1561:
1684:
246:
54:
1670:
921:
1176:
1266:). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement caused by tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal benchmark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to
1634:, but research published in 2000 concluded that the majority of this likely was wave run-up because of the steep coastal topography. However, much of this storm surge was likely due to Mahina's extreme intensity, as computer modeling required an intensity of 880 millibars (26 inHg) (the same intensity as the lowest recorded pressure from the storm) to produce the recorded storm surge. In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by
1293:
forward motion, its track, and maximum sustained winds. Local topography, bay and river orientation, depth of the sea bottom, astronomical tides, as well as other physical features, are taken into account in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin. Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S. Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin; for instance, Hurricane
Katrina SLOSH model runs used both the
1243:(HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photographs and written descriptions of the marks. HWMs denote the location and elevation of floodwaters from a storm event. When HWMs are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWMs on land are referenced to a
1698:
1331:
1143:, the water depth reaches 91 metres (299 ft) 3 km (1.9 mi) offshore, and 180 m (590 ft) 7 km (4.3 mi) out. This is relatively steep and deep; storm surge is not as great but the waves are larger compared to the west coast of Florida. Conversely, on the Gulf side of Florida, the edge of the Floridian Plateau can lie more than 160 kilometres (99 mi) offshore.
1553:
1223:. Water levels rose significantly and remained as high as 8 feet (2.4 m) above normal in numerous locations throughout the Chesapeake for a number of days as water was continually built-up inside the estuary from the onshore winds and freshwater rains flowing into the bay. In many locations, water levels were shy of records by only 0.1 feet (3 cm).
1102:
for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water moving toward the shore has considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line, which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.
1060:, which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore and to decrease at the upwind shore. Intuitively, this is caused by the storm blowing the water toward one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the
2823:
1093:, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.
1308:
To allow for track or forecast uncertainties, usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs or
Maximum of Maximums. For hurricane evacuation studies, a family of storms with representative tracks for the region, and varying intensity, eye diameter, and
1171:
The size of the storm also affects the surge height; this is due to the storm's area not being proportional to its perimeter. If a storm doubles in diameter, its perimeter also doubles, but its area quadruples. As there is proportionally less perimeter for the surge to dissipate to, the surge height
1231:
Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water. Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone. This was first tested
1101:
The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible
1509:
Another modern development (in use in the
Netherlands) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures, restrained in position by vertical pylons. Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while
1158:
The difference is due to how much flow area the storm surge can dissipate to. In deeper water, there is more area and a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. On a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge has less room to disperse and is driven ashore by the wind forces of the
1292:
The U.S. National
Hurricane Center forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model, which is an abbreviation for Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes. The model is accurate to within 20 percent. SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone, storm size, the cyclone's
1076:
and fall in regions of high atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a 10 mm (0.39 in) increase in sea level for every
1199:
In North
America, extratropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts, and north of 31°N on the Atlantic Coast. Coasts with sea ice may experience an "ice tsunami" causing significant damage inland. Extratropical storm surges may be possible further south for the
1285:
2830:
1195:
Similar to tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones cause an offshore rise of water. However, unlike most tropical cyclone storm surges, extratropical cyclones can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time, depending on the system.
1147:, lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland, is very shallow with depths between 0.3 m (0.98 ft) and 2 m (6.6 ft). These shallow areas are subject to higher storm surges with smaller waves. Other shallow areas include much of the
1317:, for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies (HES) website. They include coastal county maps, shaded to identify the minimum category of hurricane that will result in flooding, in each area of the county.
1454:
Although meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms, in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high, there are specific storm surge warnings. These have been implemented, for instance, in the
1132:, with deep water relatively close to the shoreline, tends to produce a lower surge but higher and more powerful waves. A wide shelf, with shallower water, tends to produce a higher storm surge with relatively smaller waves.
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1309:
speed are modeled to produce worst-case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence. The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs. These studies have been completed by the
1127:
In addition to the above processes, storm surge and wave heights on shore are also affected by the flow of water over the underlying topography, i.e. the shape and depth of the ocean floor and coastal area. A narrow
3011:
Finkl, Charles W. Jnr (1994). "Disaster
Mitigation in the South Atlantic Coastal Zone (SACZ): A Prodrome for Mapping Hazards and Coastal Land Systems Using the Example of Urban Subtropical Southeastern Florida".
1427:
Storm surge is responsible for significant property damage and loss of life as part of cyclones. Storm surge both destroys built infrastructure, like roads and undermines foundations and building structures.
1162:
The topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas, where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level, are at particular risk from storm surge inundation.
1118:
can quickly flood streams and rivers. This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing downstream into the estuary.
1219:
off the southeast U.S. coast. During the event, winds from the east were present along the northern periphery of the low-pressure center for a number of days, forcing water into locations such as
2052:
1247:(a reference coordinate system). During the evaluation, HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; in the U.S., only HWMs evaluated as "excellent" are used by the
1081:(hPa) drop in atmospheric pressure. For example, a major storm with a 100 millibar pressure drop would be expected to have a 1.0 m (3.3 ft) water level rise from the pressure effect.
2596:
1064:. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The surge will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide.
3124:
Hebert, P.J.; Jerrell, J.; Mayfield, M. (1995). "The
Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Hurricanes of This Century (and other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)".
