300:
429:
investigated whether the risks, both in production and use, could be managed. Testing on the exhaust was completed, which he used to support the idea that 1 part tetraethyl lead per 1300 of gasoline could safely be used. After the initial worker exposures, controls were developed to allow the process to operate safely. Leaded gasoline use grew exponentially. The chronic impacts of environmental lead were grossly underestimated.
727:, respectively. When leaded gasoline was invented it was known that lead had harmful effects on human health in large quantities, and that leaded gasoline caused emissions of trace amounts of lead to the atmosphere, but it was not known whether those trace amounts had adverse effects. The existence of the ozone layer, however, and the potential for chlorofluorocarbons to harm it, was not known at the time.
441:
1926 after intervention by the federal government. High-octane fuel, enabled by lead, was important to the military. Midgley later took a leave of absence from work after being diagnosed with lead poisoning. He was relieved of his position as vice president of GMCC in April 1925, reportedly due to his inexperience in organizational matters, but he remained an employee of
General Motors.
2322:
285:
Early on, Midgley had a penchant for finding useful applications for known substances. In high school, he used the chewed bark of the slippery elm trees to give baseballs a more curved trajectory, a practice professional players would later pick up. Later in life, he was known to always carry a copy
257:
While the harmful effects of CFCs were not appreciated until decades after
Midgley's death, tetraethyl lead was known to be acutely toxic by those involved in the development of leaded gasoline. This included Midgley, who publicly insisted that there was nonetheless no health hazard posed by the use
440:
for sixty seconds, declaring that he could do this every day without succumbing to any problems. However, the State of New Jersey ordered the Bayway plant to be closed a few days later, and Jersey
Standard was forbidden to manufacture TEL again without state permission. Production was restarted in
428:
have been known at least since the 2nd century BC, while efforts to limit lead's use date back to at least the 16th century. Midgley experienced lead poisoning himself, and was warned about the risk of lead poisoning from TEL as early as 1922. Midgley well knew the hazards of lead. He
270:, on May 18, 1889, the son of Hattie Louise (née Emerson) (1865 – 1950) and Thomas Midgley Sr. (1840 – 1934). His family had a history of inventing; his father was an inventor in the field of automobile tires while his maternal grandfather, James Emerson, invented the inserted tooth
33:
1238:
After mixing tetraethyl lead with gasoline, no great precaution need be exercised, the ratio being 1 part tetraethyl lead to 1300 of gasoline. From this point on no health hazards actually exist unless the gasoline is used very abnormally for purposes for which it was not
377:. He said, "I find that my lungs have been affected and that it is necessary to drop all work and get a large supply of fresh air." That year, General Motors created the General Motors Chemical Company (GMCC) to supervise the production of TEL by the
1491:
CFCs and HCFCs rapidly replaced other refrigerants in all but applications where companies accepted the increased risk of flammable and toxic refrigerant releases or in applications where the existing technologies were more energy
755:
385:, the staff at Dayton was said in 1924 to be "depressed to the point of considering giving up the whole tetraethyl lead program". Over the course of the next year, eight more people died at DuPont's plant in
691:
levels have been linked with serious long-term health problems from childhood, including neurological impairment, and with increased levels of violence and criminality in
America and around the world.
2480:
250:
in 1940 and was left disabled; in 1944, he was found strangled to death by a device he devised to allow him to get out of bed unassisted. It is often reported that he had been accidentally
1978:
627:
and was left severely disabled. He devised an elaborate system of ropes and pulleys to lift himself out of bed. On
November 2, 1944, at the age of 55, he was found dead at his home in
3488:
763:
381:
company. Kettering was elected as president with
Midgley as vice president. However, after two deaths and several cases of lead poisoning at the TEL prototype plant in
3453:
2473:
2413:
3276:
2969:
3118:
2772:
2013:
350:(especially General Motors, which owned the patent jointly filed by Kettering and Midgley) promoted the TEL additive as an inexpensive alternative superior to
3458:
3065:
2856:
936:
3178:
3005:
2466:
1629:
3252:
3166:
635:
after he became entangled in it and died of strangulation. His death was ruled a suicide by the coroner. He left behind a widow, Carrie M. Reynolds from
3220:
3202:
3160:
3106:
2933:
2927:
2814:
521:
division of
General Motors, at that time a leading manufacturer of such systems, sought a non-toxic, non-flammable alternative to these refrigerants.
3142:
2981:
2862:
3473:
3226:
2957:
2868:
2808:
579:
Freon and other CFCs soon largely replaced other refrigerants, but also had other applications. A notable example was their use as a propellant in
436:
to demonstrate the apparent safety of TEL, in which he poured TEL over his hands, placed a bottle of the chemical under his nose, and inhaled its
3498:
3059:
2886:
632:
251:
1292:
3041:
1989:
1042:
Kovarik, Bill. "Charles F. Kettering and the 1921 Discovery of
Tetraethyl Lead In the Context of Technological Alternatives", presented to the
818:
1593:
2243:
1714:
1783:
1129:
Needleman, Herbert L.; Gunnoe, Charles; Leviton, Alan; Reed, Robert; Peresie, Henry; Maher, Cornelius; Barrett, Peter (March 29, 1979).
612:
3468:
3438:
3433:
2790:
1529:
3428:
2180:
413:
in New Jersey. However, within the first two months of its operation, the new plant was plagued by more cases of lead poisoning,
1447:"Stratospheric ozone, global warming, and the principle of unintended consequences—An ongoing science and policy success story"
1816:
709:
366:
for the "Use of Anti-Knock
Compounds in Motor Fuels". This was the first of several major awards he earned during his career.
2421:
1853:
1620:
1451:
1330:
2401:
837:
3463:
2312:
1749:
1549:
1822:. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry/Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine. 2006. Archived from
2430:
1265:
866:
735:
1654:
3443:
666:
opined that
Midgley "had more adverse impact on the atmosphere than any other single organism in Earth's history", and
3478:
1875:
1763:
1563:
975:
800:
286:
of the periodic table, his main tool in the search for the substance that would mark his breakthrough invention.
