106:. The two sides of the duality are often listed as "white" and "red" in sources, although Swanton noted that the people of the southeast rarely used color terms for the concept. Lankford cautions that the usage of the duality of "red" and "white" in Muscogee culture has changed over time, and that historical sources on "red" and "white" towns and clans must be used very carefully, as European observers often did not fully understand, and possibly thoroughly misunderstood, the uses of the terms. The division into red and white towns had a long history in the southeast. Towns were either red or white, but in a different meaning than the internal division of the council. Stickball games were always between towns of opposite colors. Town color was not immutable. If a town lost three games in a row to another town, the losing town had to change color. The division of responsibilities between red and white towns may have changed over time. For example, among
65:) which did not have a ceremonial square, and individual farmsteads. The tribal town also included hunting grounds and agricultural fields. Lankford defines a tribal town as "a group of people united in having a single square ground and a single sacred fire kept in the middle of the square". People living in separate locations could be members of one tribal town based on one square ground with one sacred fire and a single governing council. People of the Muscogee Confederacy identified primarily as members of their tribal town, and only rarely as Muscogees.
298:), the English started calling them "Ochese Creek Indians". The English continued calling the people of those towns "Creek Indians" after the towns moved back to the Chattahoochee River. The tribal towns along the Chattahoochee River became known as the "Lower Creeks", while tribal towns in Alabama and Tennessee that were also members of the Muscogee Confederacy became known as the "Upper Creeks". While tribal towns whose people spoke the Muscogee language dominated the Muscogee confederacy, many member towns spoke other languages, including Hitchiti,
53:(historically called the "Creek" Confederacy). Tribal towns were governed by a council of men (and, very rarely, women) of the town who were selected or had obtained recognized status as warriors. Tribal towns in the Muscogee Confederacy were classified as either "white" (peace) towns or "red" (war) towns. The men in each town were divided into white and red sides.
230:
council houses, becoming a new tribal town. Members of a town who could not reconcile themselves with the decisions of a town council could leave and found a new town with help from their former town. During the time of the confederacy, a new tribal town was officially founded when a fire was started in the town with embers from one of the "mother towns".
246:
The
Muskogean Confederacy was governed by the Grand Council, an annual meeting of the chiefs of the tribal towns in the confederacy. Towns were divided into white and red groups. White clans and towns were generally associated with peace, while red clans and towns were generally associated with war.
187:
Power and status in a town was derived from inheritance, age, religious role, oratory, and success in warfare. The town councils ruled by consensus. Political decisions made in town councils applied only to members of the town and were non-binding. The civil chief presided over council meetings, but
242:
through the southeast disrupted the existing political organization of the area. Powerful chiefdoms broke apart. There is evidence of population decrease, dispersal and migration after de Soto's passage. However, Foster notes that there is no evidence this had not also happened at times prior to de
229:
had seven or more. Just as some satellite towns might be settled by a group avoiding some conflict in the town, relations might later improve and the people of the satellite town would return to the tribal town. Some satellite towns are reported to have eventually built their own square-grounds and
199:
were also involved in local governance, controlling specific agricultural fields and performing specific duties. Some town leadership positions were reserved for members of particular clans. Clans were responsible for handling disputes between clan members, and punishing individuals for infractions
89:
walls and a central fireplace. The rotunda was used for town council meetings during cold weather, and as a communal sleeping space in the winter. The size of a town's rotunda varied, but could be up to 50 metres (160 ft) across. Tribal towns had a dedicated field on the outskirts of the town
175:
The civil chief was chosen from a clan of the same color as the town and, in many cases, chosen by the clans of the other color, i.e., the civil chief of a white town would be chosen from a white clan by the red clans, and the civil chief of a red town would be chosen from a red clan by the white
216:
Satellite settlements could form when the population became too large, farm fields lost fertility, or firewood in reasonable distance became scarce. Satellites were also often created when some group in conflict with others in the town wished to distance themselves without breaking ties with the
72:
The main settlement of a tribal town had a "square ground" or plaza, which was central to the social life of the tribal town. Four buildings surrounded the sacred fire in the middle of the square ground. Square or rectangular, the plaza was kept clean by sweeping, with the removed material often
352:
early in the 18th century, with many adults living in the woods hunting deer during the winter, individual households had included a "hot house", a round house with a sunken floor and a central fireplace, with fully enclosed wattle and daub walls, used as winter lodging. A rotunda was seen as a
269:
Ethridge states that under territorial pressure from
Europeans, the Muscogee Confederacy changed, gradually suppressing the provincial identities and red/white town dichotomy and emphasizing the Upper Creek/Lower Creek organization as the Muscogee identity. Tukabatchee and Coweta began to claim
