Toys and games in ancient Rome

138: 1119: 157: 940: 1216: 798: 768: 1013: 1515: 526: 173: 149: 19: 282:. Gambling was associated with the lower social classes; gamblers were viewed similarly to petty criminals. Connotations of low social status prompted the Roman fear that, through gambling, an individual could become indebted to another of lower social status. Roman youth were expected to dedicate their leisure time to activities of self-betterment. Such concepts may have influenced the Roman legislation on gambling, including the exemption of elderly persons from these laws. Numerous 509:, or antlers. These dice display similar variation in their pip style, or the arrangement of dots on the dice: 50% have a dot surrounded by one concentric circle, 25% have a dot surrounded by two concentric circles, and another 25% have a central, usually circular, hole. Although the Netherlands was never conquered by the Romans, these dice were likely influenced by the Romans and resemble dice found in the Roman regions of 723:. Another plate is ornamented with concentric circles surrounded by smaller circles and dots with a horizontal line stretching across the top edge. These geometric embellishments are common to other Roman objects, such as boxes, found in the 4th century CE. Rosettes specifically have been identified on gaming boards, including a 2nd century CE board from 465:. Roman craftsmen may have used the remaining shaft of bone to create either a single die or multiple; the exact process is unclear. The metapodial bones initially contained holes which, during the creation process, were filled by another substance to form a semi-solid cube. In the final stage of composite dice creation, the 190:; they are often unearthed in private buildings, public spaces, and urban areas. Finds of gambling-related materials are rarer in residential spaces than in public spaces. Possibly because gambling was a communal activity, therefore occurring primarily in social areas. Gambling tables are especially common near 1068:

However, this interpretation has been criticized as the game may not have been compatible with the rules of Three Men's Morris and Ovid provides scant detail on the structure of the board itself; the actual board described in the passage does not necessarily resemble the circular boards identified in

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Rounded bone pieces were used to play this game. They could be a variety of colors: blue, black, green, or red. Each player had 15 pieces and placed them on a playing table divided into three horizontal lines with 12 spaces. Some boards used squares, letters, lines, circles, monograms, crescents, or

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portray groups of young boys playing with nuts; two are fighting over a toy nut while another prepares to throw a nut. Another child sarcophagus dated to the late 3rd century depicts groups of young girls and boys engaged in play with toy nuts. The boys are depicted with more active play: they grab,

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was used to saw off different segments of the bone, partially separating them into dice. They were possibly not completely separated at this stage; instead, they may have been loosely connected to each other through a remaining strip of bone. The dice may have only been separated after pips they had

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consists almost entirely of irregular pieces of non-cubic dice. Composite dice were typically larger than standard Roman dice; they were capable of reaching up to 26 millimeters in size. During the earlier parts of the Roman occupation of Britain, the island was home to a unique variety of dice: the

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operated according to identical principles regarding their slaves and gambling. Roman gambling laws may have primarily existed for symbolic reasons rather than any practical benefit derived from such legislation. These laws may have been used to portray their proponents as righteous citizens and the

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is credited with inventing a variation of this game where the player was required to destroy the vase with a copper coin thrown from a distance. In another Roman nut game, players divided a triangle into several subsections using chalk. The players would try and throw the nut into the differing

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was used varied depending on the structure. In some pots, the mouth is large enough to allow dice to be inserted easily. Other pots had significantly smaller mouths, ensuring only small dice could be inserted. It is also possible that the dice were placed on the funnel and then thrown.

1203:, it may also represent an otherwise unknown Roman or Celtic board game. The gravesite in Colchester is not alone amongst Romano-British artifacts; other excavations in Britain have revealed board games implying that Roman games spread throughout the region concurrent to 1063:

There is another game divided into as many parts as there are months in the year. A table has three pieces on either side; the winner must get all the pieces in a straight line. It is a bad thing for a woman not to know how to play, for love often comes into being during

349:. Sports gambling may have been viewed more favorably due to the lack of any large-scale industry centered around sports betting, the tendency for sports bets to occur between friends, and because such bets likely carried smaller stakes than other forms of gambling. 1004:. The movement of pieces was likely determined by the rolling of the dice. Each piece may have started on the left side of the board, then shifted to the right, and proceeded to move counterclockwise. The players aimed to move all of their pieces around the board. 573:. One example of such pottery from a Pompeian household is 7-15 cm high with a wide mouth and an oval body; its base consists of a small, flattened knob allowing it to stand more stably on its mouth rather than its base. This base has been identified as possibly a 857:

indicate that Roman children played a game in which players aimed to roll nuts off a wooden board and crash them into other nuts lying on the floor. Various other versions of nut-games existed in Ancient Rome. The Romans called one variation of this game

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or other prominent figures. Resemblances to prominent women may not stem from an attempt to mimic specific, individual women; instead, Roman doll manufacturers may have sought to imitate styles associated with typical aristocratic women at the time.

893:. It used two kinds of dice. One kind was a large die with only four marks. It only had the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 6. Each player had four dice, and would throw them as part of the game. If all dice had landed on a different number, it was called a 794:

touch and restrain each other; one boy is depicted with their tunic falling off. In contrast, the young girls are portrayed as more organized, less active, more well-kempt, and more sedentary; they are not physically active, unlike the boys.

901:. If they threw a Venus then they would claim all of the wagered material. In another version of this game, players would throw knucklebones into the air and attempt to catch them as they fell. The winner was the player who caught the most. 1497:

usually had toys made by skilled craftsmen. Wealthier families could afford toys made from more expensive materials, such as ivory. Roman children likely would have made use of household objects or common materials such as sticks, hands,

1207:. In one grave, a set of 24 glass items divided into four groups was discovered. This possibly was used for an unknown four-player game; however, such a game would have been unique as most ancient Roman board games required two players. 579:

due to its initial location, which was nearby a set of dice. Another example of a similar piece of pottery has a smaller mouth, a more cylindrical shape, and a base consisting of a low foot. Although this example may also represent a

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or marble. Although, leather and wood were also used. Wooden boards were likely common in ancient Rome. However, few have persisted in the archaeological record. Although the exact rules of the game are unclear, it likely resembled

259:, a 2nd-century satirist, criticized gambling as a waste of money better allocated towards the public good: "Is it a simple form of madness to lose a hundred thousand sesterces, and not have a shirt to give to a shivering slave?" 137: 1358:. Another similar toy was a mounted figure with a hole in the legs to allow a thread to be strung through. Wheels could be attached to the thread, allowing for the toy to be pushed or pulled around. Other common toys included 418:

The majority of ancient Roman dice were visibly asymmetrical. However, this asymmetry may not necessarily stem from attempts to manipulate the outcome a game; some of the materials commonly used to create Roman dice, such as

1676:. One doll had its nipples marked with red paint; another had its eyebrows colored with black paint. Like earlier styles of Roman dolls, the newer style contained highly detailed faces with elaborate and sharp incisions. 497:

been marked with pips. Although, it is possible that the pip style was marked after separation and the dice were initially divided using the groove. Another sample of pre-650 CE dice from sites throughout the modern

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sites. Inscriptions found on military gaming tables often reference foul play or violence: One inscription reads, "Get up! You know nothing about the game; make room for better players!" Two paintings discovered in

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and ultimately Rome. Circular or square patterns divided into 8 subsections have been found carved into surfaces throughout the Roman world. These games were initially identified as a type of Roman game similar to

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were popular toys for ancient Roman girls. Jointed limbs connected by a peg device capable of facilitating flexible movement were also present in Roman dolls. Dolls with detachable limbs have been found in the

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complained that "To nobler sentiment and manlier deed: Now the noble's first-born shuns the perilous chase, nor learns to sit his steed: Set him to the unlawful dice, or Grecian hoop, how skillfully he plays."

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Joska, Sanna (2015), "Symbols of Continuity: Greek Senatorial Families and Honorific Dedications to the Children of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger", in Mustakallio, Katariina; Hanska, Jussi (eds.),

1030:, meaning "Game of Robbers," was another Roman board game. In this game each counter had a different value; the goal was to capture the opponent's pieces. This game was especially popular with soldiers. 1660:

were likely carved from a single piece of bone. The joints of these dolls were connected by a thread running through the arm or leg that runs through the torso of the doll. In another doll found in

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consisted of building a pyramidal structure with a base of three nuts and a fourth nut placed on top. The players would then attempt to knock down the structure with another nut. The French scholar

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itself was attributable to the pervasiveness of gambling; he claimed that gambling obsession prevented "anything memorable or serious from being done in Rome." Similarly, the 1st-century BCE poet

4205: 345:. There is in any case little evidence that regulations against gambling were well-enforced. Sports betting was exempt from Roman gambling laws, and it remained decriminalized even after the 1644:

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, a more stylized type of doll became popular in ancient Rome. Dolls of this type utilized lines and incisions to indicate anatomical detail. Instead of molded

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for women. Roman girls adorned their dolls with fashion or jewelry according to the female fashion styles of ancient Rome. The dolls may have been designed to portray the Roman ideal of a

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commentates upon this modification, stating that it the sound warned nearby pedestrians of the rolling hoop. Although used as a toy, Ovid describes it as an artform: "another tells in

1296:," were small toys used to make noises intended to entertain a baby. They were often shaped like axes, swords, animals, tools, flowers, or half-moons. They were typically crafted from 919:

are thrown into the air. In other Greek sources the game is instead described as involving astragals being thrown into a hole. The game is also mentioned by the 1st-century Roman poet

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Roman games influenced the leisure cultures of other civilizations. Archaeological evidence suggests that Roman gaming boards spread throughout the ancient world, reaching as far as

1588:, meaning "fertility." Roman dolls depicting these figures may have been used for similar purposes as other portrayals of these figures: to promote Roman ideals of motherhood. 593: 129:

may also have been a popular game in ancient Rome. Roman children also played games simulating historical battles and could pretend to be important government officials.