240:
1612:
916:
1320:
1266:"Once celebrated, an inventor's breakthroughs are now viewed as disasters — and the world is still recovering"
867:"Once celebrated, an inventor's breakthroughs are now viewed as disasters — and the world is still recovering"
2337:
2333:
2120:
Taylor, Mark Patrick; Forbes, Miriam K.; Opeskin, Brian; Parr, Nick; Lanphear, Bruce P. (February 16, 2016).
2043:
588:
937:"Ethyl-leaded gasoline: How a classic occupational disease became an international public health disaster"
2510:
2671:
548:. They rejected the assumption that such compounds would be toxic, believing that the stability of the
339:
267:
62:
2067:
1921:
1289:
723:
The harm of leaded gasoline and chlorofluorocarbons have been framed as lessons in known unknowns and
239:; both products were later banned from common use due to their harmful impact on human health and the
2707:
2695:
2641:
2558:
2490:
1533:
648:
596:
359:
2024:
1613:"Thomas Midgley, Jr., and The Invention of Chlorofluorocarbon Refrigerants: It Ain't Necessarily So"
342:. The company named the substance "Ethyl", avoiding all mention of lead in reports and advertising.
3503:
3493:
2552:
2528:
549:
363:
150:
3483:
2665:
2606:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2326:
2259:
2048:
1722:
1131:"Deficits in Psychologic and Classroom Performance of Children with Elevated Dentine Lead Levels"
573:
561:
156:
1922:"The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence"
3448:
3136:
2999:
2743:
2689:
2653:
2516:
2122:"The relationship between atmospheric lead emissions and aggressive crime: an ecological study"
1007:
557:
533:
220:
2458:
1841:
3360:
3023:
2951:
2612:
1755:
1555:
1504:
906:
660:
386:
1988:
1130:
688:
3423:
3418:
3282:
2898:
2576:
2374:
2341:
2133:
2079:
1933:
1460:
1416:
834:
670:
remarked that Midgley possessed "an instinct for the regrettable that was almost uncanny".
319:
201:
2230:
697:
magazine included both leaded gasoline and CFCs on its list of "The 50 Worst Inventions".
8:
3396:
3348:
3112:
2993:
2892:
2701:
2570:
2534:
2504:
2345:
1486:
1442:
1300:
1107:
684:
604:
347:
174:
2378:
2137:
2083:
1937:
1464:
1420:
3336:
3318:
3148:
2975:
2939:
2910:
2832:
2802:
2755:
2725:
2564:
2546:
2522:
2349:
2156:
2121:
2018:
1983:
1897:
1871:"Knowledge of diagnosis and reproductive history among survivors of childhood plumbism"
1870:
967:
759:
717:
565:
514:
425:
343:
279:
232:
111:
93:
1795:
891:
Loeb, A.P., "Birth of the Kettering Doctrine: Fordism, Sloanism and Tetraethyl Lead,"
683:
Use of leaded gasoline, which he invented, released large quantities of lead into the
3288:
3190:
3071:
3017:
2963:
2880:
2838:
2683:
2677:
2659:
2624:
2390:
2365:
2251:
2161:
2095:
1949:
1902:
1849:
1759:
1559:
1478:
1326:
1150:
1111:
1076:
1011:
959:
912:
792:
713:
628:
553:
525:
398:
323:
308:
224:
81:
1823:
1710:
Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World
971:
3378:
3354:
3330:
3312:
3306:
3294:
3270:
3214:
3100:
3088:
3035:
3029:
3011:
2844:
2737:
2731:
2719:
2618:
2600:
2382:
2363:
Midgley, T. (1942). "A Critical Examination of Some Concepts in Rubber Chemistry".
2281:
2151:
2141:
2087:
1941:
1892:
1884:
1791:
1468:
1424:
1389:
1362:
1229:
1202:
1188:
1142:
1103:
1068:
951:
724:
615:. In 1944, he was elected president and chairman of the American Chemical Society.
537:
450:
1014:
393:
process", General Motors and the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (now known as
3390:
3264:
3232:
3184:
3172:
3124:
2945:
2784:
2405:
2091:
2068:"Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure"
1945:
1597:
1473:
1446:
1296:
701:
693:
608:
600:
528:, soon narrowed his focus to alkyl halides (the combination of carbon chains and
433:
410:
335:
168:
106:
2386:
1353:
Midgley, Thomas; Henne, Albert L. (1930). "Organic Fluorides as Refrigerants1".
1146:
3384:
3366:
3300:
3208:
3196:
2987:
2850:
2778:
2231:
Climate change: 'Monumental' deal to cut HFCs, fastest growing greenhouse gases
2206:
1684:
1072:
731:
705:
652:
636:
494:
478:
402:
374:
331:
315:
304:
275:
228:
2448:
2146:
1026:
955:
3412:
3324:
3258:
3094:
3047:
2904:
2826:
2796:
2749:
2713:
2255:
676:
663:
466:
454:
414:
389:. In 1924, dissatisfied with the speed of DuPont's TEL production using the "
3342:
3154:
2452:
2394:
2165:
2099:
1953:
1888:
1516:
1482:
1115:
1080:
963:
592:
541:
510:
406:
382:
355:
162:
1906:
3130:
3053:
2820:
2540:
2414:"Thomas Midgley Jr. and the Invention of Chlorofluorocarbon Refrigerants"
1779:
1745:
1545:
1154:
671:
667:
545:
502:
1580:
1407:
Garrett, Alfred B. (1962). "Freon: Thomas Midgley and Albert L. Henne".
1393:
1366:
1233:
572:". This compound is more commonly referred to today as "Freon 12", or "
3372:
2647:
2063:
2039:
1974:
518:
394:
299:
1428:
1206:
1193:
1176:
243:. He was granted more than 100 patents over the course of his career.