3128:. Coral Gables, Fla., In: Tait, Lawrence, (Ed.) Hurricanes...Different Faces In Different Places, (proceedings) 17th Annual National Hurricane Conference, Atlantic City, N.J.: 10–50.
2792:
1778:
Yin, Jianjun, et al. "Response of Storm-Related
Extreme Sea Level along the US Atlantic Coast to Combined Weather and Climate Forcing". Journal of Climate 33.9 (2020): 3745–3769.
1584:. The low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones. The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by
3029:
Gornitz, V.; R.C. Daniels; T.W. White; K.R. Birdwell (1994). "The development of a coastal risk assessment database: Vulnerability to sea level rise in the U.S. southeast".
1305:
basin, for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall. The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water, or MEOW, that occurred at each location.
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2623:
1114:. Hurricanes may dump as much as 12 in (300 mm) of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result,
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3452:
2245:
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Other soft adaptation methods can include changing structures so that they are elevated to avoid flooding directly, or increasing natural protections like
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Unexpected flooding in estuaries and coastal areas can catch populations unprepared, causing loss of life. The deadliest storm surge on record was the
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1911:
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2011:
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1009:, and the atmospheric pressure drop due to the storm. There is a suggestion that climate change may be increasing the hazard of storm surges.
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in 2005. These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged and can accurately measure the height of water above them.
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2205:
1005:. Other factors affecting storm surge severity include the shallowness and orientation of the water body in the storm path, the timing of
3518:
2789:
224:
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1560:
860:
148:
1478:). They are open and allow free passage, but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the
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1532:
Water can also be sucked away from shore prior to a storm surge. This was the case on the western
Florida coast in 2017, just before
1524:
For mainland areas, storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward, rather than approaching from landward.
274:
198:
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The
Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Hurricanes of This Century (and other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)
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also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low-lying elevations, provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion.
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1650:
in 1969, with a storm tide of 24.6 feet (7.50 m), also at Pass Christian. A storm surge of 14 feet (4.27 m) occurred in
1259:
216:
204:
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2355:
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1036:, improving coastal construction practices and building social strategies such as early warning, education and evacuation plans.
208:
2706:"Solar System Exploration: Science & Technology: Science Features: Remembering Katrina – Learning and Predicting the Future"
3946:
3405:. NOAA PA 91001: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service. p. 36.
2147:
1211:
November 9–13, 2009, marked a significant extratropical storm surge event on the United States east coast when the remnants of
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2683:
1790:"Impact of climate change on New York City's coastal flood hazard: Increasing flood heights from the preindustrial to 2300 CE"
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1864:
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173:
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105:
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2016:
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143:
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1467:. Similarly educating coastal communities and developing local evacuation plans can reduce the relative impact on people.
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2859:
2241:
1314:
850:
239:
1367:
3175:
Jelesnianski, Chester P.; Jye Chen; Wilson A. Shaffer (1992). "SLOSH: Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes".
907:
855:
193:
100:
2234:
2984:
2485:
1414:
949:
3003:
2960:
Anthes, Richard A. (1982). "Tropical Cyclones; Their Evolution, Structure and Effects, Meteorological Monographs".
1374:
837:
3231:
Newman, C.J.; BR Jarvinen; CJ McAdie; JD Elms (1993). "Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871–1992".
3076:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau. pp. 1–139. Technical Paper No. 48. Archived from
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2333:
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The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low
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2078:
1201:
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National Hurricane Center; Florida Department of Community Affairs, Division of Emergency Management (1995).
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at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.
735:
267:
115:
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Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a
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on August 29, 2005, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 28 feet (8.53 m) in southern
1363:
3504:
1615:, drove a devastating surge ashore; between 6,000 and 12,000 people died, making it the deadliest
994:. It is measured as the rise in water level above the normal tidal level, and does not include waves.
897:
2180:"Hurricane Rita Surge Data, Southwestern Louisiana and Southeastern Texas, September to November 2005"
1438:
Additionally, storm surge can cause or transform human-utilized land through other processes, hurting
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3232:
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1205:
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902:
120:
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factor contributing to a storm surge is high-speed wind pushing water towards the coast over a long
2514:
1689:
1604:
1565:
260:
250:
3167:
1471:
1341:
1020:, storm surge is expected to cause more risk to coastal populations. Communities and governments
892:
186:
153:
138:
3247:, Florida: National Climatic Data Center in cooperation with the National Hurricane Center: 193.
3332:
2856:"Tropical Cyclone Mahina: Bid to have deadly March 1899 weather event upgraded in record books"
2855:
2512:"NWS StormReady Program, Weather Safety, Disaster, Hurricane, Tornado, Tsunami, Flash Flood..."
1731:
761:
70:
3324:
3252:
3244:
3133:
2753:"Philippines typhoon dead buried in mass grave in hard-hit Tacloban as aid begins to pour in"
2709:
1446:, hurting wildlife habitat, and spreading chemical or other contaminants from human storage.
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75:
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1967:
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mostly during the wintertime, when extratropical cyclones affect the coast, such as in the
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874:
472:
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8:
3496:
2646:"Irma's powerful winds cause eerie retreat of ocean waters, stranding manatees and boats"
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3164:
SPLASH (Special Program To List Amplitudes of Surges From Hurricanes) I. Landfall Storms
3051:
2912:
1971:
1805:
3410:
3357:
3311:
3202:
3147:
Jarvinen, B.R.; Lawrence, M.B. (1985). "An evaluation of the SLOSH storm-surge model".