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or Royal. If all the dice had landed on the number one, then it was known as the dogs or four vultures. If the player threw a dogs then they would put materials in the

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could demand the repayment of money any member of their household lost through gambling. The losers of the bets could demand the restoration of their wealth from the

453:; they are also large and durable, with a narrow shaft making them suited for dice-creation. It is likely that composite dice were made by detaching the endings, or 383:

sports, from the prohibition on gambling. The criminalization of gambling prevented, in some circumstances, the collection of gambling debts. Under Roman law, a

4980: 3698: 1334:. Roman children would push around toy chariots with wooden sticks or pull them along with strings. Children could have races between toy chariots driven by 423:, would have been difficult to mold into a symmetrical shape. The Romans possibly thought that the results of dice games were determined by fate rather than 199:

depict a brawl emerging between two players over a disagreement about the game; the brawl is interrupted by the innkeeper, who demands they exit the shop.

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were all depicted as either enthusiastic gamblers or full-on gambling addicts by ancient biographers. However, these descriptions were possibly part of a

242:, the Latin term for a hobbyist gambler, was viewed in at least a somewhat derogatory sense. He described a gambling mania that was ubiquitous across all 3943:

Egri, Mariana (2017), "A Miniature Ceramic Chariot from the Liber Pater Sanctuary Aat Apulum", in Tutilă, Oana; Rişcuţa, Nicolae; Ferencz, Iosif (eds.),

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disappeared from the archaeological record by the 4th century; by the 5th century, scholars were limited to hypothesizing about the characteristics of a

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contains traces of paint, possibly suggesting that it was not merely a dice-thrower. The archeological finds of pots suggest that, if these pots were

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Although gambling was certainly extremely popular in ancient Rome, it was viewed as sinful and corrupt. According to the 4th-century Roman historian

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pieces tied onto a thread or chain by a string running through piercings. The name of the father or mother of the baby could be inscribed into the

4507:"Rolling the Dice in Aelia Capitolina: On the Discovery of Gaming Pieces beneath Wilson's Arch and Their Function within a Theatre-Like Structure" 4131:, Papers in Honour of Paul Bidwell Presented on the Occasion of the 30th Annual Conference of the Arbeia Society, Archaeopress, pp. 103–111, 847:

argued that in this game, the first shot was taken kneeling followed by at most two successive shots taken whilst standing. Descriptions from the

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depicts a child using a curved stick to play with hoops. The unique stick construction was likely intended to allow for special hoop tricks. The

1454:, that in the art of the hoop." Horace advises those unskilled in the art to remain reticent about their deficiencies: "if unskilled in ball or 3015: 4867: 379:. According to Paulus, these laws exempted betting on "contests of manhood," specifically javelin-throwing, wrestling, running, jumping, and 278:

Paranoia over young men losing their money through gambling was widespread in ancient Rome, and likely motivated the legislation against the

1937: 5409: 1633:. Roman male dolls existed; they were possibly intended to be used by boys. One remnant of the torso of a Roman soldier doll was found in 341:. The law most likely outlawed gambling and dicing. Although gambling was heavily regulated, these laws were lifted during the holiday of 5451: 5439: 3805:

Dolansky, Fanny (2016-11-10). "Roman girls and boys at play: Realities and representations". In Laes, Christian; Vuolanto, Ville (eds.).

3623: 2571: 1099:, in which the players tossed a coin in the air and predicted the side it would land on. The coin used in this game depicted the head of 5498: 2588: 2423: 217:

as centers of violence and crime. Those who managed private institutions that offered gambling services were euphemistically known as

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were two Roman empresses often lauded in Imperial imagery for their status as wives and mothers. They exemplified the Roman ideal of

1932: 586:, its initial location lacks the same proximity towards nearby dice. It is also possible that neither piece of pottery represents a 5414: 3769: 6786: 5424: 711:

revealed dice towers made from bone plating nailed using bone pins to a wooden structure. Three of the plates are decorated with

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display largely similar ornamentation; however, they bear slightly different characteristics depending upon their manufacturer.

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Augustus is recorded to have offered sums of money to his guests to ensure they continued betting and gambling. Emperors such as

1641:, actors, soldiers, and slaves were popular toys. Gladiator dolls had mobile limbs, creating an illusion of lifelike movements. 1083:

describes young children pretending to be senators or other magistrates. Children were said to have played games simulating the

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are sometimes depicted rolling wheels on Roman gemstones. The presence of the wheel in these images may reference the goddess

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may have been synonymous with an ancient type of small pear or oval-shaped pots, particularly various deposits discovered in

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Marble relief (2nd century AD) of Roman children playing ball games: the girl at the far right is tossing a ball in the air

6791: 6666: 5819: 2566: 5372: 2924: 2046: 156: 5043: 759:," meaning "The Picts are conquered, the enemy destroyed—play in safety" and "Use happily; you may live" respectively. 6711: 5471: 5038: 5033: 5009: 4860: 1290:. Pebbles were sometimes placed inside these toys to allow the device to make noise. Another type of rattle, called " 223:, meaning "entrepreneurs." Gambling without a gaming board, exclusively using dice, was also common in ancient Rome. 775:

For Roman children, another common variety of gambling in Ancient Rome involved the usage of nuts. The Latin phrase

6812: 6726: 5399: 5048: 4975: 2041: 247: 1648:, manufacturers utilized oblique incisions to depict breasts. Similarly, V-shaped incisions were used to mark the 4992: 4925: 4007: 3625:

From Circle and Square To the Image of the World: A Possible Interoperation For Some Petroglyphs Of Merels Boards

1972: 744: 230:, most members of the upper classes did not wish to identify themselves as gamblers, instead preferring the term 5746: 5429: 2496: 2491: 1406: 1220: 346: 6242: 3797: 1034:

was played in ancient Rome and was probably well-known. It may have been imported to the Roman world through

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Cool, H.E.M. And Philo, C. (Eds) Roman Castleford Excavations 1974 - 85. Volume 1 the Small Finds, 267 - 285

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dice are overwhelmingly six-sided and of cubic shape. However, this rule was not universal; a sample from

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described young children attaching metal rings to their hoops, creating a loud noise as the hoop rolled.

1107:, this type of coin was designed by Janus, who marked the coin with a boat to commemorate the arrival of 743:

pieces. Bone and antler were also used as inlay materials in some dice towers discovered in Britain. The

844: 6741: 6405: 6297: 6067: 5839: 5661: 5569: 5434: 5377: 1413:. Four children are depicted pushing hoops around with sticks. The children are wearing blue and green 785:

behind,” metaphorically referred to abandoning childhood and entering maturity. Imagery on Roman child

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were given pull toys, pushcarts, and wooden carts to help them learn to walk. Older male children had

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or hoop, remains aloof, lest the crowded circle break out in righteous laughter." Depictions of the

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crosses instead of boxes. It was also common for boxes to contain six-letter words. Collectively, a

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SOMA 2013. Proceedings of the 17th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology: Moscow, 25-27 April 2013

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The World of Ancient Rome: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Daily Life Encyclopedia

1672:, and to highlight the breasts. Other examples of Roman dolls from Hawara were also decorated with 1630: 1339: 1338:. Roman boys could use larger toy chariots with two or four wheels as riding devices. Artwork from 1190: 786: 191: 3645:"Pavement Designs and Game Boards from Public Spaces of Ancient Athens: A Review Across the Board" 3551:

The Assemblage of Bone and Ivory Artifacts from Caesarea Maritima, Israel, 1st - 13th Centuries CE

6771: 6751: 6691: 6681: 6671: 6077: 5766: 5666: 5646: 5561: 5551: 5256: 5196: 5176: 4888: 1604: 1204: 398: 1215: 797: 427:; henceforth, they may not have viewed the creation of symmetrical, balanced dice as important. 6776: 6766: 6716: 6696: 6510: 6485: 6450: 6332: 6057: 5704: 5466: 4997: 4580:, SpringerBriefs in Computer Science, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 33–52, 4238: 3783: 430: 3632: 6746: 6676: 6500: 6252: 6052: 6047: 5844: 5751: 5676: 5639: 5624: 5599: 5579: 5481: 1959: 1954: 1566: 1562: 1048: 592:; neither piece has been directly identified with gaming pieces and similar pottery from the 380: 187: 186:

and betting were popular games in ancient Rome. Roman gaming tables frequently appear in the

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Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités grecques, étrusques et romaines, Cp 6467, Ma 99

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Games Involving Nuts As a "topos" for Childhood in Late Antiquity and Early Christian Time

1704: 727:. Other examples of Roman dice towers suggest that they could have been made from wood or 682:

descends from the Greek word for tower. It also appears in the 4th or 5th century CE text

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depict children playing with toy nuts. Depictions from a mid-3rd century sarcophagus in

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found on 3rd century children's graves portray the deities pushing around small discs.