756:"Franklin Laureate Database – Edward Longstreth Medal 1925 Laureates"
358:, on which they could make very little profit. In December 1922, the
327:
1220:
Midgley, Thomas (August 1, 1925). "Tetraethyl Lead Poison Hazards".
2244:"The Brilliant Inventor Who Made Two of History's Biggest Mistakes"
1979:"Aggressiveness and delinquency in boys is linked to lead in bones"
1441:
506:
418:
326:, a subsidiary of General Motors, he discovered (after discarding
32:
2323:
The Brilliant Inventor Who Made Two of History’s Biggest Mistakes
1044:
Society of Automotive Engineers Fuels & Lubricants Conference
580:
529:
474:
458:
390:
351:
1059:
Dapul H, Laraque D (August 2014). "Lead poisoning in children".
738:--has co-written a feature film about Midgley entitled "Midge."
2488:
584:
378:
1252:
Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution
944:
International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health
330:
due to the difficult-to-eradicate smell) that the addition of
908:
Atmospheric pollution : history, science, and regulation
656:
624:
569:
437:
370:
254:, but his death was declared by the coroner to be a suicide.
247:
236:
1325:. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 74–87.
1254:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2002
235:(CFCs), better known in the United States by the brand name
1712:(2001) New York: Norton, xxvi, 421 pp. (as reviewed in the
1445:; Halberstadt, Marcel L.; Borgford-Parnell, Nathan (2013).
680:, described Midgley as a "one-man environmental disaster".
2449:
The Man Who Accidentally Killed The Most People In History
2313:"Cautionary Tales–The inventor who almost ended the world"
1319:
Sneader, Walter (2005). "Chapter 8: Systematic medicine".
1128:
3489:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
401:
to produce and market TEL. Ethyl Corporation built a new
318:. In December 1921, while working under the direction of
271:
1848:. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor and Francis. p. 153.
2119:
219:(May 18, 1889 – November 2, 1944) was an American
1505:"Will Award Perkin Medal Jan. 8 to Thomas Midgley, Jr"
1452:
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
1784:"Inventor hero was a one-man environmental disaster"
1122:
1817:"ToxFAQs: CABS/Chemical Agent Briefing Sheet: Lead"
258:of leaded gasoline in internal combustion engines.
2023:
303:Sign on an antique gasoline pump advertising the
282:in 1911 with a degree in mechanical engineering.
3454:Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
3410:
1920:Mielke, Howard W.; Zahran, Sammy (August 2012).
1380:Thompson, R. J. (1932). "Freon, a Refrigerant".
2204:
1682:
432:On October 30, 1924, Midgley participated in a
1839:
1678:
1676:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1046:, Baltimore, Maryland., 1994; revised in 1999.
911:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–80.
623:In 1940, at the age of 51, Midgley contracted
552:would be sufficient to prevent the release of
2474:
1738:
3459:Deaths by strangulation in the United States
1919:
1846:Metals, fertility, and reproductive toxicity
1352:
1058:
860:
858:
540:. They eventually settled on the concept of
2402:Biographical Memoir by Charles F. Kettering
2310:
2198:
1673:
1572:
1307:
536:(a requirement for a refrigerant) and also
2481:
2467:
2181:"The 50 Worst Inventions: Leaded Gasoline"
2178:
1587:
1054:
1052:
1038:
1036:
1034:
930:
928:
639:, whom he had married on August 3, 1911.
613:United States National Academy of Sciences
31:
2207:"How 1970s deodorant is still doing harm"
2155:
2145:
1896:
1523:
1472:
1192:
1093:
855:
829:
827:
807:
369:In 1923, Midgley took a long vacation in
16:American chemist and engineer (1889–1944)
1379:
1177:"The Rise and Fall of Tetraethyllead. 2"
1174:
1087:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
904:
851:. National Academy of Sciences: 359–380.
298:
231:(tetraethyl lead) and some of the first
3474:Inventors killed by their own invention
2362:
2241:
2044:"Lead: America's Real Criminal Element"
2011:
1702:
1578:
1406:
1318:
1219:
1049:
1031:
1020:
1006:Kitman, Jamie Lincoln (March 2, 2000).
934:
925:
898:
817:was invoked but never defined (see the
227:. He played a major role in developing
3499:People from Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania
3411:
2411:
1778:
1772:
1744:
1610:
1604:
1544:
1538:
1382:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry
1355:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry
1263:
1244:
1175:Seyferth, Dietmar (December 1, 2003).
1094:Needleman H (2004). "Lead poisoning".
864:
824:
787:
785:
783:
781:
700:Midgley died three decades before the
2462:
2422:Bulletin for the History of Chemistry
2062:
1973:
1833:
1621:Bulletin for the History of Chemistry
1250:Markowitz, Gerald and Rosner, David.
993:
833:
647:Midgley's legacy is tied in with the
2274:
2038:
2012:Hoffman, Jascha (October 21, 2007).
2005:
1967:
1809:
1751:A Short History of Nearly Everything
1683:Laurence Knight (October 12, 2014).
1551:A Short History of Nearly Everything
1222:Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
1108:10.1146/annurev.med.55.091902.103653
599:gave Midgley its highest award, the
595:in 1937 for this work. In 1941, the
1635:from the original on April 13, 2019
812:
778:
457:systems employed compounds such as
13:
2455:on Thomas Midgley Jr., April 2022)
2304:
2242:Johnson, Steven (March 15, 2023).
2179:Gentilviso, Chris (May 27, 2010).
2032:
1868:
1862:
1579:Bellows, Alan (December 8, 2007).
1530:The Priestley Medalists, 1923-2008
1515:(1): 54. January 1937 – via
712:became widely known. In 1987, the
560:. The team eventually synthesized
314:In 1916, Midgley began working at
294:
14:
3515:
2356:
2311:Tim Harford (November 11, 2022).