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1985:
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1002:
987:
771:
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Murty, T. S.; Flather, R. A. (1994). "Impact of Storm Surges in the Bay of Bengal".
2154:
1989:
3827:
3821:
3623:
3527:
3349:
3303:
3055:
2824:"How high was the storm surge from Tropical Cyclone Mahina? North Queensland, 1899"
2153:. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary. Archived from
1975:
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45:
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53:
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Siddiqui, Zubair A. (April 2009). "Storm surge forecasting for the Arabian Sea".
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2003:
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made landfall, uncovering land usually underwater. This phenomenon is known as a
1240:
1175:
1090:
842:
617:
320:
3931:
3679:
3595:
3459: (archived September 29, 2007) from NIRAPAD disaster response organisation.
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2303:
2073:
1794:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1623:
1600:
in 2013. and resulted in economic losses estimated at $ 14 billion (USD).
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1244:
1233:
1220:
1148:
1115:
1017:
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925:
832:
666:
3383:
Simpson, R.H. (1971). "A Proposed Scale for Ranking Hurricanes by Intensity".
3307:
3925:
3890:
3688:
3278:
2766:"After Disasters Like Typhoon Haiyan, Calculating Death Toll Often Difficult"
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The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899
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1179:
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1025:
979:
788:
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688:
637:
524:
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3170:, Maryland: National Weather Service Systems Development Office. p. 56.
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Haiyan brought immense destruction, but hope is returning to the Philippines
1850:
Collins, M.; Sutherland, M.; Bouwer, L.; Cheong, S.-M.; et al. (2019).
1814:
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3807:
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UK storm surge model outputs and real-time tide gauge information from the
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1980:
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827:
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673:
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392:
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3216:
Lake Okeechobee Storm Surge Atlas for 17.5' & 21.5' Lake Elevations
2411:
2329:
1726:
1355: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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3758:
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3273:
Sheets, Robert C. (1995). "Stormy Weather". In Tait, Lawrence (ed.).
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2179:
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817:
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607:
597:
509:
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421:
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355:
2043:"The 'Ice Tsunami' That Buried a Whole Herd of Weird Arctic Mammals"
1330:
3860:
3848:
3753:
3653:
3186:
Environmental Geology Series, West Palm Beach Sheet; Map Series 101
3038:
Granthem, K. N. (1953-10-01). "Wave Run-up on Sloping Structures".
2910:
1514:
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612:
2114:
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3396:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 308.
3230:
3223:
3102:
2911:
Knabb, Richard D; Rhome, Jamie R.; Brown, Daniel P (2005-12-20).
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778:
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504:
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343:
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3487:
North Sea Flood of 1953, includes images, video, and animations.
3477:
2538:
3440:
3428:. Belle Glade, Florida: Glades Historical Society. p. 204.
3275:
Hurricanes... Different Faces In Different Places (Proceedings)
2913:"Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina: 23–30 August 2005"
2821:
2483:
1954:
Irish, Jennifer L.; Resio, Donald T.; Ratcliff, Jay J. (2008).
1503:
1495:
1239:
After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map
1012:
Some theorize that as extreme weather becomes more intense and
580:
568:
563:
330:
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1596:(Yolanda), which killed more than 6,000 people in the central
1592:
in May 2008. The next deadliest in this century was caused by
3674:
3628:
3123:
3098:
2235:"High Water Mark Collection for Hurricane Katrina in Alabama"
1646:. Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from
1460:
783:
720:
382:
375:
2889:. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Archived from
2379:
2353:
3811:
2488:. New Jersey Office of Emergency Management. Archived from
1642:, with a storm surge height of 27.8 feet (8.47 m) in
1552:
1518:
1284:
1045:
1006:
800:
700:
683:
661:
587:
27:
Rise of water associated with a low-pressure weather system
3526:
3354:
10.1175/1520-0493(1970)098<0293:TAHSO>2.3.CO;2
986:-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with
2268:
795:
3179:. Silver Spring, Maryland: National Weather Service: 71.
1852:"Chapter 6: Extremes, Abrupt Changes and Managing Risks"
2558:
1580:, which killed up to 500,000 people in the area of the
3146:
2620:"Shorelines drained in eerie effect of Hurricane Irma"
2206:"U20-001-01-Ti: HOBO Water Level Logger Specification"
2177:
1474:
is the construction of dams and storm-surge barriers (
3426:
Okeechobee Hurricane; Killer Storms in the Everglades
3322:
2384:. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Archived from
2358:. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Archived from
2067:
3441:
European Space Agency storm Surge Project home pages
3385:
Minutes of the Eighth NOAA, NWS Hurricane Conference
2993:
2979:. Fort Collins, Colorado: ASTeR Press. p. 158.
1665:
1110:
The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in
1044:
At least five processes can be involved in altering
3463:
NOAA NWS National Hurricane Center storm surge page
3097:. NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC. Vol. 18.
3087:
2565:
Floating houses built to survive Netherlands floods
2321:
2306:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
2788:Yap, Karl Lester M.; Heath, Michael (2013-11-12).
2532:
2457:
2431:
1953:
2477:
1084:
3923:
3192:, Florida: Florida Bureau of Geology. p. 1.