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Latin Learning and English Lore: Studies in Anglo-Saxon Literature for Michael Lapidge

4008:"Changing Public Policy and the Evolution of Roman Civil and Criminal Law on Gambling" 6370: 6222: 5977: 5937: 5915: 5123: 4793: 4772: 4751: 4730: 4709: 4688: 4667: 4648: 4615: 4589: 4558: 4537: 4531: 4491: 4470: 4427: 4381: 4360: 4341: 4314: 4293: 4260: 4225: 4190: 4169: 4109: 4082: 4047: 4026: 3992: 3966: 3931: 3927: 3902: 3890: 3847: 3812: 3791: 3756: 3737: 3718: 3683: 3664: 3593: 3562: 3541: 3521: 3490: 3469: 1626: 1330:, hoops, and toy horses made from sticks. The toy horses could be accompanied by toy 1059:, which some historians believed to have referenced a game similar to a Morris game: 1012: 894: 809:

Although nuts were common, other materials could serve as missiles: pebbles, shells,

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were used to prevent cheating by rolling dice without player intervention. The term "

4396: 1146:, have been interpreted as games, even though their functionality is still unknown. 869:

compartments, with winnings distributed according to the section the nut landed in.

6435: 6395: 6327: 6262: 6187: 6182: 5954: 5877: 5824: 5619: 5614: 5503: 5362: 5311: 5271: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5221: 5143: 5090: 5083: 5068: 5063: 4987: 4915: 4824: 4820: 4638: 4581: 4408: 4217: 4132: 4074: 3958: 3923: 3880: 3869:"Why are Roman-period dice asymmetrical? An experimental and quantitative approach" 3839: 3710: 3656: 3585: 3554: 3513: 3461: 2561: 1603:. Designs of Roman dolls were consistent with Roman ideals of femininity and their 1164: 1084: 1074: 989:

detailing the circumstances surrounding the game. The playing tables, known as the

828: 720: 643: 493: 462: 161: 96: 4630: 4256:"Let the Little Children Come to Me": Childhood and Children in Early Christianity 1514: 1482:, a symbol representing the unpredictability and volatility of the natural world. 525: 172: 6530: 6342: 6322: 6282: 6217: 6167: 6162: 6037: 5987: 5895: 5729: 5709: 5629: 5078: 4903: 4787: 4745: 4724: 4703: 4682: 4661: 4552: 4485: 4464: 4375: 4354: 4308: 4287: 4184: 4163: 4103: 4041: 4020: 3986: 3806: 3731: 3677: 1141: 825:

objects, possibly for usage in games involving nuts. According to the unreliable

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Ancient Roman dolls contained features such as accentuated breasts and detailed

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in Didyma led the scholar Olaf Höckmann to believe that they may have served an

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The ancient Romans had a variety of toys and games. Children used toys such as

4573: 4221: 4124: 3589: 3517: 1637:, in the grave of a 10-year-old Roman girl named Claudia Victoria. Figures of 1197:, contains the remains of a board game. Although it is possibly an example of 630:

was not the only word used to describe dice towers in ancient Rome; the terms

449:, were also used. Cattle metapodia lack much meat, making them undesirable to 6806: 6117: 6087: 6002: 5536: 5513: 5326: 5181: 5166: 5113: 4920: 4652: 4345: 4229: 4086: 3935: 3894: 3851: 3843: 3760: 3722: 3668: 3525: 1570: 1499: 1477: 912: 510: 485: 350: 301: 283: 18: 4453: 3911: 6595: 6455: 5900: 5849: 5804: 5799: 5651: 5461: 5347: 5291: 5286: 5058: 4942: 4876: 4136: 3962: 3558: 1657: 1649: 1600: 1432: 1402: 1395: 1363: 1359: 1343: 1327: 1088: 886: 865: 790: 724: 481: 66: 38: 34: 4833: 4412: 3660: 3465: 207:, provided attendees with gambling services. Due to their connotations of 81:

heavily regulated gambling; however, these laws were likely not enforced.

6390: 6012: 5834: 5724: 5118: 4643: 2616: 2583: 1271: 1235: 1189:. The "Druid of Colchester," an ancient grave dated to the 40s-50s BC in 1150: 1112: 1052: 1035: 898: 848: 708: 671: 498: 458: 405: 148: 114: 78: 4522: 4506: 3828:"Playing with Gender: Girls, Dolls, and Adult Ideals in the Roman World" 1625:

mentions a similar custom in which Roman girls dedicated their dolls to

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Roman children would receive toys as gifts for their birthdays or other

6615: 6555: 6520: 6312: 6247: 6237: 6132: 6017: 5905: 5488: 5456: 5201: 5128: 4960: 4955: 4397:"Reassessing Roman and Late Antique 'Marbles Lanes': One Game or Many?" 4094: 4062: 1685: 1611:

and to encourage young girls to imitate Roman standards of femininity.

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Courts, Summer; Penn, Tim (2021). "Roman gaming boards from Britain".

3533: 2823: 2821: 1765: 1763: 6645: 6640: 6600: 6525: 6495: 6475: 6352: 6292: 6202: 6152: 6147: 6072: 6032: 5920: 5890: 5699: 5574: 5367: 5251: 5226: 5105: 4834:"Meroitic Graves with Roman Games: Elites Moving the Borders of Play" 4206:"Roman rules? The introduction of board games to Britain and Ireland" 4165:

The Oxford Handbook of Childhood and Education in the Classical World

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Ubuntu for Non-Geeks, 4th Edition: A Pain-Free, Get-Things-Done Guide

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mentions a tradition in which Roman girls dedicated the dolls to the

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book about playing dice. This book is speculated to have been titled

141: 4276: 4078: 1652:. Examples of stylized figures with similar incisions from southern 1069:

archaeological sites. The presence of these boards at the temple of

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with black materials and the whole die may have been polished with

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composite die. This type of die was often made from bone, usually

6625: 6620: 6610: 6575: 6570: 6560: 6505: 6490: 6307: 6302: 6287: 6257: 6212: 6192: 6172: 6127: 5859: 5714: 5493: 5301: 5296: 5186: 4334:

Peuce (Serie Nouă) - Studii şi cercetari de istorie şi arheologie

2746: 2730: 2712: 2700: 2486: 2413: 1949: 1622: 1537: 1439: 1383: 1351: 1331: 1323: 1275: 1194: 920: 701: 697: 570: 562: 558: 450: 272: 256: 196: 62: 3210: 2845: 1506:, stones, broken pottery, and possibly earth as makeshift toys. 657: 6635: 6515: 6445: 6385: 6380: 6347: 6107: 6092: 6042: 6022: 5444: 5321: 5216: 4809:"Traces of Appropriation: Roman Board Games in Egypt and Sudan" 3779: 3120: 3118: 2162: 1927: 1661: 1653: 1645: 1612: 1553: 1493:, their toys were made by their parents. Children in wealthier 1463: 1459: 1455: 1391: 1371: 1313: 1301: 1249: 1231: 1108: 1070: 818: 782: 740: 728: 514: 439: 420: 251: 200: 54: 42: 25: 4123:

Greep, Stephen (2022), Hodgson, Nick; Griffiths, Bill (eds.),

3808:

Children and Everyday Life in the Roman and Late Antique World

3067: 2270: 2258: 2174: 1450:

and the way they are thrown; this one instructs in the art of

6420: 6142: 5869: 5161: 4663:

Ancient Roman Sports, A-Z: Athletes, Venues, Events and Terms

3775: 3057: 3055: 3053: 2395: 2306: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1673: 1669: 1617: 1557: 1518:

Fragmentary Roman doll carved from bone, late 3rd century AD

1471: 1414: 1367: 1335: 1267: 1257: 1234:

played with charms, bells, animal-shaped whistles, and large

1100: 1043: 916: 890: 864:, meaning "vase," as the nuts were tossed into a narrow jar. 771:

Sarcophagus depicting Roman children playing games using nuts

736: 732: 539:, a dice box shaped like a wooden tower containing a spiral. 506: 470: 446: 358: 279: 275:, condemning gambling and dice-games as impure and immoral. 165: 122: 110: 109:

were all popular games in ancient Rome. They were similar to

50: 46: 4768:

Adults and Children in the Roman Empire (Routledge Revivals)

3383: 3323: 3299: 3115: 2862: 2860: 2782: 1320:

to allow for a lost child to be returned to their families.