127:
were admitted to the
Confederacy as a group that included red and white towns. White towns were also sanctuaries. Someone trying to escape retaliation could seek refuge in a white town, because blood was not supposed to be spilled in a white town. The duties associated with red and white towns,
110:
towns, red towns first handled all trade with
Europeans, but white towns eventually gained some control of the trade. The Chickasaws symbolically adopted new towns as "peace" (white) towns. The Muscogee Confederacy also admitted new towns as "peace" or white towns. Provinces in the Confederacy,
176:
clans. No matter the "color" of his clan, the civil chief belonged to the white side after his selection. The civil chief chose a war chief from the red clans. The war chief advised the civil chief on matters relating to war, and was responsible for maintaining public order and organizing
262:. Each tribal town, while a member of the confederacy, could also act on its own, choose to participate or not participate in collective actions, such as going to war, and form alliances with other towns. The towns had a strong sense of identity, with local variations of the
217:
town. Satellite settlements could be quite close to the main town, sometimes just across a river, or further away, in the next river valley. Some of the tribal towns on the
Chattahoochee River had satellite towns 60 miles (97 km) away on the
156:). Members of the white side were selected by various processes. The red side was subordinate to the white side. It was led by the war chief. Men, and an occasional woman, who had become warriors joined the red side as
168:). Warriors who were no longer physically able to go to war and had distinguished themselves in service to the town crossed over to the white side of the council as "beloved men" (Muscogee
200:
within the clan. Disputes between clans were handled by the town council. Inheritance was matriarchal, and children were born into their mothers' clan and town. The
Muskogean society was
238:
The
Muscogee Confederacy grew out of confederations or cooperatives of red and white tribal towns that existed before the arrival of Europeans in the southeast. The passage of
81:). The plazas were also used for dancing and drinking. Adjacent to the rectangular buildings on the square-ground, tribal towns also had a rotunda or "hot house" (Muscogee
61:
A tribal town had characteristics of a town and of a tribe. It consisted of a main settlement, centered on a ceremonial square, associated satellite settlements (Muscogee
1226:
180:
games with other towns. The second men were responsible for public works (including construction of new houses), the town's common fields , and the brewing of the
1301:
208:, requiring people to marry outside of their birth clan, with the males often living with their wives' clan, and the women living with their own clan.
310:, and others. The use of the term "Creek Indians", which includes Muscogees and other peoples, is often offensive to the descendants of those people.
136:
Each tribal town was internally self-governing, with a town council handling disputes and punishing offenders. Each town had a civil chief (Muscogee
1316:
817:
73:
forming a berm around the plaza. When the men of a town were home, they spent much of the day at the plaza, socializing and playing games such as
221:, about two days travel time. The number of satellite settlements a tribal town had varied over time. At one point late in the 18th century,
1306:
1296:
1208:
239:
144:). The council had a white side and a red side. The white side of the council consisted of the chief, his assistant (Muscogee
738:
709:
663:
266:, legends and myths. Immigrants (often refugees from other towns and tribes) could become members of the Creek Confederacy.
177:
91:
1084:
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642:
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1235:
1311:
1115:
1048:
1017:
1240:
1181:
1120:
912:
881:
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1245:
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611:
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726:
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including white towns serving as sanctuaries, appear to have been reduced by early in the 19th century.
69:
often saw the tribal towns as tribes, using the terms "town", "tribe", and even "clan" interchangeably.
830:
38:
1291:
1171:
50:
1265:
1187:
1255:
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and Abihka, white towns, were the "mother towns", often assuming leadership in the confederacy.
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1110:
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762:
403:
225:(one of the Muscogee Confederacy's four mother towns) did not have any satellite towns, while
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1033:
802:
699:
291:
252:
112:
637:. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 95–96, 102.
451:
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8:
1007:
953:
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705:
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31:
24:
658:. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: The University of Alabama Press. pp. 76–77, 79–94, 159.
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303:
299:
690:
348:
Before the southeastern tribal towns became heavily engaged with
Europeans in the
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866:
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from at least the 16th century into the 19th century. It had aspects of both a
37:) was a form of political and social organization of people in what is now the
102:
Many of the people of the southeast viewed parts of their world in terms of a
1280:
1130:
1094:
923:
747:
471:
616:. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 20–23, 120, 320.