2887:"Hurricane Katrina Flood Recovery (Mississippi)"
2829:. Emergency Management Australia. Archived from
2462:(in Spanish). Gobierno de España. Archived from
2327:
2228:
2226:
1956:"The Influence of Storm Size on Hurricane Surge"
1863:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_SROCC2019 (
1626:, estimated at almost 44 feet (13.41 m) at
1056:Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as
3401:United States National Weather Service (1993).
3150:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
2963:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
2539:National Flood Risk Systems Team (2007-04-14).
2405:
2399:
2278:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2262:
2232:
2086:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2075:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2012:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
3226:: Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council.
3040:Transactions of the American Geophysical Union
2815:
2509:
2484:Stevens Institute of Technology (2008-08-10).
2425:
1909:"Characteristics of the Hurricane Storm Surge"
1849:
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3512:
3277:. 17th Annual National Hurricane Conference.
2940:
2223:
943:
268:
3323:Simpson, R.H.; Arnold L. Sugg (1970-04-01).
3196:
3161:
3070:Characteristics of the Hurricane Storm Surge
2806:
2460:"Sistema de previsión del mar a corto plazo"
1920:
1576:The deadliest storm surge on record was the
2617:
2373:
1588:, which killed more than 138,000 people in
1470:A prophylactic method introduced after the
1122:
3519:
3505:
2994:Dunn, Gordon E.; Banner I. Miller (1964).
2904:
1859:
1486:in the Netherlands, which are part of the
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3105:: National Hurricane Center. p. 33.
2643:
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1979:
1823:
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1415:Learn how and when to remove this message
1251:in the post-storm analysis of the surge.
3285:
3166:. NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS TDL-46.
3037:
2822:Jonathan Nott and Matthew Hayne (2000).
2580:
2503:
2451:
1938:
1929:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1283:
1174:
3382:
3325:"The Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1969"
3088:Hebert, Paul J.; Taylor, Glenn (1983).
2347:
2141:
2139:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1190:
14:
3924:
3272:
3066:
2974:
2959:
2790:"Yolanda's Economic Cost P600 billion"
2708:. Solarsystem.nasa.gov. Archived from
2644:Robertson, Linda (11 September 2017).
1787:
1527:
1024:by building hard infrastructure, like
3500:
3492:National Tidal and Sea Level Facility
3403:Hurricane!: A Familiarization Booklet
3010:
2878:
2436:. Government of Spain. Archived from
2380:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2008).
2354:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2008).
2178:U.S. Geological Survey (2006-10-11).
2095:from the original on January 31, 2018
2040:
1556:Elements of a storm tide at high tide
1311:United States Army Corps of Engineers
1051:
3423:
3183:
3126:NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 31
2884:
2853:
2698:
2586:
2356:"National Hurricane Study Home Page"
2301:
2197:
2171:
2136:
2055:from the original on 19 January 2018
1888:
1845:
1843:
1353:adding citations to reliable sources
1324:
2860:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
2847:
2595:. Melbourne, Florida. pp. 1B.
2382:"Jackson County, MS HES surge maps"
2242:Federal Emergency Management Agency
2182:. U.S. Department of the Interior.
2041:Meyer, Robinson (18 January 2018).
1315:Federal Emergency Management Agency
24:
3468:The 1953 English East Coast Floods
2656:from the original on 5 August 2020
2148:"Ernesto: Anatomy of a Storm Tide"
1619:ever to strike the United States.
1226:
1105:
1096:
52:
25:
3958:
3434:
2866:from the original on 2 April 2015
2618:Ray Sanchez (10 September 2017).
2458:Puertos del Estado (1999-03-01).
2432:Ports of the State (1999-03-01).
1840:
3474: (archived February 2, 2009)
3162:Jelesnianski, Chester P (1972).
3033:(Special Issue No. 12): 327–338.
3004:Louisiana State University Press
2022:from the original on 27 May 2023
1960:Journal of Physical Oceanography
1696:
1682:
1668:
1572:'s storm surge in September 2008
1329:
1089:The Earth's rotation causes the
919:
244:
3371:from the original on 2017-11-21
3112:from the original on 2021-05-18
2929:from the original on 2015-10-02
2854:Kerr, Jack (26 December 2014).
2782:
2758:
2755:CBS News. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
2745:
2723:
2668:
2637:
2626:from the original on 2017-09-11
2611:
2599:from the original on 3 May 2015
2589:"Prepare for storm evacuations"
2547:from the original on 2007-05-02
2336:from the original on 2008-10-15
2310:from the original on 2008-06-17
2284:from the original on 2008-09-13
2251:from the original on 2008-08-08
2186:from the original on 2008-09-22
2125:from the original on 2011-05-25
2107:
2034:
1996:
1877:from the original on 2019-12-20
1761:from the original on 2011-05-25
1340:needs additional citations for
2764:Brummitt, Chris (2013-11-13).
2406:Rijkswaterstaat (2008-07-21).
2233:URS Group, Inc. (2006-04-03).
1947:
1781:
1772:
1743:
1085:Effect of the Earth's rotation
13:
1:
3947:Severe weather and convection
2952:
2510:Donna Franklin (2008-08-11).