1055:. This assumption partially derives from a description from 821:. Excavations of Roman grave sites have revealed nut-shaped 6630: 6197: 6137: 5719: 5095: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3246: 3023: 2914: 2770: 2526: 2294: 1665: 1634: 1545: 1529: 1525: 1494: 1467: 1447: 1387: 1375: 1347: 1309: 1297: 1253: 1245: 1091:, and they took different sides and fought in the streets. 1056: 513:. Samples of 1st to 7th century dice unearthed around the 502: 315: 58: 4395:

Penn, Tim; Courts, Summer; Schädler, Ulrich (2023-10-01).

3050: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2354: 2342: 2068: 2066: 1911: 1909: 1708: 1599:, protruding bellies, accentuated breasts, and marked-out 1304:. Wealthy families could highlight their prestige through 5191: 4832:

de Voogt, Alex; Francigny, Vincent; Baas, Pieter (2017).

2968: 2857: 2794: 2676: 2458: 2456: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2246: 1818: 1736: 1596: 1549: 1355: 1283: 1279: 690:

to describe a dice tower. Another word for a dice tower,

474: 3431: 3419: 3407: 3359: 3347: 3335: 3311: 3287: 3275: 3258: 3222: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3040: 3038: 2992: 2934: 2932: 2600: 2598: 2282: 2138: 2090: 2078: 1668:

was used to attach the arms to the body, to hold up the

4838:

Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft

3578:"Alea, Tæfl, and Related Games: Vocabulary and Context" 3188: 3186: 3079: 2872: 2833: 2538: 2514: 2502: 2063: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1103:

on one side and a ship on the other side. According to

1095:

describes another ancient Roman children’s game called

813:, or knucklebones were also used. In one grave site in 656:

writings in reference to the king-piece in the game of

3130: 2453: 2441: 2429: 2378: 1808: 1806: 1804: 1802: 4831: 4504: 4019:

Fazlullin, Sergey; Antika, Mazlum Mert (2016-01-22).

3395: 3371: 3142: 3035: 2944: 2929: 2896: 2827: 2806: 2764: 2595: 2468: 2366: 2330: 2318: 2018: 1787: 1781: 1769: 1569:. Roman dolls often display physical similarities to 664:. According to the 6th-century BCE Christian scholar 329:

The earliest known ancient Roman gambling law is the

4505:

Lieberman, Daniel; Solomon, Avi; Uziel, Joe (2019).

3771:

Hoops and Coming of Age in Greek and Roman Antiquity

3582:

Latin Learning and English Lore (Volumes I & II)

3234: 3183: 3091: 2980: 2884: 2688: 2640: 2628: 2234: 2222: 2198: 2186: 2126: 2114: 2102: 2051: 1989: 1891: 1830: 1748: 4444:

Anthologia Latina: Sive Poesis Latinae Supplementum

3198: 3171: 3159: 3103: 2956: 2210: 2006: 1799: 501:, were made from various organic materials such as 480:Smaller dice were made by an elongated rod used to 152:

Pompeian fresco depicting a bar fight over gambling

4394: 4129:Roman Frontier Archaeology – in Britain and Beyond 2752: 2718: 2706: 2664: 2652: 1401:Imagery of toys hoops is present in a 5th century 1087:. The children used a nearby pond to simulate the 3945:Archaeological Small Finds and their Significance 3867:Eerkens, Jelmer W.; de Voogt, Alex (2022-06-23). 3486:Artefacts in Roman Britain: Their Purpose and Use 6804: 4281:, vol. 42, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 4278:Agents and Objects Children in Pre-Modern Europe 4162:Grubbs, Judith Evans; Parkin, Tim (2013-11-12). 3786:, archived from the original on February 9, 2024 1621:, household guardians, upon reaching adulthood. 4572:Madej, Krystina (2016), Madej, Krystina (ed.), 4356:The Ancient Romans: Their Lives and Their World 4018: 3909: 3866: 3504:Austin, R. G. (1935). "Roman Board Games. II". 2851: 2276: 2264: 2180: 2168: 2156: 1182: 410:,” the customs and traditions of Ancient Rome. 294:were enthusiasts in gambling. Claudius wrote a 4440: 4330:"Roman Board Game Pieces in Northern Dobrudja" 3584:, University of Toronto Press, pp. 9–27, 2401: 1417:; possibly a reflection of the blue and green 1266:were often shaped like boxes, spheres, rolls, 4861: 4743: 4722: 3482: 2788: 2300: 1719: 837:substituted nuts with apples in these games. 445:although the bones of other animals, such as 4628: 4374:Osborne, Robin; Roper, Lyndal (2004-07-15). 4373: 4286:Kaufman, William; Green, John (1997-01-01). 4285: 4253:Horn, Cornelia B.; Martens, John W. (2009). 4161: 3389: 3329: 3252: 3216: 3124: 2776: 2532: 2360: 2348: 2312: 817:, a woman was buried with a nut carved from 4813:Archimède: Archéologie et histoire ancienne 4441:Riese, Alexander; Buecheler, Franz (1894). 4252: 4203: 3910:Eerkens, Jelmer W.; de Voogt, Alex (2017). 3873:Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 3073: 3061: 3029: 2620: 1583: 1475: 1291: 1261: 1239: 1198: 1181:into their societies, creating the variant 1154: 1139: 1129: 1123: 1023: 990: 980: 957: 951: 924: 902: 880: 859: 852: 838: 826: 776: 754: 748: 715:circles or large circles containing either 691: 683: 677: 669: 647: 637: 631: 625: 616: 610: 603: 597: 587: 581: 574: 544: 534: 403: 392: 384: 374: 368: 362: 336: 330: 299: 237: 231: 218: 212: 102: 94: 88: 82: 4868: 4854: 4578:Physical Play and Children’s Digital Games 4529: 4377:Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society 4204:Hall, Mark A.; Forsyth, Katherine (2011). 3984: 3750: 3729: 2974: 2866: 2682: 2096: 911:mentioned most commonly in Greek sources. 889:was an ancient Roman dice game similar to 4764: 4642: 4327: 3884: 2998: 2288: 1256:, and, in rare occasions, dried heads of 1230:Different age groups had different toys. 750:Pictos Victos Hostis Deleta Ludite Securi 553:based on its appearances in the works of 4806: 4785: 4723:Tames, Richard; Williams, Brian (2003). 4451: 4186:Daily Life in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook 3950: 3825: 3804: 3733:Illustrated Encyclopedia of Ancient Rome 3437: 3425: 3413: 3365: 3353: 3341: 3317: 3305: 3293: 3281: 3269: 3228: 3085: 2800: 2549: 2520: 2508: 2072: 1915: 1793: 1742: 1513: 1214: 1117: 1011: 938: 929:plays with yet naughtier knucklebones." 796: 766: 524: 171: 155: 147: 136: 17: 4875: 4550: 4462: 4352: 4236: 4039: 3696: 3611: 3575: 3457:The Archaeology of Household Activities 3453: 3136: 3044: 2950: 2938: 2902: 2812: 2604: 2474: 2462: 2447: 2435: 2389: 2372: 2336: 2324: 2012: 1346:depicts these chariots being pulled by 923:: "the doubtful dice boxes clatter and 801:Girl playing knucklebones (130–150 AD, 762: 529:Ancient Roman 4th century CE dice tower 326:to discredit these unpopular emperors. 132: 6805: 4744:Tschen-Emmons, James B. (2014-09-30). 4701: 4631:"Seneca, Apokolokyntosis and fritilli" 4607: 4483: 4419: 4182: 4060: 3675: 3621: 3548: 3503: 2986: 2890: 2878: 2839: 2694: 2670: 2646: 2252: 2216: 2057: 1824: 1754: 4849: 4571: 4455:Gambling and Cheating in Ancient Rome 4306: 4273: 4148: 4122: 4101: 4006:Faris, Suzanne B. (October 1, 2012). 4005: 3767: 3483:Allason-Jones, Lindsay (2011-02-10). 3454:Allison, Penelope, ed. (1999-04-01). 3401: 3377: 3240: 3204: 3192: 3177: 3165: 3153: 3097: 2634: 2240: 2228: 2204: 2192: 2144: 2132: 2120: 2108: 2084: 2000: 1900: 1843: 1812: 4680: 4659: 4629:Mastrocinque, Attilio (2021-01-26). 4557:. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. 4151:"The Bone, Antler and Ivory Objects" 3942: 3642: 3109: 2962: 2658: 2024: 1138:Other archaeological items, such as 144:depicting ancient Roman dice players 77:were popular games in ancient Rome. 4708:. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. 4458:. JSTOR. The North American Review. 4328:Nuţu, George; Boţan, Sever (2009). 4125:"Composite dice from Roman Britain" 3985:Ermatinger, James W. (2015-08-11). 2828:de Voogt, Francigny & Baas 2017 2765:de Voogt, Francigny & Baas 2017 1782:Lieberman, Solomon & Uziel 2019 1770:Lieberman, Solomon & Uziel 2019 950:One popular dice game was known as 549:" has been theorized to refer to a 457:, of the bones before removing the 176:Ancient Roman bone dice found near 13: 4067:The American Journal of Psychology 14: 6834: 4611:Your Travel Guide to Ancient Rome 4533:Everyday Life in the Roman Empire 4246:Board Game Studies Journal Online 3768:Dasen, Véronique (July 2, 2019), 1244:. They could be made from either 1175:. Scandinavian societies adopted 907:is another possible variation of 747:is inscribed with two messages: " 4765:Wiedemann, Thomas (2014-03-18). 4684:Daily Life of the Ancient Romans 4452:Lanciani, Rodolfo (1892-07-01). 4043:A writer's guide to Ancient Rome 3928:10.1111/j.1600-0390.2017.12182.x 2753:Penn, Courts & Schädler 2023 2719:Penn, Courts & Schädler 2023 2707:Penn, Courts & Schädler 2023 211:and gambling, the Romans viewed 160:1st-2nd century Roman dice from 4487:The Natural History of Unicorns 4469:. University of Toronto Press. 4463:Lapidge, Michael (2005-01-01). 4423:A Companion to the Roman Empire 4237:Heimann, Florian (2014-02-01). 4183:Harvey, Brian K. (2016-02-11). 4046:. Manchester University Press. 4025:. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. 3699:"A Dice Tower from Richborough" 3612:Behling, Claudia-Maria (2010), 3446: 3004: 2908: 2724: 2610: 2577: 2555: 2480: 2407: 2030: 1965: 1943: 1921: 1870: 1849: 932: 602:, the exact methods by which a 357:, records three laws passed by 4825:10.47245/archimede.0006.ds2.03 4687:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 4614:. Twenty-First Century Books. 4608:Markel, Rita J. (2004-01-01). 4551:Mackley, Daniel (2016-12-15). 4380:. Cambridge University Press. 3631:, vol. 21, archived from 3576:Bayless, Martha (2005-07-18), 3489:. Cambridge University Press. 1725: 1697: 1520:(Getty Villa Roman Collection) 1128:inscribed with the Latin word 985:board could contain 36-letter 745:Vettweiß-Froitzheim Dice Tower 533:Dice were sometimes stored in 520: 246:. Marcellinus argued that the 1: 4702:Steele, Philip (2009-01-15). 4149:Greep, Stephen (1998-01-01). 4040:Fleiner, Carey (2020-02-28). 3951:Elderkin, Kate (2009-08-04), 3912:"The Evolution of Cubic Dice" 3676:Casson, Lionel (2015-11-06). 1691: 1593:secondary sex characteristics 1427:." Another Roman 1st century 1219:Mosaic from the floor of the 5440:Frontiers and fortifications 4554:The City in the Roman Empire 4484:Lavers, Chris (2009-08-11). 3643:Carè, Barbara (2022-04-01). 7: 5499:Decorations and punishments 4747:Artifacts from Ancient Rome 4586:10.1007/978-3-319-42875-8_4 4168:. Oxford University Press. 4061:France, Clemens J. (1902). 2277:Eerkens & de Voogt 2017 2265:Eerkens & de Voogt 2017 2181:Eerkens & de Voogt 2022 2169:Eerkens & de Voogt 2022 2157:Eerkens & de Voogt 2022 1679: 1474:, who was connected to the 995:, were typically made from 594:Casa del Quadretti teatrali 10: 6839: 6406:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4981:historiography of the fall 4660:Matz, David (2019-10-31). 4511:Israel Exploration Journal 4401:Board Game Studies Journal 4310:Daily Life in Ancient Rome 3954:Jointed Dolls in Antiquity 3886:10.1007/s12520-022-01599-y 3715:10.3815/006811308785917169 3649:Board Game Studies Journal 3622:Berger, Friedrich (2004), 2402:Riese & Buecheler 1894 1421:factions, referred to as " 1115:, which had been by boat. 6787:External wars and battles 6654: 6548: 6361: 5953: 5946: 5868: 5780: 5685: 5560: 5512: 5390: 5340: 5279: 5270: 5152: 5104: 5024: 4941: 4911: 4902: 4884: 4530:Liversidge, Joan (1976). 4426:. John Wiley & Sons. 4420:Potter, David S. (2008). 4307:Nardo, Don (2015-01-29). 4222:10.1017/S0003598X00062086 3796:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3730:Corbishley, Mike (2004). 3590:10.3138/9781442676589-033 3518:10.1017/S0017383500003119 1720:Tames & Williams 2003 1016:Modern reconstruction of 1007: 953:Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum 4786:Williams, Brian (2003). 4102:Grant, Rickford (2010). 3860:10.1525/ca.2012.31.2.256 3844:10.1525/ca.2012.31.2.256 3826:Dolansky, Fanny (2012). 3811:. Taylor & Francis. 3390:Grubbs & Parkin 2013 3330:Grubbs & Parkin 2013 3253:Kaufman & Green 1997 3217:Grubbs & Parkin 2013 3125:Grubbs & Parkin 2013 2777:Osborne & Roper 2004 2533:Grubbs & Parkin 2013 1509: 1446:of the various forms of 425:mathematical probability 397:of the winner's family. 361:regarding gambling: the 6813:Culture of ancient Rome 6782:Roman–Iranian relations 5257:Optimates and populares 4807:de Voogt, Alex (2019). 4292:. Courier Corporation. 4012:UNLV Gaming Law Journal 3697:Cobbett, R. E. (2008). 3074:Horn & Martens 2009 3062:Horn & Martens 2009 3030:Hall & Forsyth 2011 1210: 1183: 872: 731:; then, in some cases, 658: 413: 6792:Civil wars and revolts 6058:Sextus Pompeius Festus 5705:Conflict of the Orders 5064:Legislative assemblies 4792:. Capstone Classroom. 