2014:"Clean Air Act: Criminal Element"
1876:American Journal of Public Health
1754:(Black Swan paperback ed.).
1554:(Black Swan paperback ed.).
532:), which were known to be highly
2408: (archived October 15, 2012)
2205:Laurence Knight (June 6, 2015).
1655:"Midgley's Death Termed Suicide"
813:Cite error: The named reference
3469:Human impact on the environment
3439:20th-century American inventors
3434:20th-century American engineers
2235:
2224:
2172:
2113:
2056:
1913:
1661:. November 10, 1944. p. 28
1647:
1497:
1435:
1400:
1373:
1346:
1283:
1264:Prisco, Jacopo (May 24, 2024).
1257:
1213:
1168:
1135:New England Journal of Medicine
865:Prisco, Jacopo (May 24, 2024).
801:National Inventors Hall of Fame
505:. Though effective, these were
266:Thomas Midgley Jr. was born in
133:
3429:20th-century American chemists
1685:"The fatal attraction of lead"
885:
838:"Thomas Midgley Jr. 1889–1944"
748:
730:In 2024 it was announced that
1:
1796:10.1016/S0262-4079(17)31121-1
1409:Journal of Chemical Education
893:Business and Economic History
741:
649:negative environmental impact
307:anti-knock compound Ethyl, a
261:
38:
2092:10.1016/j.envres.2007.02.008
1946:10.1016/j.envint.2012.03.005
1840:Golub, Mari S., ed. (2005).
1717:Journal of Political Ecology
1474:10.1080/10962247.2013.791349
1008:"The Secret History of Lead"
895:, Vol. 24, No. 2, Fall 1995.
589:Society of Chemical Industry
334:(TEL) to gasoline prevented
324:Dayton Research Laboratories
7:
3464:Environmental controversies
2451:(video by YouTube producer
2387:10.1126/science.96.2485.143
1147:10.1056/NEJM197903293001301
603:. This was followed by the
340:internal combustion engines
252:killed by his own invention
10:
3520:
2429:(2): 66–74. Archived from
2412:Giunta, Carmen J. (2006).
1581:"The Ethyl-Poisoned Earth"
1295:December 27, 2016, at the
1073:10.1016/j.yapd.2014.04.004
905:Jacobson, Mark Z. (2002).
607:in 1942. He also held two
424:The risks associated with
399:Ethyl Gasoline Corporation
268:Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania
63:Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania
3444:Accidental deaths in Ohio
3242:
3081:
2920:
2765:
2634:
2559:Charles Anthony Goessmann
2497:
2491:American Chemical Society
2147:10.1186/s12940-016-0122-3
1926:Environment International
1594:Milestones, Nov. 13, 1944
1534:American Chemical Society
1509:Refrigerating Engineering
1322:Drug discovery: a history
1096:Annual Review of Medicine
956:10.1179/oeh.2005.11.4.384
935:Kovarik, William (2005).
687:all over the world. High
642:
597:American Chemical Society
568:(CFC), which they named "
405:using a high-temperature
362:awarded Midgley the 1923
360:American Chemical Society
289:
210:
191:
184:
143:
120:
99:
89:
70:
48:
30:
23:
3479:Lead poisoning incidents
3399:, President Elect (2025)
2332:Midgley–Man of Marvels,
633:killed by his own device
618:
444:
348:automobile manufacturers
151:William H. Nichols Medal
2327:New York Times Magazine
1611:Giunta, Carmen (2006).
1290:The Poisoner's Handbook
1017:. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
736:The Wolf of Wall Street
661:Environmental historian
611:and was elected to the
562:dichlorodifluoromethane
3277:William F. Carroll Jr.
3137:Warren D. Niederhauser
2970:Clifford F. Rassweiler
2517:Samuel William Johnson
2072:Environmental Research
2028:on September 19, 2012.
1889:10.2105/AJPH.81.8.1070
1061:Advances in Pediatrics
716:phased out the use of
710:CFCs in the atmosphere
542:incorporating fluorine
524:Midgley, working with
311:
198:Mechanical engineering
3361:Bonnie A. Charpentier
3319:Bassam Z. Shakhashiri
3119:Albert C. Zettlemoyer
3024:Charles G. Overberger
2773:George D. Rosengarten
2672:William F. Hillebrand
1756:Transworld Publishers
1556:Transworld Publishers
1304:at 51:48 January 2014
835:Kettering, Charles F.
387:Deepwater, New Jersey
356:ethanol-blended fuels
302:
278:, and graduated from
3283:Elizabeth Ann Nalley
2708:Theodore W. Richards
2342:Charles F. Kettering
2126:Environmental Health
1993:on November 25, 2010
1977:(February 7, 1996).
1659:Dayton Herald (Ohio)
1601:, November 13, 1944.
1487:Taylor & Francis
1443:Andersen, Stephen O.
873:. Cable News Network
845:Biographical Memoirs
793:"Thomas Midgley, Jr"
591:awarded Midgley the
550:carbon–fluorine bond
202:chemical engineering
3397:Dorothy J. Phillips
3349:Allison A. Campbell
3066:Bernard S. Friedman
2893:W. Albert Noyes Jr.
2857:William Lloyd Evans
2702:Arthur Dehon Little
2571:Charles F. Chandler
2535:Charles F. Chandler
2379:1942Sci....96..143M
2346:The American Weekly
2325:. Stephen Johnson,
2138:2016EnvHe..15...23T
2084:2007ER....104..315N
1938:2012EnInt..43...48M
1869:Hu, Howard (1991).
1829:on October 9, 2009.
1465:2013JAWMA..63..607A
1421:1962JChEd..39..361G
1394:10.1021/ie50270a008
1367:10.1021/ie50245a031
1301:American Experience
1234:10.1021/ie50188a020
766:on October 15, 2013
734:--writer of 2013's
605:Willard Gibbs Award
556:or other potential
449:In the late 1920s,
421:, and five deaths.