2434:"Storm surge forecast system"
2408:"Storm Surge Warning Service"
2004:"Introduction to Storm Surge"
1717:Ishiguro Storm Surge Computer
1463:, the United States, and the
1449:
1166:
3942:Tropical cyclone meteorology
3881:Potentially hazardous object
3453:Data on Bangladesh disasters
3177:NOAA Technical Report NWS 48
2541:"Current Flooding Situation"
2486:"Storm Surge Warning System"
2208:. Onset Corp. Archived from
1280:Tropical cyclone forecasting
1039:
1028:, soft infrastructure, like
251:Tropical cyclones portal
32:Storm surge (disambiguation)
7:
3199:Journal of Coastal Research
3031:Journal of Coastal Research
3014:Journal of Coastal Research
1661:
1068:Atmospheric pressure effect
847:Severe weather terminology
309:Temperate and polar seasons
10:
3963:
3424:Will, Lawrence E. (1978).
2587:Read, Matt (27 May 2010).
2330:"Slosh Data... what is it"
2079:"Superstorm of March 1993"
1320:
1277:
1139:on the southeast coast of
29:
3873:
3836:
3795:
3777:
3746:
3739:
3707:
3673:
3666:
3644:
3614:
3580:
3547:
3538:
3308:10.1080/01490410902869524
3241:National Hurricane Center
2920:National Hurricane Center
2328:George Sambataro (2008).
2270:National Hurricane Center
1609:Category 4 hurricane
1566:Bolivar Peninsula (Texas)
1564:Total destruction of the
1249:National Hurricane Center
1206:1993 Storm of the Century
990:weather systems, such as
3415:: CS1 maint: location (
3392:Tannehill, I.R. (1956).
3138:: CS1 maint: location (
2515:National Weather Service
1737:
1690:Tropical cyclones portal
1605:1900 Galveston hurricane
1313:, under contract to the
1273:
1123:Sea depth and topography
203:Lists of retired names:
199:List of historical names
133:Climatology and tracking
3060:10.1029/tr034i005p00720
2970:(41). Ephrata, PA: 208.
2803:. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
2779:. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
2575:San Francisco Chronicle
2332:. PC Weather Products.
1815:10.1073/pnas.1703568114
1472:North Sea flood of 1953
187:Tropical cyclone naming
3333:Monthly Weather Review
3281:, N.J. pp. 52–62.
3260:Cite journal requires
2742:. Retrieved 2016-04-11
2543:. Environment Agency.
2304:"SLOSH Model Coverage"
2115:"Storm Surge Overview"
1751:"Storm Surge Overview"
1732:Tsunami-proof building
1573:
1557:
1289:
1288:Example of a SLOSH run
1187:
1182:storm surge damage in
1172:ends up being higher.
1048:levels during storms.
908:Tropical cyclone terms
144:Climate change effects
71:Central dense overcast
57:
3067:Harris, D.L. (1963).
2975:Cotton, W.R. (1990).
2801:BusinessMirror.com.ph
2751:CBS/AP (2013-11-14).
1981:10.1175/2008JPO3727.1
1563:
1555:
1548:Historic storm surges
1287:
1178:
515:Extratropical cyclone
439:Air-mass thunderstorm
56:
2775:. Associated Press,
1870:. pp. 589–655.
1542:negative storm surge
1500:Saint Petersburg Dam
1349:improve this article
1268:mean sea level (MSL)
1191:Extratropical storms
1074:atmospheric pressure
875:Weather modification
473:Anticyclonic tornado
174:Rainfall climatology
169:Rainfall forecasting
106:Warnings and watches
30:For other uses, see
3346:1970MWRv...98..293S
3300:2009MarGe..32..199S
3184:Lane, E.D. (1981).
3052:1953TrAGU..34..720G
2996:Atlantic Hurricanes
2885:FEMA (2006-05-30).
2302:NOAA (1999-04-19).
1972:2008JPO....38.2003I
1806:2017PNAS..11411861G
1800:(45): 11861–11866.
1788:Garner, AJ (2017).
1538:reverse storm surge
1528:Reverse storm surge
1480:Oosterscheldekering
1444:saltwater intrusion
870:Weather forecasting
706:Rain and snow mixed
532:Subtropical cyclone
40:Part of a series on
3532:list by death toll
3483:2019-05-02 at the
3446:2021-05-03 at the
2799:. Bloomberg News,
2795:2014-08-12 at the
2771:2013-11-13 at the
2735:2016-04-03 at the
2686:on 2 February 2018
2570:2007-05-24 at the
2204:Automated (2008).
2146:John Boon (2007).
1914:2013-05-16 at the
1578:1970 Bhola cyclone
1574:
1558:
1433:1970 Bhola cyclone
1295:Lake Pontchartrain
1290:
1188:
1052:Direct wind effect
926:Weather portal
542:Atlantic hurricane
520:European windstorm
427:Volcanic lightning
388:Cumulonimbus cloud
58:
3919:
3918:
3896:Geomagnetic storm
3869:
3868:
3735:
3734:
3662:
3661:
3606:Soil liquefaction
3528:Natural disasters
3387:. Miami, Florida.
1658:in October 2012.
1648:Hurricane Camille
1636:Hurricane Katrina
1425:
1424:
1417:
1399:
1303:Mississippi Sound
1215:developed into a
960:
959:
285:
284:
209:Pacific hurricane
46:Tropical cyclones
16:(Redirected from
3954:
3828:Tropical cyclone
3822:Tornado outbreak
3744:
3743:
3671:
3670:
3624:Pyroclastic flow
3616:Volcano eruption
3545:
3544:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3498:
3497:
3429:
3420:
3414:
3406:
3397:
3388:
3379:
3377:
3376:
3370:
3329:
3319:
3282:
3269:
3263:
3258:
3256:
3248:
3227:
3210:
3193:
3180:
3171:
3158:
3157:(11): 1408–1411.
