwealth v. Twitchell
4555:
4470:
4432:Betty and George Coumbias
4420:
2893:10.1590/0102-311X00168016
2503:Health Promotion Practice
1401:(6). Garrison, New York:
1229:World Medical Association
961:World Medical Association
776:
746:
617:Charlie Pollard, survivor
242:-based compounds such as
76:
66:
58:
46:
41:
5015:George Washington Carver
4842:Willowbrook State School
4212:DiAnni, Denisce (1993).
4204:Jones, James H. (1981).
3312:Jones, James H. (1993).
3205:10.2105/AJPH.2006.100131
2342:Jones, James H. (1981).
2125:Jones, James H. (1981).
2087:Jones, James H. (1981).
2059:University of Pittsburgh
881:Johns Hopkins University
730:Pollard v. United States
673:been issued at the time.
5110:African-American health
5035:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
4837:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
4780:Joseph Gilbert Hamilton
4559:parent/patient/guardian
4557:Medical opinion against
4348:"Patient medical files"
4270:10.2105/AJPH.81.11.1498
4208:. New York: Free Press.
3581:. Columbia University.
3069:10.2105/AJPH.87.11.1773
2933:10.2105/AJPH.81.11.1498
2598:"Tuskegee Truth Teller"
2469:. pp. 90β91, 104.
1589:10.1891/1062-8061.7.1.3
1537:Reverby, Susan (2009).
1335:"The Tuskegee Timeline"
1138:COVID-19 misinformation
1065:Avant-garde metal band
965:Declaration of Helsinki
835:gynecological surgeries
739:, where the legendary "
605:in Bethesda, Maryland.
222:central nervous systems
99:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
42:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
4948:Tuskegee Golden Tigers
4598:Archie Battersbee case
4339:University of Virginia
3700:. Cornell University.
3468:Schizophrenia Bulletin
2391:Jones (1981), pp.52β90
1791:Gray, Fred D. (1998).
1576:Nursing History Review
1566:Reverby, S.M. (1999).
1177:Human subject research
889:Rockefeller Foundation
756:
696:
658:University of Virginia
626:
618:
584:Congressional hearings
541:William Carter Jenkins
509:
501:
387:(to look for signs of
383:" of the subjects for
319:
303:
218:cardiovascular systems
197:
4817:Skid Row Cancer Study
4653:Spiro Nikolouzos case
4638:Joseph Maraachli case
3480:10.1093/schbul/sbj005
3421:Mencimer, Stephanie.
2878:Howell, Joel (2017).
2461:Kaplan, Mary (2016).
2243:10.1353/pbm.1999.0034
1878:A History of Medicine
1152:Declaration of Geneva
936:National Research Act
910:, which has promoted
841:. African Americans'
781:Further information:
754:
713:Milbank Memorial Fund
691:
679:health care providers
631:National Research Act
625:Herman Shaw, survivor
624:
616:
507:
495:
438:Raymond A. Vonderlehr
377:Raymond A. Vonderlehr
371:Hot Springs, Arkansas
317:
301:
195:
134:Macon County, Alabama
5010:Booker T. Washington
4832:Plutonium injections
4414:Medical ethics cases
4366:on October 27, 2000.
4215:The Deadly Deception
3153:10.1093/jhmas/jrr003
2606:. December 4, 2017.
2603:The American Scholar
2287:. January 15, 2009.
1882:Taylor & Francis
1083:Tuskegee Experiments
922:Ethical implications
885:Bristol-Myers Squibb
591:class action lawsuit
5125:Tuskegee University
4892:Tuskegee University
4658:Aruna Shanbaug case
4581:Mordechai Dov Brody
4360:"Review of the TSS"
4264:(1503): 1498β1505.
3579:The Pulitzer Prizes
3344:. January 4, 2019.
3277:J. Natl. Med. Assoc
2738:on October 11, 2014
2438:Springer Publishing
2190:. pp. 226β28.
1630:The Washington Post
1199:Operation Whitecoat
980:Society and culture
953:Nazi medical abuses
760:Scientific failings
423:Tuskegee University
333:, communication of
309:congenital syphilis
206:retrospective study
122:Tuskegee University
95:Tuskegee Experiment
4963:James Center Arena
4802:Milgram experiment
4745:Deep sleep therapy
4707:Christiane VΓΆlling
4688:Gillick competence
4378:. October 3, 2018.
4187:(Suppl 34): 3β368.