4729:. Capstone Classroom. 4726:Ancient Roman Children 4359:. Getty Publications. 4353:Roberts, Paul (2009). 4189:. Hackett Publishing. 4137:10.2307/jj.15135896.14 4063:"The Gambling Impulse" 3963:10.31826/9781463221089 3784:University of Fribourg 3736:. Getty Publications. 3559:10.30861/9781841718958 2975:Courts & Penn 2021 2621: 1584: 1563:Catacombs of Priscilla 1528:, typically made from 1522: 1476: 1405:from the floor of the 1292: 1278:, and animals such as 1262: 1240: 1227: 1199: 1155: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1124: 1066: 1024: 1020: 991: 981: 958: 952: 947: 925: 903: 881: 860: 853: 839: 827: 806: 777: 772: 755: 749: 692: 684: 678: 670: 648: 638: 632: 626: 617: 611: 604: 598: 588: 582: 575: 545: 535: 530: 404: 393: 385: 375: 369: 363: 337: 331: 306:, which translates to 300: 238: 232: 219: 213: 180: 169: 153: 145: 103: 95: 89: 83: 30: 6501:Simplicius of Cilicia 6253:Quintus Curtius Rufus 5482:Siege in Ancient Rome 5091:Executive magistrates 4413:10.2478/bgs-2023-0004 3661:10.2478/bgs-2022-0008 3549:Ayalon, Etan (2005). 3466:10.4324/9780203014929 3460:. London: Routledge. 2852:Fazlullin et al. 2016 2289:Nuţu & Boţan 2009 1517: 1218: 1121: 1061: 1015: 942: 800: 770: 528: 188:archaeological record 175: 159: 151: 140: 21: 6511:Stephanus Byzantinus 6416:Eusebius of Caesaria 6278:Sidonius Apollinaris 5968:Ammianus Marcellinus 5307:Tribune of the plebs 4681:Matz, David (2002). 4644:10.21827/an.17.35980 4447:(in Latin). Lipsiae. 4289:Life in Ancient Rome 3679:Life in Ancient Rome 1877:Ammianus Marcellinus 1856:Ammianus Marcellinus 1580:Faustina the Younger 1386:figures of animals, 879:Tali, also known as 763:Nut-related gambling 353:, a 2nd-3rd century 347:rise of Christianity 244:Roman social classes 228:Ammianus Marcellinus 133:Gambling and betting 6687:Distinguished women 6338:Velleius Paterculus 6178:Nicolaus Damascenus 6158:Marcellus Empiricus 5547:Republican currency 4789:Ancient Roman Homes 4108:. No Starch Press. 3832:Classical Antiquity 3308:, pp. 282–283. 3219:, pp. 323–324. 3076:, pp. 184–185. 2255:, pp. 149–150. 2159:, pp. 133–134. 2147:, pp. 205–206. 2087:, pp. 204–205. 1827:, pp. 373–374. 1178:ludus latrunculorum 1026:Ludus latrunculorum 1018:Ludus Latrunculorum 402:protectors of the " 308:On the Art of Dice. 236:, meaning "dicer." 105:Ludus latrunculorum 6461:Phlegon of Tralles 6268:Seneca the Younger 5742:Naming conventions 5472:Personal equipment 5005:Later Roman Empire 4490:. Harper Collins. 4216:(330): 1325–1338. 3916:Acta Archaeologica 2789:Allason-Jones 2011 2301:Tschen-Emmons 2014 2042:The Twelve Caesars 1745:, pp. 97–105. 1664:, a thread of red 1576:Faustina the Elder 1523: 1228: 1136: 1134:, meaning "thief." 1081:Seneca the Younger 1049:Three men's morris 1021: 948: 845:Becq de Fouquières 807: 773: 666:Isidore of Seville 531: 461:stored inside the 269:falsely attributed 181: 170: 154: 146: 31: 6800: 6799: 6762:Pontifices maximi 6544: 6543: 6401:Diogenes Laërtius 6223:Pliny the Younger 5978:Asconius Pedianus 5938:Romance languages 5810:Civil engineering 5552:Imperial currency 5425:Political control 5386: 5385: 5020: 5019: 4799:978-1-4034-0519-7 4778:978-1-317-74912-7 4757:978-1-61069-620-3 4736:978-1-4034-0518-0 4715:978-1-4358-5176-4 4694:978-0-313-30326-5 4673:978-1-4766-3624-5 4635:Ancient Narrative 4621:978-0-8225-3071-8 4595:978-3-319-42875-8 4564:978-1-5026-2259-4 4543:978-039-920-554-5 4497:978-0-06-087414-8 4476:978-0-8020-8919-9 4433:978-1-4051-7826-6 4387:978-0-521-83769-9 4366:978-0-89236-986-7 4320:978-1-4062-8817-9 4299:978-0-486-29767-5 4266:978-0-8132-1674-4 4196:978-1-58510-796-4 4175:978-0-19-978160-7 4115:978-1-59327-257-9 4053:978-1-5261-3525-4 4032:978-1-78491-229-1 3998:978-1-4408-2908-6 3972:978-1-4632-2108-9 3957:, Gorgias Press, 3818:978-1-317-17551-3 3753:Roman Finds Group 3743:978-0-89236-705-4 3689:978-1-61230-914-9 3682:. New Word City. 3599:978-1-4426-7658-9 3568:978-1-84171-895-8 3506:Greece & Rome 3496:978-0-521-86012-3 3475:978-0-203-01492-9 2881:, pp. 44–45. 2842:, pp. 33–34. 2803:, pp. 89–99. 2562:Trebellius Pollio 2361:Mastrocinque 2021 2349:Mastrocinque 2021 2315:, pp. 57–58. 2313:Mastrocinque 2021 2027:, pp. 28–29. 1153:. The Roman word 1142:tesserae lusoriae 1125:tesserae lusoriae 1032:Nine men's morris 840:Nuces Castellatae 803:Glyptothek Munich 756:Uteri Felix Vivas 696:, appears in the 686:Anthologia Latina 652:later appears in 484:, or smooth, the 127:Nine men's morris 6830: 6818:History of games 6752:Magistri equitum 6667:Cities and towns 6660: 6586:Constantinopolis 6396:Diodorus Siculus 6328:Valerius Maximus 6263:Seneca the Elder 6183:Nonius Marcellus 5951: 5950: 5504:Hippika gymnasia 5467:Infantry tactics 5373:Consular tribune 5363:Magister equitum 5312:Military tribune 5277: 5276: 5237:Pontifex maximus 5232:Princeps senatus 5222:Magister militum 4988:Byzantine Empire 4909: 4908: 4870: 4863: 4856: 4847: 4846: 4841: 4828: 4803: 4782: 4761: 4740: 4719: 4705:The Roman Empire 4698: 4677: 4656: 4646: 4625: 4604: 4603: 4602: 4574:"Toys and Games" 4568: 4547: 4536:. B.T Batsford. 4526: 4501: 4480: 4459: 4448: 4437: 4416: 4391: 4370: 4349: 4324: 4303: 4282: 4270: 4249: 4243: 4233: 4200: 4179: 4158: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4119: 4098: 4057: 4036: 4015: 4002: 3981: 3980: 3979: 3947: 3939: 3906: 3888: 3863: 3822: 3801: 3795: 3787: 3764: 3747: 3726: 3693: 3672: 3639: 3637: 3630: 3618: 3608: 3607: 3606: 3572: 3545: 3500: 3479: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3345: 3339: 3333: 3327: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3291: 3285: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3181: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3113: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3083: 3077: 3071: 3065: 3059: 3048: 3042: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2927: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2864: 2855: 2854:, p. 74-76. 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2816: 2810: 2804: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2774: 2768: 2762: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2624: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2593: 2581: 2575: 2559: 2553: 2547: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2427: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2376: 2370: 2364: 2358: 2352: 2346: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2316: 2310: 2304: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2256: 2250: 2244: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2214: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2130: 2124: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2061: 2055: 2049: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2016: 2010: 2004: 1998: 1987: 1986: 1984: 1983: 1977:Oxford Reference 1973:"De Aleatoribus" 1969: 1963: 1947: 1941: 1925: 1919: 1913: 1904: 1898: 1889: 1874: 1868: 1853: 1847: 1841: 1828: 1822: 1816: 1810: 1797: 1791: 1785: 1779: 1773: 1767: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1740: 1734: 1729: 1723: 1717: 1706: 1701: 1605:beauty standards 1587: 1481: 1295: 1265: 1243: 1202: 1200:Duodecim Scripta 1188: 1158: 1145: 1133: 1127: 1122:An example of a 1097:capita aut navim 1085:Battle of Actium 1029: 994: 984: 982:Duodecim Scripta 976:Twelve Writings. 961: 959:Duodecim Scripta 955: 944:Duodecim Scripta 928: 906: 884: 863: 856: 842: 832: 829:Historia Augusta 781:, “to leave the 780: 778:Nuces relinquere 758: 752: 739:and fitted with 695: 689: 681: 675: 663: 651: 644:Roman literature 641: 635: 629: 620: 614: 607: 601: 591: 585: 578: 548: 538: 469:might have been 463:medullary cavity 409: 396: 390: 378: 372: 366: 340: 334: 305: 241: 235: 222: 216: 203:, ancient Roman 108: 100: 97:Duodecim Scripta 92: 86: 6838: 6837: 6833: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6828: 6827: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6796: 6658: 6656: 6650: 6540: 6376:Aëtius of Amida 6357: 6343:Verrius Flaccus 6323:Valerius Antias 6283:Silius Italicus 6218:Pliny the Elder 6163:Marcus Aurelius 6038:Cornelius Nepos 5988:Aurelius Victor 5942: 5864: 5776: 5710:Secessio plebis 5681: 5556: 5508: 5382: 5336: 5266: 5148: 5100: 5016: 4937: 4898: 4880: 4874: 4844: 4800: 4779: 4758: 4737: 4716: 4695: 4674: 4622: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4565: 4544: 4498: 4477: 4434: 4388: 4367: 4321: 4300: 4267: 4241: 4197: 4176: 4141: 4139: 4116: 4079:10.2307/1412559 4054: 4033: 3999: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3819: 3789: 3788: 3744: 3690: 3635: 3628: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3569: 3497: 3476: 3449: 3444: 3436: 3432: 3424: 3420: 3412: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3388: 3384: 3376: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3352: 3348: 3340: 3336: 3328: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3304: 3300: 3292: 3288: 3280: 3276: 3268: 3259: 3251: 3247: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3215: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3191: 3184: 3176: 3172: 3164: 3160: 3152: 3143: 3135: 3131: 3123: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3096: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3060: 3051: 3043: 3036: 3032:, p. 1328. 3028: 3024: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2977:, pp. 4–5. 2973: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2949: 2945: 2937: 2930: 2913: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2889: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2867:Corbishley 2004 2865: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2819: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2783: 2775: 2771: 2763: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2729: 2725: 2721:, pp. 115. 