3143:
3137:
3129:
3120:
3118:
3117:
3111:
3096:
3084:
3082:
3075:
3063:
3034:
3025:
3007:
2990:
2971:
2947:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2928:
2917:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2898:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2836:on June 25, 2008
2835:
2828:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2804:
2786:
2780:
2762:
2756:
2749:
2743:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2717:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2682:. Archived from
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2584:
2578:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2517:. Archived from
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2419:
2410:. Archived from
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2239:
2230:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2217:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2159:
2152:
2143:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2119:www.nhc.noaa.gov
2111:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2094:
2083:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2021:
2008:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1983:
1966:(9): 2003–2013.
1951:
1945:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1918:
1905:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1876:
1868:
1856:
1847:
1838:
1837:
1827:
1817:
1785:
1779:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1755:www.nhc.noaa.gov
1747:
1712:Coastal flooding
1706:
1701:
1700:
1692:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1617:natural disaster
1613:Galveston, Texas
1420:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1398:
1357:
1333:
1325:
1258:vertical datum (
1241:high-water marks
1184:Gilchrist, Texas
1135:For example, in
952:
945:
938:
924:
923:
537:Tropical cyclone
449:Dry thunderstorm
344:Tropical seasons
287:
286:
277:
270:
263:
249:
248:
247:
37:
36:
21:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3951:
3922:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3865:
3832:
3796:Cyclonic storms
3791:
3773:
3731:
3727:Limnic eruption
3703:
3677:
3658:
3646:Natural erosion
3640:
3610:
3584:
3576:
3534:
3525:
3485:Wayback Machine
3472:Wayback Machine
3457:Wayback Machine
3448:Wayback Machine
3437:
3432:
3408:
3407:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3327:
3261:
3259:
3250:
3249:
3131:
3130:
3115:
3113:
3109:
3094:
3080:
3073:
2987:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2915:
2909:
2905:
2896:
2894:
2883:
2879:
2869:
2867:
2852:
2848:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2797:Wayback Machine
2787:
2783:
2773:Wayback Machine
2763:
2759:
2750:
2746:
2737:Wayback Machine
2728:
2724:
2715:
2713:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2687:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2642:
2638:
2629:
2627:
2616:
2612:
2602:
2600:
2585:
2581:
2572:Wayback Machine
2563:
2559:
2550:
2548:
2537:
2533:
2524:
2522:
2508:
2504:
2495:
2493:
2482:
2478:
2469:
2467:
2456:
2452:
2443:
2441:
2430:
2426:
2417:
2415:
2404:
2400:
2391:
2389:
2378:
2374:
2365:
2363:
2352:
2348:
2339:
2337:
2326:
2322:
2313:
2311:
2300:
2296:
2287:
2285:
2267:
2263:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2237:
2231:
2224:
2215:
2213:
2202:
2198:
2189:
2187:
2176:
2172:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2144:
2137:
2128:
2126:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2081:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2056:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2006:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1916:Wayback Machine
1906:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1862:
1860:IPCC SROCC 2019
1854:
1848:
1841:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1764:
1762:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1702:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1674:
1667:
1664:
1656:Hurricane Sandy
1550:
1530:
1452:
1421:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1358:
1356:
1346:
1334:
1323:
1301:basin, and the
1282:
1276:
1229:
1227:Measuring surge
1193:
1169:
1151:coast, and the
1125:
1108:
1106:Rainfall effect
1099:
1097:Effect of waves
1091:Coriolis effect
1087:
1070:
1054:
1042:
1014:sea level rises
956:
918:
913:
912:
888:
880:
879:
738:
728:
727:
640:
630:
629:
618:Ground blizzard
378:
368:
367:
346:
336:
335:
311:
281:
245:
243:
242:
238:
230:
229:
213:Pacific typhoon
189:
179:
178:
134:
126:
125:
96:
86:
85:
66:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3960:
3950:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3846:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3825:
3815:
3805:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3783:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3750:
3748:
3741:
3740:Meteorological
3737:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3711:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3668:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3620:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3596:Seismic hazard
3592:
3590:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3524:
3523:
3516:
3509:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3488:
3478:DeltaWorks.Org
3475:
3465:
3460:
3450:
3436:
3435:External links
3433:
3431:
3430:
3421:
3398:
3389:
3380:
3320:
3294:(2): 199–217.
3288:Marine Geodesy
3283:
3270:
3262:|journal=
3237:North Carolina
3228:
3211:
3194:
3181:
3172:
3159:
3144:
3121:
3085:
3083:on 2013-05-16.
3064:
3046:(5): 720–724.
3035:
3026:
3008:
3006:. p. 377.