4181:Acta Derm Venereol
2987:10.1093/qje/qjx029
2921:Am J Public Health
2665:oculus.nlm.nih.gov
1922:10.1353/hpu.0.0067
1707:The New York Times
847:American Civil War
843:graves were robbed
757:
719:Study participants
711:In June 2022, the
627:
619:
510:
502:
404:Robert Russa Moton
400:Tuskegee Institute
320:
304:
198:
5057:
5056:
4924:Arts and Sciences
4907:Tuskegee, Alabama
4857:
4856:
4608:Tirhas Habtegiris
4603:Charlie Gard case
4537:Karen Ann Quinlan
4457:Piergiorgio Welby
4308:978-0-87969-805-8
4223:Reverby, Susan M.
4173:Secondary sources
3989:Public Health Rep
3672:Cornell Chronicle
3561:The Tuskegee News
3323:978-0-02-916676-5
2512:SAGE Publications
2447:978-0-8261-2025-0
2436:. New York City:
2142:978-0-02-916676-5
2131:. New York City:
2093:. New York City:
1193:Medical Apartheid
833:and experimental
823:antebellum period
794:venereal diseases
488:Study termination
363:Thomas Parran Jr.
213:prospective study
153:ethical standards
87:
86:
71:Tuskegee, Alabama
16:(Redirected from
5137:
4908:
4893:
4884:
4877:
4870:
4861:
4860:
4683:Ashley Treatment
4673:Informed consent
4643:Jahi McMath case
4593:Alfie Evans case
4587:Lantz v. Coleman
4407:
4400:
4393:
4384:
4383:
4379:
4367:
4355:
4342:
4323:
4312:
4291:
4281:
4248:
4239:
4230:
4209:
4200:
4188:
4164:
4152:
4140:
4128:
4113:
4101:
4088:
4059:
4030:
4020:
3979:
3950:
3921:
3900:
3864:
3861:socialworker.com
3844:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3819:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3758:Zadrozny, Brandy
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3724:Zadrozny, Brandy
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3683:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3590:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3556:
3547:
3546:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3491:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3292:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3250:10.1002/bsl.1012
3233:
3227:
3226:
3216:
3184:
3173:
3172:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3120:on March 9, 2021
3116:. Archived from
3105:
3099:
3098:
3088:
3048:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2998:
2966:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2927:(11): 1498β505.
2912:
2906:
2905:
2895:
2875:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2796:www.tuskegee.edu
2788:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2766:baltimoresun.com
2757:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2708:. Archived from
2698:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2547:on June 16, 2016
2546:
2540:. Archived from
2531:
2499:
2490:
2481:
2480:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2407:www.inquirer.com
2398:
2392:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2328:
2313:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2293:
2280:
2272:
2263:
2262:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2177:
2164:
2163:
2156:
2147:
2146:
2122:
2113:
2112:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2056:
2045:
2034:
2033:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2006:. May 16, 1997.
1996:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1967:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1916:(4): 1168β1180.
1899:
1886:
1885:
1873:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1816:
1807:
1806:
1788:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1757:. May 10, 2017.
1747:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1712:Associated Press
1697:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1672:. May 10, 2017.
1670:Associated Press
1658:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1620:
1609:
1608:
1572:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1534:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1465:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1392:
1383:
1360:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1330:
1325:
1323:
1317:
1286:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1245:
1126:Video production
1114:Miss Evers' Boys
1071:Wake of a Nation
1067:Zeal & Ardor
1024:Miss Evers' Boys
941:Federal Register
916:vaccine passport
852:A 2016 paper by
647:informed consent
547:and part of the
496:Peter Buxtun, a
479:
464:
455:(medical doctor)
449:
440:(medical doctor)
434:
347:venereal disease
341:Study clinicians
331:informed consent
292:venereal disease
111:African American
51:
39:
38:
21:
5145:
5144:
5140:
5139:
5138:
5136:
5135:
5134:
5075:Clinical trials
5060:
5059:
5058:
5053:
5039:
5025:Tuskegee Airmen
4998:
4972:
4936:
4910:
4906:
4895:
4891:
4888:
4858:
4853:
4775:Jesse Gelsinger
4760:Henrietta Lacks
4711:
4675:
4667:
4648:Sarah Murnaghan
4628:Ashya King case
4618:Sun Hudson case
4560:
4558:
4551:
4517:Vincent Lambert
4474:
4472:
4466:
4442:Giovanni Nuvoli
4425:
4423:
4416:
4411:
4370:
4358:
4346:
4333:
4330:
4309:
4175:
4168:
4165:
4156:
4153:
4144:
4141:
4132:
4129:
4120:
4114:
4105:
4102:
4036:Arch Intern Med
4001:10.2307/4588864
3962:(11): 1349β53.