373:to cure himself of
246:Midgley contracted
233:chlorofluorocarbons
175:Willard Gibbs Award
3337:Diane Grob Schmidt
3179:S. Allen Heininger
3149:George C. Pimentel
3006:Maurice H. Arveson
2976:John C. Bailar Jr.
2952:Joel H. Hildebrand
2940:Farrington Daniels
2911:Ernest H. Volwiler
2875:Thomas Midgley Jr.
2833:Edward R. Weidlein
2803:Lawrence V. Redman
2756:James Flack Norris
2744:Edward C. Franklin
2726:William H. Nichols
2690:Wilder D. Bancroft
2666:Francis P. Venable
2589:George C. Caldwell
2553:Albert B. Prescott
2529:Frederick A. Genth
2489:Presidents of the
2350:Hearst Corporation
2329:, March 15, 2023.
2248:The New York Times
2019:The New York Times
1984:The New York Times
760:Franklin Institute
566:chlorofluorocarbon
558:breakdown products
312:
280:Cornell University
217:Thomas Midgley Jr.
94:Cornell University
42: 1930s–1940s
25:Thomas Midgley Jr.
3406:
3405:
3289:Catherine T. Hunt
3253:Attila E. Pavlath
3167:Clayton F. Callis
3072:William J. Bailey
3018:William J. Sparks
2964:Roger J. Williams
2899:Charles A. Thomas
2839:Frank C. Whitmore
2791:William McPherson
2684:Willis R. Whitney
2678:Marston T. Bogert
2660:Arthur Amos Noyes
2625:William McMurtrie
2613:Charles E. Munroe
2607:Charles B. Dudley
2511:J. Lawrence Smith
2436:on April 23, 2016
2352:, March 25, 1945.
2042:(February 2013).
1855:978-0-415-70040-5
1725:on March 28, 2004
1429:10.1021/ed039p361
1332:978-0-471-89980-8
1207:10.1021/om0343925
1194:10.1021/om030621b
1187:(25): 5154–5178.
1027:Nichols Medalists
714:Montreal Protocol
629:Worthington, Ohio
554:hydrogen fluoride
526:Albert Leon Henne
320:Charles Kettering
309:gasoline additive
225:chemical engineer
214:
213:
186:Scientific career
82:Worthington, Ohio
3511:
3379:Angela K. Wilson
3355:Peter K. Dorhout
3331:Thomas J. Barton
3313:Nancy B. Jackson
3307:Joseph Francisco
3295:Bruce E. Bursten
3271:Charles P. Casey
3221:Paul H.L. Walter
3215:Paul S. Anderson
3203:Brian M. Rushton
3161:Gordon L. Nelson
3113:James D. D'Ianni
3107:Gardner W. Stacy
3101:Anna J. Harrison
3089:Glenn T. Seaborg
3036:Wallace R. Brode
3030:Robert W. Cairns
3012:Charles C. Price
2934:Edgar C. Britton
2928:N. Howell Funnan
2845:Charles A. Kraus
2815:Charles L. Reese
2750:Leo H. Baekeland
2738:Edgar Fahs Smith
2732:William A. Noyes
2720:Julius Stieglitz
2714:Charles H. Herty
2619:Edward W. Morley
2601:Edgar Fahs Smith
2583:George F. Barker
2483:
2476:
2469:
2460:
2459:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2435:
2418:
2398:
2319:
2317:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2262:on July 18, 2024
2258:. Archived from
2239:
2233:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2159:
2149:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2022:. Archived from
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1992:
1987:. Archived from
1971:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1900:
1883:(8): 1070–1072.
1866:
1860:
1859:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1821:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1782:(June 7, 2017).
1776:
1770:
1769:
1742:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1721:. Archived from
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1680:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1634:
1617:
1608:
1602:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1542:
1536:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1476:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1316:
1305:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1261:
1255:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1198:
1196:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1056:
1047:
1040:
1029:
1024:
1018:
1004:
991:
990:
988:
986:
981:on June 17, 2018
980:
974:. Archived from
941:
932:
923:
922:
902:
896:
889:
883:
882:
880:
878:
862:
853:
852:
842:
831:
822:
816:
811:
805:
804:
789:
776:
775:
773:
771:
762:. Archived from
752:
725:unknown unknowns
689:atmospheric lead
609:honorary degrees
538:chemically inert
451:air conditioning
434:press conference
426:exposure to lead
274:. He grew up in
157:Longstreth Medal
137:
135:
77:
74:November 2, 1944
58:
56:
43:
40:
35:
21:
20:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3504:Polio survivors
3494:Ozone depletion
3409:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3391:Mary K. Carroll
3343:Donna J. Nelson
3265:Elsa Reichmanis
3238:
3233:Daryle H. Busch
3185:Ernest L. Eliel
3173:Paul G. Gassman
3143:Ellis K. Fields
3125:Robert W. Parry
3077:
2982:Albert L. Elder
2946:Harry L. Fisher
2916:
2863:Harry N. Holmes
2785:Irving Langmuir
2761:
2696:Alexander Smith
2642:Frank W. Clarke
2630:
2595:Harvey W. Wiley
2493:
2487:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2416:
2406:Wayback Machine
2373:(2485): 143–6.
2359:
2315:
2307:
2305:Further reading
2302:
2301:
2291:
2289:
2288:. IMDb.com, Inc
2280:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2263:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2225:
2215:
2213:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2187:
2177:
2173:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2102:
2061:
2057:
2037:
2033:
2010:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1972:
1968:
1958:
1956:
1918:
1914:
1867:
1863:
1856:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1800:
1798:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1758:. p. 195.
1743:
1739:
1728:
1726:
1713:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1681:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1615:
1609:
1605:
1592:
1588:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1558:. p. 196.
1543:
1539:
1528:
1524:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1440:
1436:
1405:
1401:
1378:
1374:
1351:
1347:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1317:
1308:
1297:Wayback Machine
1288:
1284:
1274:
1272:
1262:
1258:
1249:
1245:
1218:
1214:
1201:(Erratum:
1200:
1181:Organometallics
1173:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1141:(13): 689–695.