2991:
2985:
2972:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2939:
2903:
2877:
2846:
2814:
2805:
2781:
2757:
2744:
2722:
2697:
2667:
2636:
2610:
2579:
2557:
2531:
2502:
2476:
2450:
2424:
2398:
2372:
2346:
2320:
2294:
2261:
2222:
2196:
2170:
2135:
2106:
2066:
2033:
1995:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1919:
1887:
1839:
1780:
1771:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1693:
1679:
1676:Weather portal
1663:
1660:
1644:Pass Christian
1624:Cyclone Mahina
1594:Typhoon Haiyan
1586:Cyclone Nargis
1549:
1546:
1534:Hurricane Irma
1529:
1526:
1492:Thames Barrier
1484:Maeslantkering
1476:flood barriers
1465:United Kingdom
1451:
1448:
1440:soil fertility
1423:
1422:
1337:
1335:
1328:
1322:
1319:
1275:
1272:
1245:vertical datum
1234:Hurricane Rita
1228:
1225:
1221:Chesapeake Bay
1192:
1189:
1168:
1165:
1149:Gulf of Mexico
1124:
1121:
1116:surface runoff
1107:
1104:
1098:
1095:
1086:
1083:
1069:
1066:
1053:
1050:
1041:
1038:
1026:surge barriers
1018:climate change
999:meteorological
958:
957:
955:
954:
947:
940:
932:
929:
928:
915:
914:
911:
910:
905:
900:
898:Climate change
895:
889:
886:
885:
882:
881:
878:
877:
872:
867:
866:
865:
864:
863:
858:
853:
845:
840:
833:Severe weather
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
809:
808:
803:
793:
792:
791:
781:
776:
775:
774:
769:
764:
759:
751:
750:
745:
739:
734:
733:
730:
729:
726:
725:
724:
723:
718:
713:
708:
698:
693:
692:
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681:
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667:Megacryometeor
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3697:
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3689:Coastal flood
3687:
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3279:Atlantic City
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3168:Silver Spring
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2988:
2986:0-9625986-0-7
2982:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2946:Simpson, 1969
2943:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2907:
2893:on 2008-09-17
2892:
2888:
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2861:
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2832:
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2818:
2809:
2802:
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2774:
2770:
2767:
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2754:
2748:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2726:
2712:on 2012-09-28
2711:
2707:
2701:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2676:"Storm Surge"
2671:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2625:
2621:
2614:
2598:
2594:
2593:Florida Today
2590:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2561:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2521:on 2008-08-09
2520:
2516:
2513:
2506:
2492:on 2008-08-15
2491:
2487:
2480:
2466:on 2008-05-08
2465:
2461:
2454:
2440:on 2007-09-28
2439:
2435:
2428:
2414:on 2008-03-10
2413:
2409:
2402:
2388:on 2008-06-11
2387:
2383:
2376:
2362:on 2008-07-31
2361:
2357:
2350:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2274:"SLOSH Model"
2271:
2265:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2229:
2227:
2212:on 2008-08-08
2211:
2207:
2200:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2160:on 2008-07-06
2156:
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2140:
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2076:
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2054:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2037:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2005:
1999:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1941:
1932:
1926:Granthem 1953
1923:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1907:Harris 1963,
1904:
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1704:Oceans portal
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1652:New York City
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1591:
1587:
1583:
1582:Bay of Bengal
1579:
1571:
1570:Hurricane Ike
1567:
1562:
1554:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
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1501:
1497:
1493:
1490:project; the
1489:
1485:
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1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1447:
1445:
1442:, increasing
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1397:
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1390:
1387:
1383:
1380:
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1373:
1369:
1366: –
1365:
1364:"Storm surge"
1361:
1360:Find sources:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1338:This section
1336:
1332:
1327:
1326:
1318:
1316:
1312:
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1296:
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1281:
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1257:
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1237:
1235:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1213:Hurricane Ida
1209:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1185:
1181:
1180:Hurricane Ike
1177:
1173:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1154:
1153:Bay of Bengal
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1131:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1103:
1094:
1092:
1082:
1080:
1075:
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1063:
1059:
1049:
1047:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1030:coastal dunes
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
995:
993:
989:
985:
981:
980:coastal flood
977:
973:
969:
965:
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939:
934:
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931:
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909:
906:
904:
903:Tornado terms
901:
899:
896:
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891:
890:
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883:
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873:
871:
868:
862:
861:United States
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749:
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744:
743:Air pollution
741:
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643:
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639:
638:Precipitation
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225:South Pacific
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55:
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39:
38:
33:
19:
3886:Impact event
3874:Astronomical
3808:Thunderstorm
3803:Bomb cyclone
3698:
3667:Hydrological
3636:Volcanic ash
3601:Seismic risk
3549:Mass wasting
3425:
3402:
3393:
3384:
3373:. Retrieved
3337:
3331:
3291:
3287:
3274:
3253:cite journal
3245:Coral Gables
3215:
3198:
3185:
3176:
3163:
3154:
3148:
3134:cite journal
3125:
3114:. Retrieved
3090:
3078:the original
3069:
3043:
3039:
3030:
3013:
2995:
2976:
2967:
2961:
2942:
2931:. Retrieved
2906:
2895:. Retrieved
2891:the original
2880:
2868:. Retrieved
2849:
2838:. Retrieved
2831:the original
2817:
2812:Hebert, 1983
2808:
2800:
2784:
2776:
2760:
2747:
2739:
2725:
2714:. Retrieved
2710:the original
2700:
2690:14 September
2688:. Retrieved
2684:the original
2679:
2670:
2660:14 September
2658:. Retrieved
2650:Miami Herald
2649:
2639:
2628:. Retrieved
2613:
2601:. Retrieved
2592:
2582:
2574:
2560:
2549:. Retrieved
2534:
2523:. Retrieved
2519:the original
2505:
2494:. Retrieved
2490:the original
2479:
2468:. Retrieved
2464:the original
2453:
2442:. Retrieved
2438:the original
2427:
2416:. Retrieved
2412:the original
2401:
2390:. Retrieved
2386:the original
2375:
2364:. Retrieved
2360:the original
2349:
2338:. Retrieved
2323:
2312:. Retrieved
2297:
2286:. Retrieved
2264:
2253:. Retrieved
2214:. Retrieved
2210:the original
2199:
2188:. Retrieved
2173:
2162:. Retrieved
2155:the original
2127:. Retrieved
2118:
2109:
2097:. Retrieved
2069:
2057:. Retrieved
2048:The Atlantic
2046:
2036:
2024:. Retrieved
2010:
1998:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1940:
1931:
1922:
1879:. Retrieved
1858:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1774:
1763:. Retrieved
1754:
1745:
1722:Meteotsunami
1628:Bathurst Bay
1621:
1611:that struck
1602:
1575:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1523:
1512:
1508:
1469:
1453:
1437:
1430:
1426:
1411:
1402:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1371:
1359:
1347:Please help
1342:verification
1339:
1307:
1291:
1253:
1238:
1230:
1210:
1198:
1194:
1170:
1161:
1157:
1134:
1126:
1109:
1100:
1088:
1071:
1062:Ekman spiral
1055:
1043:
1011:
996:
988:low-pressure
975:
971:
967:
963:
961:
679:Diamond dust
603:Winter storm
553:
434:Thunderstorm
116:Preparedness
110:
3937:Water waves
3901:Solar flare
3787:Megadrought
3747:Temperature
3720:Megatsunami
3699:Storm surge
3694:Flash flood
3572:Debris flow
3201:: 149–161.