2717: 2713: 2705: 2701: 2693: 2689: 2683:Ermatinger 2015 2681: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2615: 2611: 2603: 2596: 2582: 2578: 2560: 2556: 2548: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2515: 2507: 2503: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2461: 2454: 2446: 2442: 2434: 2430: 2412: 2408: 2400: 2396: 2388: 2379: 2371: 2367: 2359: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2335: 2331: 2323: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2251: 2247: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2215: 2211: 2203: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2179: 2175: 2171:, p. 1-12. 2167: 2163: 2155: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2131: 2127: 2119: 2115: 2107: 2103: 2097:Liversidge 1976 2095: 2091: 2083: 2079: 2071: 2064: 2056: 2052: 2035: 2031: 2023: 2019: 2011: 2007: 1999: 1990: 1981: 1979: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1948: 1944: 1926: 1922: 1914: 1907: 1899: 1892: 1875: 1871: 1854: 1850: 1842: 1831: 1823: 1819: 1811: 1800: 1792: 1788: 1780: 1776: 1768: 1761: 1753: 1749: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1726: 1718: 1709: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1682: 1512: 1407:Imperial Palace 1370:, metal hoops, 1221:Imperial palace 1213: 1010: 937: 877: 765: 707:Excavations in 642:also appear in 523: 492:. Then, a deep 416: 381:ancient Olympic 265:early Christian 248:decline of Rome 135: 12: 11: 5: 6836: 6826: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6663: 6661: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6552: 6550: 6546: 6545: 6542: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6367: 6365: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6228:Pomponius Mela 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5963:Aelius Donatus 5959: 5957: 5948: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5934: 5933: 5931:Ecclesiastical 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5885: 5880: 5874: 5872: 5866: 5865: 5863: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5786: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5775: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5672:Toys and games 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5643: 5642: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5566: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5518: 5516: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5485: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5454: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5396: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5344: 5342: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5283: 5281: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5212:Vigintisexviri 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5172:Cursus honorum 5169: 5164: 5158: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5110: 5108: 5102: 5101: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5030: 5028: 5022: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4985: 4984: 4983: 4978: 4971:Western Empire 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4947: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4929: 4928: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4896: 4891: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4873: 4872: 4865: 4858: 4850: 4843: 4842: 4829: 4804: 4798: 4783: 4777: 4762: 4756: 4741: 4735: 4720: 4714: 4699: 4693: 4678: 4672: 4657: 4626: 4620: 4605: 4594: 4569: 4563: 4548: 4542: 4527: 4517:(2): 220–240. 4502: 4496: 4481: 4475: 4460: 4449: 4438: 4432: 4417: 4407:(1): 105–165. 4392: 4386: 4371: 4365: 4350: 4340:(7): 145–156. 4325: 4319: 4304: 4298: 4283: 4271: 4265: 4250: 4234: 4201: 4195: 4180: 4174: 4159: 4146: 4120: 4114: 4099: 4073:(3): 364–407. 4058: 4052: 4037: 4031: 4016: 4003: 3997: 3982: 3971: 3948: 3940: 3922:(1): 163–173. 3907: 3864: 3838:(2): 256–292. 3823: 3817: 3802: 3765: 3748: 3742: 3727: 3694: 3688: 3673: 3655:(1): 225–249. 3640: 3619: 3609: 3598: 3573: 3567: 3546: 3501: 3495: 3480: 3474: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3442: 3440:, p. 266. 3430: 3428:, p. 263. 3418: 3416:, p. 262. 3406: 3404:, p. 193. 3394: 3392:, p. 332. 3382: 3380:, p. 196. 3370: 3368:, p. 270. 3358: 3356:, p. 269. 3346: 3344:, p. 268. 3334: 3332:, p. 331. 3322: 3320:, p. 267. 3310: 3298: 3296:, p. 282. 3286: 3284:, p. 472. 3274: 3272:, p. 264. 3257: 3245: 3233: 3231:, p. 456. 3221: 3209: 3197: 3182: 3170: 3158: 3156:, p. 195. 3141: 3129: 3127:, p. 327. 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 3066: 3064:, p. 185. 3049: 3034: 3022: 3003: 3001:, p. 151. 2999:Wiedemann 2014 2991: 2979: 2967: 2965:, p. 239. 2955: 2943: 2928: 2907: 2895: 2893:, pp. 15. 2883: 2871: 2869:, p. 132. 2856: 2844: 2832: 2817: 2805: 2793: 2791:, p. 235. 2781: 2779:, p. 179. 2769: 2757: 2755:, p. 116. 2745: 2723: 2711: 2709:, p. 114. 2699: 2687: 2685:, p. 547. 2675: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2637:, p. 307. 2627: 2609: 2594: 2576: 2554: 2552:, p. 101. 2537: 2535:, p. 326. 2525: 2523:, p. 125. 2513: 2511:, p. 124. 2501: 2479: 2467: 2465:, p. 231. 2452: 2450:, p. 221. 2440: 2438:, p. 219. 2428: 2406: 2404:, p. 159. 2394: 2392:, p. 228. 2377: 2365: 2353: 2341: 2329: 2317: 2305: 2293: 2291:, p. 149. 2281: 2279:, p. 172. 2269: 2267:, p. 167. 2257: 2245: 2243:, p. 105. 2233: 2231:, p. 104. 2221: 2209: 2207:, p. 103. 2197: 2195:, p. 272. 2185: 2183:, p. 134. 2173: 2161: 2149: 2137: 2135:, p. 211. 2125: 2123:, p. 207. 2113: 2111:, p. 199. 2101: 2089: 2077: 2075:, p. 102. 2062: 2050: 2029: 2017: 2005: 2003:, p. 206. 1988: 1964: 1942: 1920: 1918:, p. 103. 1905: 1903:, p. 203. 1890: 1869: 1848: 1846:, p. 202. 1829: 1817: 1815:, p. 204. 1798: 1786: 1784:, p. 223. 1774: 1772:, p. 222. 1759: 1757:, p. 366. 1747: 1735: 1732:CIL IV. 03494. 1724: 1707: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1681: 1678: 1511: 1508: 1500:spindle whorls 1419:chariot racing 1411:Constantinople 1225:Constantinople 1212: 1209: 1167:words such as 1009: 1006: 936: 931: 876: 871: 849:Pseudo-Ovidian 833:, the emperor 764: 761: 719:or six-leaved 668:, in his work 522: 519: 431:Romano-British 415: 412: 394:Pater familias 387:Pater familias 324:smear campaign 284:Roman emperors 261:De Aleatoribus 134: 131: 125:respectively. 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6835: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6662: 6653: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6118:Julius Paulus 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6053:Fabius Pictor 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5952: 5949: 5945: 5939: 5936: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5871: 5867: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5790:Amphitheatres 5788: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5779: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5563: 5559: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5527:Deforestation 5525: 5523: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5477:Siege engines 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5459: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5446: 5443: 5442: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5410:Establishment 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5343: 5341:Extraordinary 5339: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5327:Promagistrate 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5284: 5282: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5269: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5114:Twelve Tables 5112: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5023: 5011: 5008: 5007: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4990: 4989: 4986: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4934: 4931: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4901: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4878: 4871: 4866: 4864: 4859: 4857: 4852: 4851: 4848: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4805: 4801: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4771:. Routledge. 4770: 4769: 4763: 4759: 4753: 4749: 4748: 4742: 4738: 4732: 4728: 4727: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4707: 4706: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4666:. McFarland. 4665: 4664: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4613: 4612: 4606: 4597: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4566: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4488: 4482: 4478: 4472: 4468: 4467: 4461: 4457: 4456: 4450: 4446: 4445: 4439: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4383: 4379: 4378: 4372: 4368: 4362: 4358: 4357: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4305: 4301: 4295: 4291: 4290: 4284: 4280: 4279: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4259:. CUA Press. 4258: 4257: 4251: 4247: 4240: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4192: 4188: 4187: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4167: 4166: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4049: 4045: 4044: 4038: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4023: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4004: 4000: 3994: 3990: 3989: 3983: 3974: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3820: 3814: 3810: 3809: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3772: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3735: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3691: 3685: 3681: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3641: 3638:on 2006-08-26 3634: 3627: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3616: 3610: 3601: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3512:(11): 76–82. 