3933:(10): 1247β51.
3912:(43): 1174β76.
3871:
3869:Primary sources
3855:
3852:
3850:Further reading
3847:
3837:
3835:
3820:
3816:
3806:
3804:
3789:
3785:
3775:
3773:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3739:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3705:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3681:
3679:
3664:
3660:
3650:
3648:
3633:
3632:
3628:
3618:
3616:
3603:
3602:
3598:
3588:
3586:
3573:
3572:
3568:
3557:
3550:
3539:
3535:
3524:
3520:
3509:
3505:
3460:
3456:
3445:
3441:
3431:
3429:
3419:
3415:
3405:
3403:
3391:
3387:
3377:
3375:
3365:
3361:
3351:
3349:
3336:
3335:
3331:
3324:
3310:
3306:
3269:
3265:
3234:
3230:
3185:
3176:
3137:
3133:
3123:
3121:
3106:
3102:
3063:(11): 1773β78.
3049:
3042:
3032:
3030:
3017:
3016:
3012:
2967:
2958:
2913:
2909:
2876:
2869:
2859:
2857:
2845:
2841:
2831:
2829:
2828:on May 14, 2017
2820:
2819:
2815:
2805:
2803:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2775:
2773:
2758:
2751:
2741:
2739:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2715:
2713:
2712:on July 5, 2017
2700:
2699:
2684:
2674:
2672:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2642:
2635:Washington Post
2627:
2623:
2613:
2611:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2572:Washington Post
2566:Kaplan, Sarah.
2564:
2560:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2497:
2491:
2484:
2477:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2414:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2324:
2315:
2314:
2307:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2266:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2205:
2198:
2188:UNC Press Books
2178:
2167:
2158:
2157:
2150:
2143:
2123:
2116:
2109:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2054:
2046:
2037:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2013:
2011:
1998:
1997:
1990:
1980:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1955:
1900:
1889:
1874:
1867:
1857:
1855:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1828:
1817:
1810:
1803:
1789:
1780:
1774:
1764:
1762:
1749:
1748:
1739:
1729:
1727:
1698:
1689:
1679:
1677:
1660:
1659:
1650:
1640:
1638:
1621:
1612:
1570:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1535:
1488:
1478:
1476:
1467:
1466:
1449:
1439:
1437:
1411:10.2307/3561468
1403:Wiley-Blackwell
1390:
1384:
1363:
1348:
1346:
1333:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1284:
1267:
1265:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1147:
1089:Atlanta rapper
1042:Gil Scott-Heron
1002:Captain America
982:
924:
868:Prime Time Live
811:preventive care
806:
785:
779:
762:
749:
741:Tuskegee Airmen
721:
611:
565:Washington Star
490:
483:
480:
471:
465:
456:
450:
441:
435:
349:section of the
343:
254:ointments, and
190:
185:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5143:
5133:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5100:Medical ethics
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5055:
5054:
5052:
5051:
5044:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5006:
5004:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4996:
4986:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4944:
4942:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4934:
4931:
4928:
4925:
4922:
4918:
4916:
4912:
4911:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4887:
4886:
4879:
4872:
4864:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4851:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4770:J. Marion Sims
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4750:Doctors' Trial
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4730:Albert Stevens
4727:
4719:
4717:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4709:
4704:
4697:
4690:
4685:
4679:
4677:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4583:
4578:
4571:
4563:
4561:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4532:Haleigh Poutre
4529:
4524:
4522:Robert Latimer
4519:
4514:
4509:
4507:Eluana Englaro
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4478:
4476:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4462:Jack Kevorkian
4459:
4454:
4452:RamΓ³n Sampedro
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4428:
4426:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4410:
4409:
4402:
4395:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4368:
4356:
4344:
4329:
4328:External links
4326:
4325:
4324:
4313:
4307:
4292:
4249:
4240:
4231:
4227:Research Nurse
4219:
4210:
4201:
4189:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4166:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4123:
4121:
4115:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4096:
4094:
4090:
4089:
4060:
4031:
3980:
3951:
3922:
3906:Christ Century
3901:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3865:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3814:
3783:
3749:
3715:
3689:
3658:
3626:
3609:ABC News Radio
3596:
3566:
3548:
3533:
3518:
3503:
3454:
3439:
3413:
3385:
3359:
3329:
3322:
3304:
3263:
3228:
3199:(6): 1137β42.