1127:
1123:
1092:
1088:
1057:
1050:
1041:
1032:
1025:
1021:
1005:
994:
984:
982:
978:
939:
933:
926:
919:
903:
899:
890:
886:
876:
874:
863:
856:
840:
832:
825:
814:
808:
803:. May 17, 2023.
791:
790:
779:
769:
767:
754:
753:
749:
744:
702:ozone-depleting
653:leaded gasoline
645:
621:
601:Priestley Medal
500:
492:
488:
484:
472:
464:
447:
411:Bayway Refinery
409:process at the
297:
295:Leaded gasoline
292:
264:
229:leaded gasoline
206:
180:
169:Priestley Medal
139:
136: 1911)
131:
127:
126:Carrie Reynolds
116:
107:Leaded gasoline
90:Alma mater
85:
79:
75:
66:
60:
54:
52:
44:
41:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3517:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3484:Mass poisoning
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3394:
3388:
3385:Judith Giordan
3382:
3376:
3370:
3367:Luis Echegoyen
3364:
3358:
3352:
3346:
3340:
3334:
3328:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3301:Thomas H. Lane
3298:
3292:
3286:
3280:
3274:
3268:
3262:
3256:
3249:
3247:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3230:
3227:Edel Wasserman
3224:
3218:
3212:
3209:Ronald Breslow
3206:
3200:
3197:Ned D. Heindel
3194:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3021:
3015:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2988:Arthur C. Cope
2985:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2958:John C. Warner
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2931:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2881:Carl S. Marvel
2878:
2872:
2869:Per K. Frolich
2866:
2860:
2854:
2851:Samuel C. Lind
2848:
2842:
2836:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2809:Arthur B. Lamb
2806:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2779:Samuel W. Parr
2776:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2741:
2735:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2711:
2705:
2699:
2693:
2687:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2577:Henry B. Nason
2574:
2568:
2565:T. Sterry Hunt
2562:
2556:
2550:
2547:James C. Booth
2544:
2541:John W. Mallet
2538:
2532:
2526:
2523:T. Sterry Hunt
2520:
2514:
2508:
2505:John W. Draper
2501:
2499:
2495:
2494:
2486:
2485:
2478:
2471:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2446:
2409:
2399:
2358:
2357:External links
2355:
2354:
2353:
2330:
2320:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2273:
2234:
2223:
2197:
2171:
2112:
2078:(3): 315–336.
2055:
2031:
2004:
1975:Brody, Jane E.
1966:
1912:
1861:
1854:
1832:
1808:
1771:
1764:
1737:
1708:McNeill, J.R.
1701:
1672:
1646:
1603:
1586:
1571:
1564:
1537:
1522:
1496:
1459:(6): 607–647.
1434:
1399:
1388:(6): 620–623.
1372:
1345:
1331:
1306:
1282:
1256:
1243:
1228:(8): 827–828.
1212:
1167:
1121:
1086:
1048:
1030:
1019:
992:
950:(4): 384–397.
924:
917:
897:
884:
854:
823:
806:
777:
746:
745:
743:
740:
732:Terence Winter
706:greenhouse gas
674:, writing for
644:
641:
637:Delaware, Ohio
631:. He had been
620:
617:
587:inhalers. The
498:
495:sulfur dioxide
490:
486:
482:
479:methyl formate
470:
462:
446:
443:
415:hallucinations
407:ethyl chloride
403:chemical plant
397:) created the
375:lead poisoning
332:tetraethyllead
316:General Motors
296:
293:
291:
288:
276:Columbus, Ohio
263:
260:
212:
211:
208:
207:
205:
204:
199:
195:
193:
189:
188:
182:
181:
179:
178:
172:
166:
160:
154:
147:
145:
141:
140:
129:
125:
124:
122:
118:
117:
115:
114:
109:
103:
101:
100:Known for
97:
96:
91:
87:
86:
80:
78:(aged 55)
72:
68:
67:
61:
50:
46:
45:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3516:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3449:Air pollution
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3325:Marinda Li Wu
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3259:Eli M. Pearce
3257:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3241:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3191:Helen M. Free
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3095:Henry A. Hill
3093:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3060:Alan C. Nixon
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3048:Melvin Calvin
3046:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2905:Linus Pauling
2903:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2887:Bradley Dewey
2885:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2827:Edward Bartow
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2797:Moses Gomberg
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2730:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2697:
2694:
2691:
2688:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2484:
2479:
2477:
2472:
2470:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2454:
2450:
2447:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2423:
2415:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2338:(page 2 of 2)
2335:
2334:(page 1 of 2)
2331:
2328:
2324:
2321:
2314:
2309:
2308:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2232:
2227:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2066:(July 2007).
2065:
2059:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2026:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2008:
1991:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1825:
1818:
1812:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1788:New Scientist
1785:
1781:
1775:
1767:
1765:0-552-99704-8
1761:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1741:
1724:
1720:
1718:
1711:
1705:
1690:
1686:
1679:
1677:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1607:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1565:0-552-99704-8
1561:
1557:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1338:September 13,
1334:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1286:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1253:
1247:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1067:(1): 313–33.