3511: 3507: 3502: 3498: 3492: 3488: 3487: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3439: 3438:Dolansky 2012 3434: 3427: 3426:Dolansky 2012 3422: 3415: 3414:Dolansky 2012 3410: 3403: 3398: 3391: 3386: 3379: 3374: 3367: 3366:Dolansky 2012 3362: 3355: 3354:Dolansky 2012 3350: 3343: 3342:Dolansky 2012 3338: 3331: 3326: 3319: 3318:Dolansky 2012 3314: 3307: 3306:Dolansky 2012 3302: 3295: 3294:Dolansky 2012 3290: 3283: 3282:Elderkin 2009 3278: 3271: 3270:Dolansky 2012 3266: 3264: 3262: 3255:, p. 43. 3254: 3249: 3243:, p. 23. 3242: 3237: 3230: 3229:Elderkin 2009 3225: 3218: 3213: 3206: 3201: 3195:, p. 10. 3194: 3189: 3187: 3179: 3174: 3167: 3162: 3155: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3139:, p. 49. 3138: 3133: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3112:, p. 76. 3111: 3106: 3100:, p. 37. 3099: 3094: 3088:, p. 11. 3087: 3086:Williams 2003 3082: 3075: 3070: 3063: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3047:, p. 49. 3046: 3041: 3039: 3031: 3026: 3019: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3000: 2995: 2989:, p. 89. 2988: 2983: 2976: 2971: 2964: 2959: 2953:, p. 60. 2952: 2947: 2941:, p. 55. 2940: 2935: 2933: 2926: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2905:, p. 53. 2904: 2899: 2892: 2887: 2880: 2875: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2853: 2848: 2841: 2836: 2830:, p. 30. 2829: 2824: 2822: 2815:, p. 10. 2814: 2809: 2802: 2801:de Voogt 2019 2797: 2790: 2785: 2778: 2773: 2767:, p. 24. 2766: 2761: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2738: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2720: 2715: 2708: 2703: 2697:, p. 60. 2696: 2691: 2684: 2679: 2672: 2667: 2661:, p. 94. 2660: 2655: 2649:, p. 23. 2648: 2643: 2636: 2631: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2607:, p. 34. 2606: 2601: 2599: 2591: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2551: 2550:Lanciani 1892 2546: 2544: 2542: 2534: 2529: 2522: 2521:Dolansky 2016 2517: 2510: 2509:Dolansky 2016 2505: 2498: 2494: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2477:, p. 29. 2476: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2457: 2449: 2444: 2437: 2432: 2425: 2421: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2403: 2398: 2391: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2375:, p. 19. 2374: 2369: 2363:, p. 60. 2362: 2357: 2351:, p. 58. 2350: 2345: 2339:, p. 63. 2338: 2333: 2327:, p. 62. 2326: 2321: 2314: 2309: 2303:, p. 70. 2302: 2297: 2290: 2285: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2261: 2254: 2249: 2242: 2237: 2230: 2225: 2218: 2213: 2206: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2182: 2177: 2170: 2165: 2158: 2153: 2146: 2141: 2134: 2129: 2122: 2117: 2110: 2105: 2099:, p. 87. 2098: 2093: 2086: 2081: 2074: 2073:Lanciani 1892 2069: 2067: 2060:, p. 76. 2059: 2054: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2033: 2026: 2021: 2014: 2009: 2002: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1978: 1974: 1968: 1961: 1957: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1939: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1917: 1916:Lanciani 1892 1912: 1910: 1902: 1897: 1895: 1888: 1884: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1845: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1826: 1821: 1814: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1803: 1796:, p. 98. 1795: 1794:Lanciani 1892 1790: 1783: 1778: 1771: 1766: 1764: 1756: 1751: 1744: 1743:Lanciani 1892 1739: 1733: 1728: 1722:, p. 24. 1721: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1595:such as wide 1594: 1589: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1521: 1516: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478:Rota Fortunae 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1372:wooden swords 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1328:spinning tops 1325: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1208: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1132: 1126: 1120: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1027: 1019: 1014: 1005: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 977: 973: 972:Twelve Points 969: 965: 960: 954: 945: 941: 935: 930: 927: 922: 918: 914: 913:Julius Pollux 910: 905: 900: 896: 892: 888: 883: 875: 870: 867: 862: 855: 850: 846: 841: 836: 831: 830: 824: 820: 816: 812: 804: 799: 795: 792: 788: 784: 779: 769: 760: 757: 751: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 705: 703: 699: 694: 688: 687: 680: 674: 673: 667: 662: 661: 655: 650: 645: 640: 634: 628: 622: 619: 613: 606: 600: 595: 590: 584: 577: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 542: 537: 527: 518: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 495: 491: 487: 486:cortical bone 483: 478: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 441: 436: 432: 428: 426: 422: 411: 408: 407: 400: 395: 389: 388: 382: 377: 371: 365: 360: 356: 352: 351:Julius Paulus 348: 344: 339: 333: 327: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 304: 303: 302:De arte aleae 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 276: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 253: 249: 245: 240: 234: 229: 224: 221: 215: 210: 206: 202: 198: 193: 189: 185: 179: 174: 167: 163: 158: 150: 143: 139: 130: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 107: 106: 99: 98: 91: 90:Terni lapilli 85: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 43:wooden swords 40: 36: 29: 27: 20: 16: 6732:Institutions 6596:Leptis Magna 6549:Major cities 6456:Philostratus 6243:Quadrigarius 6063:Rufus Festus 5926:Contemporary 5671: 5647:Romanization 5570:Architecture 5177:Collegiality 5026:Constitution 4877:Ancient Rome 4837: 4819:(6): 89–99. 4816: 4812: 4788: 4767: 4750:. ABC-CLIO. 4746: 4725: 4704: 4683: 4662: 4634: 4610: 4599:, retrieved 4577: 4553: 4532: 4514: 4510: 4486: 4465: 4454: 4443: 4422: 4404: 4400: 4376: 4355: 4337: 4333: 4313:. Raintree. 4309: 4288: 4277: 4255: 4245: 4213: 4209: 4185: 4164: 4154: 4140:, retrieved 4128: 4104: 4070: 4066: 4042: 4021: 4011: 3991:. ABC-CLIO. 3987: 3976:, retrieved 3953: 3944: 3919: 3915: 3876: 3872: 3835: 3831: 3807: 3770: 3752: 3732: 3706: 3702: 3678: 3652: 3648: 3633:the original 3624: 3614: 3603:, retrieved 3581: 3550: 3509: 3505: 3485: 3456: 3447:Bibliography 3433: 3421: 3409: 3397: 3385: 3373: 3361: 3349: 3337: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3289: 3277: 3248: 3236: 3224: 3212: 3207:, p. 5. 3200: 3180:, p. 8. 3173: 3168:, p. 4. 3161: 3137:Mackley 2016 3132: 3105: 3093: 3081: 3069: 3045:Roberts 2009 3025: 3014: 3006: 2994: 2982: 2970: 2958: 2951:Heimann 2014 2946: 2939:Heimann 2014 2920:Ars Amatoria 2918: 2910: 2903:Heimann 2014 2898: 2886: 2874: 2847: 2835: 2813:Lapidge 2005 2808: 2796: 2784: 2772: 2760: 2748: 2734: 2726: 2714: 2702: 2690: 2678: 2666: 2654: 2642: 2630: 2612: 2605:Behling 2010 2587: 2579: 2567:Gallieni Duo 2565: 2557: 2528: 2516: 2504: 2490: 2482: 2475:Behling 2010 2470: 2463:Cobbett 2008 2448:Cobbett 2008 2443: 2436:Cobbett 2008 2431: 2417: 2409: 2397: 2390:Cobbett 2008 2373:Bayless 2005 2368: 2356: 2344: 2337:Allison 1999 2332: 2325:Allison 1999 2320: 2308: 2296: 2284: 2272: 2260: 2248: 2236: 2224: 2219:, p. 7. 2212: 2200: 2188: 2176: 2164: 2152: 2140: 2128: 2116: 2104: 2092: 2080: 2053: 2040: 2032: 2020: 2013:Fleiner 2020 2008: 1980:. Retrieved 1976: 1967: 1953: 1945: 1931: 1923: 1880: 1872: 1859: 1851: 1820: 1789: 1777: 1750: 1738: 1727: 1699: 1643: 1616: 1590: 1524: 1519: 1504:loom weights 1484: 1423: 1400: 1322: 1317: 1305: 1272:pomegranates 1229: 1205:Romanization 1176: 1172: 1168: 1148: 1137: 1096: 1089:Adriatic Sea 1079: 1067: 1062: 1036:trade routes 1022: 1017: 975: 971: 968:Twelve Signs 967: 964:Twelve Lines 963: 949: 943: 934:Twelve Lines 933: 908: 887:knucklebones 878: 873: 866:Lucius Verus 808: 774: 725:Denbighshire 706: 623: 566: 540: 532: 515:Lower Danube 479: 429: 417: 399:Slave owners 376:lex Publicia 364:lex Cornelia 355:Roman jurist 328: 307: 277: 260: 225: 209:prostitution 182: 32: 23: 15: 6823:Toy culture 6727:Geographers 6411:Dioscorides 6391:Cassius Dio 6013:Cassiodorus 5916:Renaissance 5522:Agriculture 5494:Auxiliaries 5435:Engineering 5272:Magistrates 5124:Citizenship 5119:Mos maiorum 5054:Late Empire 3709:: 219–235. 2987:Harvey 2016 2891:Berger 2004 2879:Markel 2004 2840:Austin 1935 2695:Steele 2009 2671:Casson 2015 2647:Lavers 2009 2617:Pseudo-Ovid 2584:Pseudo-Ovid 2253:Ayalon 2005 2217:Ayalon 2005 2058:Austin 1935 1825:Potter 2008 1755:France 1902 1489:. For most 1263:Crepitacula 1241:crepitacula 1151:Scandinavia 1077:function. 1053:tic-tac-toe 709:Richborough 676:, the word 672:Etymologiae 521:Dice towers 499:Netherlands 406:mos maiorum 338:lex Alearia 332:lex Talaria 220:susceptores 115:tic-tac-toe 79:Legislation 6807:Categories 6616:Mediolanum 6556:Alexandria 6521:Themistius 6486:Porphyrius 6313:Tertullian 6248:Quintilian 6238:Propertius 6133:Lactantius 6083:Fulgentius 6018:Censorinus 5840:Sanitation 5825:Metallurgy 5782:Technology 5747:Demography 5695:Patricians 5662:Spectacles 5620:Literature 5615:Hairstyles 5452:Technology 5202:Praefectus 5154:Government 5144:Litigation 5129:Auctoritas 5074:Centuriate 4961:Principate 4956:Pax Romana 4916:Foundation 4601:2024-04-18 4142:2024-05-26 3978:2024-04-20 3879:(7): 134. 3605:2024-06-01 3402:Joska 2015 3378:Joska 2015 3241:Nardo 2015 3205:Dasen 2019 3193:Dasen 2019 3178:Dasen 2019 3166:Dasen 2019 3154:Joska 2015 3098:Madej 2016 3016:Saturnalia 2635:Grant 2010 2241:Greep 2022 2229:Greep 2022 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Toys and games in ancient Rome

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