3174:
3131:
3100:
3040:
3010:
2956:
2907:
2867:
2839:
2813:
2783:
2749:
2723:
2682:
2652:
2621:
2589:
2558:
2482:
2475:
2453:
2446:
2440:. p. 50.
2424:
2393:
2384:
2377:
2359:
2353:978-0029166703
2352:
2334:
2323:. May 20, 1996
2305:
2264:
2215:
2197:978-1469608723
2196:
2165:
2148:
2141:
2135:. p. 91.
2114:
2108:978-0029166703
2107:
2095:The Free Press
2079:
2035:
2021:
1988:
1953:
1887:
1865:
1838:
1808:
1802:978-1579660123
1801:
1778:
1772:
1737:
1687:
1648:
1610:
1558:
1551:
1545:. p. 30.
1486:
1447:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1331:
1295:(6): 1259β62.
1277:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1110:
1106:Secret History
1100:
1099:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1080:'s 1992 album
1076:Jazz musician
1074:
1063:
1056:'s 1984 album
1051:
1040:The lyrics of
1037:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1028:Pulitzer Prize
1022:'s stage play
1020:David Feldshuh
1016:
1015:
1011:
1010:
987:
986:
981:
978:
957:Nuremberg Code
923:
920:
865:1992 on ABC's
854:Marcella Alsan
805:
802:
778:
775:
761:
758:
748:
745:
720:
717:
687:
686:
674:
633:and created a
610:
607:
580:Edward Kennedy
575:New York Times
489:
486:
485:
484:
481:
474:
472:
466:
459:
457:
451:
444:
442:
436:
429:
355:Rosenwald Fund
342:
339:
220:than on their
189:
186:
184:
181:
157:Belmont Report
105:(PHS) and the
85:
84:
78:
74:
73:
68:
64:
63:
60:
56:
55:
52:
44:
43:
26:
18:Tuskegee study
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5142:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
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5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5049:
5046:
5045:
5042:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5007:
5005:
5001:
4994:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4979:
4975:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4939:
4932:
4929:
4926:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4903:
4898:
4894:
4885:
4880:
4878:
4873:
4871:
4866:
4865:
4862:
4850:
4849:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4807:Monster Study
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4787:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4725:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4702:
4698:
4696:
4695:
4694:Marion's Case
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4633:Jesse Koochin
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4572:
4570:
4569:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4554:
4548:
4547:Gloria Taylor
4545:
4543:
4542:Terri Schiavo
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4482:Andrew Bedner
4480:
4479:
4477:
4469:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4447:Sue Rodriguez
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4419:
4415:
4408:
4403:
4401:
4396:
4394:
4389:
4388:
4385:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4331:
4321:
4320:
4314:
4310:
4304:
4300:
4299:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4250:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4218:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4193:Gray, Fred D.
4190:
4186:
4182:
4177:
4176:
4163:
4158:
4151:
4146:
4139:
4134:
4127:
4122:
4119:
4112:
4107:
4100:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4071:(5): 543β58.
4070:
4066:
4065:J Chronic Dis
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4042:(6): 792β98.
4041:
4037:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3995:(7): 691β98.
3994:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3883:(3): 187β94.
3882:
3878:
3877:J Chronic Dis
3873:
3872:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3853:
3833:
3829:
3828:Factcheck.org
3825:
3818:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3787:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3719:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3662:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3600:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3570:
3562:
3555:
3553:
3544:
3537:
3529:
3522:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3450:
3443:
3428:
3424:
3417:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3389:
3374:
3373:Baltimore Sun
3370:
3363:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3325:
3319:
3315:
3308:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3283:(7): 951β60.
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3244:(6): 821β28.
3243:
3239:
3232:
3224:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3147:(2): 244β80.
3146:
3142:
3135:
3119:
3115:
3114:Rolling Stone
3111:
3104:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3047:
3045:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3006:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2981:(1): 407β55.