1066:
1062:
1055:
1053:
1045:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
938:
931:
929:
920:
914:
910:
909:
901:
894:
888:
872:
868:
861:
859:
850:
846:
839:
836:
830:
828:
820:
810:
802:
798:
794:
788:
786:
784:
782:
765:
761:
757:
751:
747:
739:
737:
733:
728:
726:
721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
698:
696:
695:
690:
686:
681:
679:
678:
677:New Scientist
673:
669:
665:
664:J. R. McNeill
662:
658:
654:
650:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
616:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
583:products and
582:
577:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
496:
480:
476:
468:
467:chloromethane
460:
456:
455:refrigeration
452:
442:
439:
435:
430:
427:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
365:
364:Nichols Medal
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
344:Oil companies
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
310:
306:
301:
287:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
259:
255:
253:
249:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
209:
203:
200:
197:
196:
194:
190:
187:
183:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
161:
158:
155:
152:
149:
148:
146:
142:
123:
119:
113:
110:
108:
105:
104:
102:
98:
95:
92:
88:
83:
73:
69:
64:
51:
47:
34:
29:
22:
19:
3244:
3155:Mary L. Good
3042:Byron Riegel
3000:Henry Eyring
2994:Karl Folkers
2874:
2654:John H. Long
2453:Derek Muller
2438:. Retrieved
2431:the original
2426:
2420:
2370:
2364:
2290:. Retrieved
2285:
2276:
2264:. Retrieved
2260:the original
2247:
2237:
2226:
2214:. Retrieved
2210:
2200:
2188:. Retrieved
2184:
2174:
2129:
2125:
2115:
2103:. Retrieved
2075:
2071:
2058:
2049:Mother Jones
2047:
2034:
2025:the original
2017:
2007:
1995:. Retrieved
1990:the original
1982:
1969:
1957:. Retrieved
1929:
1925:
1915:
1880:
1874:
1864:
1845:
1835:
1824:the original
1811:
1799:. Retrieved
1787:
1780:Pearce, Fred
1774:
1750:
1746:Bryson, Bill
1740:
1727:. Retrieved
1723:the original
1716:
1709:
1704:
1692:. Retrieved
1688:
1663:. Retrieved
1658:
1649:
1637:. Retrieved
1628:(2): 66–74.
1625:
1619:
1606:
1596:
1589:
1574:
1550:
1546:Bryson, Bill
1540:
1525:
1517:Google Books
1512:
1508:
1499:
1490:
1485:– via
1456:
1450:
1437:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1358:
1354:
1348:
1336:. Retrieved
1321:
1299:
1285:
1273:. Retrieved
1269:
1259:
1251:
1246:
1237:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1184:
1180:
1170:
1160:November 17,
1158:. Retrieved
1138:
1134:
1124:
1099:
1095:
1089:
1064:
1060:
1043:
1022:
983:. Retrieved
976:the original
947:
943:
907:
900:
892:
887:
875:. Retrieved
870:
848:
844:
809:
796:
770:November 18,
768:. Retrieved
764:the original
750:
729:
722:
720:like Freon.
699:
692:
682:
675:
646:
622:
593:Perkin Medal
578:
564:, the first
523:
503:refrigerants
448:
431:
423:
383:Dayton, Ohio
368:
313:
284:
265:
256:
245:
216:
215:
185:
163:Perkin Medal
76:(1944-11-02)
59:May 18, 1889
18:
3424:1944 deaths
3419:1889 births
3131:Fred Basolo
3054:Max Tishler
2821:Roger Adams
2266:January 21,
2190:February 1,
2064:Nevin, Rick
2040:Drum, Kevin
1729:October 10,
1639:January 28,
708:effects of
672:Fred Pearce
668:Bill Bryson
546:hydrocarbon
241:environment
3413:Categories
3373:H.N. Cheng
2648:Ira Remsen
2216:August 23,
1694:August 23,
1492:efficient.
1415:(7): 361.
1361:(5): 542.
1102:: 209–22.
985:October 7,
918:0521010446
815:MidgleyIEC
797:invent.org
742:References
685:atmosphere
519:Frigidaire
395:ExxonMobil
262:Early life
221:mechanical
55:1889-05-18
3082:1976–2000
2921:1951–1975
2766:1926–1950
2635:1901–1925
2498:1876–1900
2316:(Podcast)
2256:0362-4331
2132:(1): 23.
2105:April 22,
1997:March 22,
1959:April 22,
1932:: 48–55.
1842:"Summary"
1801:April 25,
1748:(2004) .
1548:(2004) .
1239:intended.
1015:0027-8378
819:help page
515:explosive
511:flammable
328:tellurium
2440:June 12,
2395:17833986
2286:IMDb.com
2211:BBC News
2166:26884052
2100:17451672
1954:22484219
1689:BBC News
1630:Archived
1489:Online.
1483:23858990
1293:Archived
1116:14746518
1081:25037135
972:44633845
964:16350473
534:volatile
530:halogens
419:insanity
336:knocking
37:Midgley
3245:present
2404:at the
2375:Bibcode
2366:Science
2292:May 27,
2282:"Midge"
2157:4756504
2134:Bibcode
2080:Bibcode
1934:Bibcode
1907:1854006
1898:1405695
1665:May 26,
1461:Bibcode
1417:Bibcode
1275:May 26,
877:May 27,
871:cnn.com