3190:Tallahassee
3016:: 339–366.
3000:Baton Rouge
2099:January 31,
1640:Mississippi
1598:Philippines
1494:protecting
1488:Delta Works
1457:Netherlands
1299:New Orleans
1159:hurricane.
1145:Florida Bay
972:tidal surge
968:storm flood
964:storm surge
893:Meteorology
828:Meteorology
716:Snow roller
711:Snow grains
674:Ice pellets
623:Snow squall
554:Storm surge
500:Anticyclone
456:Mesocyclone
444:Thundersnow
393:Arcus cloud
164:Forecasting
159:Observation
111:Storm surge
76:Development
18:Tidal surge
3926:Categories
3582:Earthquake
3540:Geological
3394:Hurricanes
3375:2008-08-11
3340:(4): 293.
3116:2008-08-11
2953:References
2933:2008-10-11
2897:2008-08-11
2840:2008-08-11
2740:Unicef USA
2716:2012-03-20
2680:Met Office
2630:2017-09-11
2551:2007-07-07
2525:2008-08-11
2496:2008-08-11
2470:2008-08-10
2444:2007-04-14
2418:2008-08-10
2392:2008-08-10
2366:2008-08-10
2340:2008-08-11
2314:2008-08-11
2288:2008-08-10
2255:2008-08-10
2216:2008-08-10
2190:2008-08-11
2164:2008-08-11
2129:2023-05-07
2059:19 January
1881:2021-01-31
1765:2023-11-08
1727:Rogue wave
1498:; and the
1450:Mitigation
1375:newspapers
1278:See also:
1217:nor'easter
1202:Gulf coast
1167:Storm size
1137:Palm Beach
1058:wind setup
976:storm tide
887:Glossaries
823:Jet stream
762:Convection
748:Atmosphere
696:Cloudburst
559:Dust storm
525:Nor'easter
495:Fire whirl
490:Dust devil
483:Waterspout
410:Heat burst
405:Microburst
363:Wet season
351:Dry season
221:Australian
217:Philippine
3911:Hypernova
3906:Supernova
3854:Firestorm
3769:Heat wave
3764:Ice storm
3759:Cold wave
3562:Avalanche
3557:Landslide
3411:cite book
3362:123713109
3316:129635202
3233:Asheville
3220:Ft. Myers
1944:Lane 1981
1935:Lane 1980
1632:Australia
1515:mangroves
1112:estuaries
1040:Mechanics
1034:mangroves
1022:can adapt
997:The main
818:Heat wave
813:Cold wave
757:Chemistry
608:Ice storm
598:Firestorm
510:Polar low
478:Landspout
461:Supercell
422:Lightning
400:Downburst
356:Harmattan
290:Part of
101:By Region
65:Structure
3861:ARkStorm
3849:Wildfire
3754:Blizzard
3654:Sinkhole
3481:Archived
3444:Archived
3366:Archived
3207:25735595
3107:Archived
3022:25735609
2924:Archived
2864:Archived
2793:Archived
2777:HuffPost
2769:Archived
2733:Archived
2654:Archived
2624:Archived
2597:Archived
2568:Archived
2545:Archived
2334:Archived
2308:Archived
2282:Archived
2272:(2008).
2246:Archived
2244:(FEMA).
2184:Archived
2123:Archived
2090:Archived
2077:(1994).
2053:Archived
2017:Archived
1990:55061204
1912:Archived
1872:Archived
1834:29078274
1759:Archived
1662:See also
1405:May 2023
1256:geodetic
1186:in 2008.
1079:millibar
992:cyclones
689:Freezing
650:Freezing
613:Blizzard
292:a series
205:Atlantic
121:Response
3844:Derecho
3818:Tornado
3779:Drought
3715:Tsunami
3567:Mudflow
3470:at the
3455:at the
3342:Bibcode
3296:Bibcode
3224:Florida
3103:Florida
3048:Bibcode
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