2980:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2872:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2843:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2787:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2754:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2609:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2593:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2562:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2496:
2489:
2487:
2478:
2476:9781476662985
2472:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2388:
2380:
2378:9780199324507
2374:
2370:
2363:
2355:
2349:
2345:
2338:
2322:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2277:
2271:
2269:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2219:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2161:
2155:
2153:
2144:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2121:
2119:
2110:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2083:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2052:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2031:
2025:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1993:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1870:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1804:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1776:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1636:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1569:
1562:
1554:
1552:9780807833100
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1389:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1356:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1329:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1278:
1275:
1263:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:
998:
994:
993:
989:
988:
984:
983:
977:
973:
969:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
949:the Holocaust
945:
943:
942:
937:
933:
929:
919:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
877:
874:
871:, journalist
870:
869:
862:
858:
855:
850:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
814:
812:
801:
797:
795:
791:
784:
774:
770:
768:
753:
744:
742:
738:
733:
731:
725:
716:
714:
709:
708:
703:
699:
695:
690:
684:
680:
675:
671:
667:
666:
665:
663:
659:
655:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
623:
615:
606:
604:
599:
596:
593:filed by the
592:
587:
585:
581:
577:
576:
571:
567:
566:
560:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
537:
535:
531:
527:
522:
518:
516:
506:
499:
494:
482:Oliver Wenger
478:
473:
469:
468:Eunice Rivers
463:
458:
454:
453:Eugene Dibble
448:
443:
439:
433:
428:
427:
426:
424:
420:
419:Eunice Rivers
415:
413:
409:
408:Eugene Dibble
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
389:neurosyphilis
386:
382:
378:
374:
372:
367:
364:
359:
356:
352:
348:
338:
336:
332:
328:
325:
324:whistleblower
316:
312:
310:
300:
296:
293:
287:
283:
279:
275:
273:
268:
265:
264:control group
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
236:
234:
230:
229:sharecroppers
225:
223:
219:
214:
209:
207:
203:
194:
188:Study details
180:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
145:
143:
137:
135:
131:
130:sharecroppers
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
82:
79:
75:
72:
69:
65:
61:
57:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
5047:
5034:
4901:
4846:
4836:
4784:
4740:David Reimer
4722:
4699:
4692:
4676:to treatment
4663:David Vetter
4585:
4573:
4566:
4512:June Hartley
4502:Baby Doe Law
4364:the original
4351:
4318:
4297:
4261:
4257:
4244:
4235:
4226:
4214:
4205:
4196:
4184:
4180:
4068:
4064:
4039:
4035:
3992:
3988:
3959:
3955:
3930:
3926:
3909:
3905:
3880:
3876:
3860:
3836:. Retrieved
3827:
3817:
3805:. Retrieved
3796:
3786:
3774:. Retrieved
3765:
3752:
3740:. Retrieved
3731:
3718:
3706:. Retrieved
3692:
3680:. Retrieved
3671:
3661:
3649:. Retrieved
3638:
3629:
3619:February 26,
3617:. Retrieved
3608:
3599:
3589:November 20,
3587:. Retrieved
3578:
3569:
3560:
3542:
3536:
3527:
3521:
3512:
3506:
3474:(1): 69β80.
3471:
3467:
3457:
3448:
3442:
3430:. Retrieved
3427:Mother Jones
3426:
3416:
3404:. Retrieved
3398:
3388:
3378:December 30,
3376:. Retrieved
3372:
3362:
3350:. Retrieved
3341:
3332:
3313:
3307:
3280:
3276:
3266:
3241:
3237:
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3192:
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3140:
3134:
3122:. Retrieved
3118:the original
3113:
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3060:
3056:
3031:. Retrieved
3022:
3013:
2978:
2974:
2924:
2920:
2910:
2883:
2858:. Retrieved
2852:
2842:
2830:. Retrieved
2826:the original
2816:
2804:. Retrieved
2795:
2786:
2774:. Retrieved
2765:
2740:. Retrieved
2736:the original
2726:
2714:. Retrieved
2710:the original
2705:
2673:. Retrieved
2664:
2655:
2643:. Retrieved
2634:
2624:
2612:. Retrieved
2601:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2571:
2561:
2551:December 12,
2549:. Retrieved
2542:the original
2507:
2501:
2462:
2456:
2433:
2427:
2415:. Retrieved
2406:
2396:
2387:
2368:
2362:
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2325:. Retrieved
2320:
2296:. Retrieved
2282:
2230:
2224:
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2208:December 22,
2206:. Retrieved
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2070:. Retrieved
2050:
2024:
2012:. Retrieved
1979:. Retrieved
1913:
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1877:
1856:. Retrieved
1841:
1829:. Retrieved
1792:
1775:
1763:. Retrieved
1728:. Retrieved
1705:
1678:. Retrieved
1639:. Retrieved
1628:
1580:
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1561:
1538:
1477:. Retrieved
1438:. Retrieved
1398:
1394:
1354:
1349:December 18,
1347:. Retrieved
1327:
1322:December 18,
1320:. Retrieved
1292:
1288:
1273:
1268:December 18,
1266:. Retrieved
1257:The Atlantic
1255:
1243:
1191:
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1112:
1104:
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1057:
1045:
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1000:
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