581:aerosol
544:into a
493:), and
475:propane
459:ammonia
391:bromide
352:ethanol
138:
130:
3393:(2024)
3387:(2023)
3381:(2022)
3375:(2021)
3369:(2020)
3363:(2019)
3357:(2018)
3351:(2017)
3345:(2016)
3339:(2015)
3333:(2014)
3327:(2013)
3321:(2012)
3315:(2011)
3309:(2010)
3303:(2009)
3297:(2008)
3291:(2007)
3285:(2006)
3279:(2005)
3273:(2004)
3267:(2003)
3261:(2002)
3255:(2001)
3235:(2000)
3229:(1999)
3223:(1998)
3217:(1997)
3211:(1996)
3205:(1995)
3199:(1994)
3193:(1993)
3187:(1992)
3181:(1991)
3175:(1990)
3169:(1989)
3163:(1988)
3157:(1987)
3151:(1986)
3145:(1985)
3139:(1984)
3133:(1983)
3127:(1982)
3121:(1981)
3115:(1980)
3109:(1979)
3103:(1978)
3097:(1977)
3091:(1976)
3074:(1975)
3068:(1974)
3062:(1973)
3056:(1972)
3050:(1971)
3044:(1970)
3038:(1969)
3032:(1968)
3026:(1967)
3020:(1966)
3014:(1965)
3008:(1964)
3002:(1963)
2996:(1962)
2990:(1961)
2984:(1960)
2978:(1959)
2972:(1958)
2966:(1957)
2960:(1956)
2954:(1955)
2948:(1954)
2942:(1953)
2936:(1952)
2930:(1951)
2913:(1950)
2907:(1949)
2901:(1948)
2895:(1947)
2889:(1946)
2883:(1945)
2877:(1944)
2871:(1943)
2865:(1942)
2859:(1941)
2853:(1940)
2847:(1939)
2841:(1938)
2835:(1937)
2829:(1936)
2823:(1935)
2817:(1934)
2811:(1933)
2805:(1932)
2799:(1931)
2793:(1930)
2787:(1929)
2781:(1928)
2775:(1927)
2758:(1925)
2752:(1924)
2746:(1923)
2740:(1921)
2734:(1920)
2728:(1918)
2722:(1917)
2716:(1915)
2710:(1914)
2704:(1912)
2698:(1911)
2692:(1910)
2686:(1909)
2680:(1907)
2674:(1906)
2668:(1905)
2662:(1904)
2656:(1903)
2650:(1902)
2644:(1901)
2627:(1900)
2621:(1899)
2615:(1898)
2609:(1896)
2603:(1895)
2597:(1893)
2591:(1892)
2585:(1891)
2579:(1890)
2573:(1889)
2567:(1888)
2561:(1887)
2555:(1886)
2549:(1883)
2543:(1882)
2537:(1881)
2531:(1880)
2525:(1879)
2519:(1878)
2513:(1877)
2507:(1876)
2393:
2254:
2164:
2154:
2098:
1952:
1905:
1895:
1852:
1762:
1562:
1481:
1329:
1155:763299
1153:
1114:
1079:
970:
962:
915:
643:Legacy
585:asthma
517:. The
379:DuPont
290:Career
192:Fields
177:(1942)
171:(1941)
165:(1937)
159:(1925)
153:(1922)
144:Awards
121:Spouse
84:, U.S.
65:, U.S.
3243:2001–
2434:(PDF)
2417:(PDF)
1827:(PDF)
1820:(PDF)
1633:(PDF)
1616:(PDF)
979:(PDF)
968:S2CID
940:(PDF)
841:(PDF)
657:freon
625:polio
619:Death
570:Freon
507:toxic
501:) as
473:Cl),
445:Freon
438:vapor
371:Miami
248:polio
237:Freon
132:(
128:
2442:2012
2391:PMID
2294:2024
2268:2024
2252:ISSN
2218:2016
2192:2018
2185:Time
2162:PMID
2107:2022
2096:PMID
1999:2023
1961:2022
1950:PMID
1903:PMID
1850:ISBN
1803:2022
1760:ISBN
1731:2009
1696:2016
1667:2024
1641:2023
1598:Time
1560:ISBN
1479:PMID
1340:2010
1327:ISBN
1277:2024
1199:and
1162:2020
1151:PMID
1112:PMID
1077:PMID
1012:ISSN
987:2018
960:PMID
913:ISBN
879:2024
772:2011
718:CFCs
704:and
694:Time
655:and
453:and
346:and
223:and
112:CFCs
71:Died
49:Born
2383:doi
2336:,
2152:PMC
2142:doi
2088:doi
2076:104
1942:doi
1893:PMC
1885:doi
1792:doi
1469:doi
1425:doi
1390:doi
1363:doi
1270:CNN
1230:doi
1203:doi
1189:doi
1143:doi
1139:300
1104:doi
1069:doi
952:doi
651:of
576:".
574:R12
513:or
497:(SO
469:(CH
465:),
461:(NH
354:or
338:in
322:at
305:TEL
272:saw
3415::
2427:31
2425:.
2419:.
2389:.
2381:.
2371:96
2369:.
2348:,
2344:,
2340:.
2284:.
2250:.
2246:.
2209:.
2183:.
2160:.
2150:.
2140:.
2130:15
2128:.
2124:.
2094:.
2086:.
2074:.
2070:.
2046:.
2016:.
1981:.
1948:.
1940:.
1930:43
1928:.
1924:.
1901:.
1891:.
1881:81
1879:.
1873:.
1844:.
1790:.
1786:.
1687:.
1675:^
1657:.
1626:31
1624:.
1618:.
1532:–
1513:33
1511:.
1507:.
1477:.
1467:.
1457:63
1455:.
1449:.
1423:.
1413:39
1411:.
1386:24
1384:.
1359:22
1357:.
1309:^
1268:.
1236:.
1226:17
1224:.
1185:22
1183:.
1179:.
1149:.
1137:.
1133:.
1110:.
1100:55
1098:.
1075:.
1065:61
1063:.
1051:^
1033:^
1010:.
995:^
966:.
958:.
948:11
946:.
942:.
927:^
869:.
857:^
849:24
847:.
843:.
826:^
821:).
799:.
795:.
780:^
758:.
659:.
509:,
481:(C
477:,
417:,
134:m.
39:c.
2482:e
2475:t
2468:v
2444:.
2397:.
2385::
2377::
2318:.
2296:.
2270:.
2220:.
2194:.
2168:.
2144::
2136::
2109:.
2090::
2082::
2052:.
2001:.
1963:.
1944::
1936::
1909:.
1887::
1858:.
1805:.
1794::
1768:.
1735:)
1733:.
1719:"
1715:"
1698:.
1669:.
1643:.
1583:.
1568:.
1519:.
1471::
1463::
1431:.
1427::
1419::
1396:.
1392::
1369:.
1365::
1342:.
1279:.
1232::
1209:)
1205::
1197:.
1191::
1164:.
1145::
1118:.
1106::
1083:.
1071::
989:.
954::
921:.
881:.
774:.
499:2
491:2
489:O
487:4
485:H
483:2
471:3
463:3
57:)
53:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