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891:
807:
259:
222:
218:
196:
181:
120:
571:
1089:
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status as the capitols of the Upper and Lower
Muscogees, respectively.
655:
Looking for Lost Lore: Studies in
Folklore, Ethnology, and Iconography
435:
286:
After several tribal towns that had previously been located along the
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835:
499:
107:
886:
876:
861:
851:
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778:
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74:
731:
Creek Mvskoki Talwa Towns: Speck, Swanton, Hewitt, Opler, Howard
1064:
928:
871:
792:
116:
188:
his power was "more of a council manager than an executive."
46:
515:
487:
675:"A Forward on the Social Organization of the Creek Indians"
42:
701:
Archaeology of the Lower Muskogee Creek Indians, 1715–1836
423:
587:
543:
391:
379:
367:
152:), one of whom was the chief's speaker (Muscogee
1278:
634:Creek Country: The Creek Indians and Their World
160:. Achievements as a warrior led to promotion to
1302:Native American tribes in Georgia (U.S. state)
777:
763:
353:larger version of a residential "hot house".
609:
561:
537:
521:
509:
493:
481:
417:
770:
756:
673:Swanton, John R. (October–December 1912).
16:Form of political and social organization
1209:Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States
651:
630:
593:
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577:
533:
477:
461:
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445:
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211:
123:, had both white and red towns, and the
1317:South Appalachian Mississippian culture
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294:) moved to Ochese Creek (later renamed
233:
1279:
725:
697:
549:
505:
373:
751:
164:, and then to "war chiefs" (Muscogee
1307:Native American tribes in Tennessee
704:. The University of Alabama Press.
13:
719:
613:American Indian Tribal Governments
148:), and the "second men" (Muscogee
14:
1328:
1297:Native American tribes in Alabama
1236:Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas
251:and Tukabatchee, red towns, and
97:
85:), a large round structure with
77:and "roll the bullet" (Muscogee
49:, and was the basic unit of the
1116:Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)
247:Four towns in the confederacy,
56:
1018:College of the Muscogee Nation
342:
313:
280:
1:
1241:Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town
1177:Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814)
1121:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
882:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
698:Foster, H. Thomas II (2007).
691:10.1525/aa.1912.14.4.02a00020
360:
240:Hernando de Soto's expedition
131:
1261:Poarch Band of Creek Indians
1246:Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana
1061:(predecessor to Lower Towns)
652:Lankford, George E. (2008).
184:for town council meetings.
140:) and a war chief (Muscogee
7:
1227:Federally recognized tribes
1193:Treaty of Washington (1826)
733:. Independently Published.
10:
1333:
1182:Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost
779:Muscogee Creek Confederacy
603:
39:southeastern United States
1225:
1172:Treaty of New York (1790)
1164:
1026:
990:
952:
905:
816:
785:
693:– via Anthrosource.
631:Ethridge, Robbie (2003).
335:by Muscogee speakers, or
111:originally including the
1266:Thlopthlocco Tribal Town
1188:Treaty of Moultrie Creek
610:O'Brien, Sharon (1989).
273:
191:
1256:Muscogee (Creek) Nation
679:American Anthropologist
1312:Political anthropology
1151:Creek National Capitol
1111:Kimbell-James Massacre
1070:Leon-Jefferson culture
464:, pp. 73–74, 80;
420:, pp. 21–22, 320.
1156:Crazy Snake Rebellion
1059:Apalachicola Province
1034:Mississippian culture
915:(Francis the Prophet)
339:by Hitchiti speakers.
292:Apalachicola Province
212:Satellite settlements
1251:Kialegee Tribal Town
1101:Battle of Burnt Corn
1003:Four Mothers Society
234:Muscogee Confederacy
51:Muscogee Confederacy
1008:Green Corn Ceremony
944:William Weatherford
580:, pp. 93–945;
288:Chattahoochee River
264:Green Corn Ceremony
94:games were played.
1198:Indian Removal Act
1136:Indian Removal Act
1126:Battle of Ocheesee
1106:Fort Mims Massacre
564:, pp. 20–21;
536:, pp. 95–96;
480:, pp. 76–77;
460:, pp. 93–94;
444:, pp. 95–97;
412:, pp. 93–96;
258:Tribal towns were
1274:
1273:
1203:Treaty of Cusseta
1146:Creek War of 1836
1097:(Creek civil war)
1080:State of Muskogee
982:Mikasuki-Hitchiti
786:Four mother towns
740:978-1-0729-4780-6
711:978-0-8173-1239-8
665:978-0-8173-1610-5
524:, pp. 21–22.
496:, pp. 22–23.
484:, pp. 21–23.
432:, pp. 96–97.
1324:
1292:Muskogean tribes
1165:Politics and law
1075:Battle of Taliwa
919:William McIntosh
848:(four locations)
818:Groups and towns
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79:thlechallitchcau
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720:Further reading
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972:Creek-Seminole
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729:, ed. (2019).
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685:(4): 593–599.
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296:Ocmulgee River
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644:0-8078-2827-0
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623:0-8061-2199-8
619:
615:
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608:
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596:, p. 94.
595:
594:Ethridge 2003
590:
584:, p. 76.
583:
582:Lankford 2008
579:
578:Ethridge 2003
574:
567:
563:
558:
551:
546:
540:, p. 23.
539:
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534:Ethridge 2003
530:
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512:, p. 23.
511:
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479:
478:Lankford 2008
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462:Lankford 2008
459:
458:Ethridge 2003
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448:, p. 80.
447:
446:Lankford 2008
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442:Ethridge 2003
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431:
430:Ethridge 2003
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419:
415:
414:Lankford 2008
411:
410:Ethridge 2003
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394:
388:, p. 76.
387:
386:Lankford 2008
382:
376:, p. xx.
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198:
189:
185:
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170:isti atcacagi
167:
163:
159:
155:
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139:
129:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
105:
98:White and red
95:
93:
88:
84:
80:
76:
70:
68:
64:
54:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
33:
29:
26:
22:
1214:
1207:
1184:(unratified)
1039:Pisgah phase
896:
831:Apalachicola
730:
700:
682:
678:
654:
633:
612:
589:
573:
566:Swanton 1912
562:O'Brien 1989
557:
545:
538:O'Brien 1989
529:
522:O'Brien 1989
517:
510:O'Brien 1989
501:
494:O'Brien 1989
489:
482:O'Brien 1989
473:
466:Swanton 1912
453:
437:
425:
418:O'Brien 1989
405:
398:Swanton 1912
393:
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328:
324:
320:
315:
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257:
245:
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174:
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166:tastanagalgi
165:
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137:
135:
101:
82:
78:
71:
62:
60:
57:Organization
34:
27:
20:
18:
1013:Stomp dance
897:Tribal town
808:Tukabatchee
727:Miller, Jay
550:Foster 2007
506:Foster 2007
374:Foster 2007
223:Tukabatchee
219:Flint River
182:black drink
158:tasikayalgi
113:Lower Towns
21:tribal town
1281:Categories
1090:Red Sticks
1049:Moundville
892:Tallapoosa
857:Miccosukee
361:References
206:matrilocal
132:Governance
121:Tallapoosa
967:Apalachee
954:Languages
934:Neamathla
836:Coushatta
260:sovereign
202:exogamous
178:stickball
150:henihalgi
142:tvstvnvke
108:Chickasaw
92:stickball
1287:Muscogee
998:Religion
887:Sabacola
877:Okfuskee
867:Muscogee
862:Muklassa
852:Hitchiti
846:Fowltown
227:Okfuskee
162:imathlas
32:Hitchiti
25:Muscogee
1027:History
991:Culture
977:Koasati
962:Alabama
939:Osceola
906:Leaders
841:Eufaula
826:Alabama
803:Kasihta
604:Sources
329:i:dalwa
319:Called
304:Koasati
300:Alabama
253:Kasihta
125:Alabama
104:duality
83:tcokofa
75:chunkey
1065:Chiaha
1044:Etowah
929:Menawa
872:Okchai
798:Coweta
793:Abihka
737:
708:
662:
641:
620:
325:idalwa
249:Coweta
154:yatika
146:heniha
119:, and
117:Abihka
90:where
67:Whites
63:talofa
45:and a
333:talwu
331:, or
321:talwa
308:Yuchi
290:(see
274:Notes
197:Clans
192:Clans
138:micco
47:tribe
28:talwa
735:ISBN
706:ISBN
660:ISBN
639:ISBN
618:ISBN
337:okla
204:and
43:town
35:okla
687:doi
172:).
1283::
683:14
681:.
677:.
327:,
323:,
306:,
302:,
115:,
30:,
19:A
771:e
764:t
757:v
743:.
714:.
689::
668:.
647:.
626:.
23:(
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