181:) indicates a more efficient device. However, when comparing two devices with different die-free package thermal resistances (Ex. DirectFET MT vs wirebond 5x6mm PQFN), their junction to ambient or junction to case resistance values may not correlate directly to their comparative efficiencies. Different semiconductor packages may have different die orientations, different copper(or other metal) mass surrounding the die, different die attach mechanics, and different molding thickness, all of which could yield significantly different junction to case or junction to ambient resistance values, and could thus obscure overall efficiency numbers.
683:(EFA) is a device which pumps a fluid such as air without any moving parts. Instead of using rotating blades, as in a conventional fan, an EFA uses an electric field to propel electrically charged air molecules. Because air molecules are normally neutrally charged, the EFA has to create some charged molecules, or ions, first. Thus there are three basic steps in the fluid acceleration process: ionize air molecules, use those ions to push many more neutral molecules in a desired direction, and then recapture and neutralize the ions to eliminate any net charge.
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are discovered, the project is delayed while a solution is sought. A change to the design of a PCB or enclosure part may be required to fix the issue, which will take time and cost a significant amount of money. If thermal simulation is used as part of the design process of the equipment, thermal design issue will be identified before a prototype is built. Fixing an issue at the design stage is both quicker and cheaper than modifying the design after a prototype is created.
41:
804:
air-distribution system is to distribute conditioned air in such a way that the electronic equipment is cooled effectively. The overall cooling efficiency depends on how the air distribution system moves air through the equipment room, how the equipment moves air through the equipment frames, and how these airflows interact with one another. High heat-dissipation levels rely heavily on a seamless integration of equipment-cooling and room-cooling designs.
92:
808:
gradients develop quickly should a cooling outage occur; this has been well documented through computer modeling and direct measurements and observations. Although environmental backup systems may be in place, there are situations when they will not help. In a recent case, telecommunications equipment in a major central office was overheated, and critical services were interrupted by a complete cooling shut down initiated by a false smoke alarm.
65:
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in direct contact with the cooling fluid. It is shown that the thick plate can significantly improve the heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite different from fins (extended surfaces).
833:
environment and environmental baseline criteria, including the supply airflow capacity, air diffusion into the equipment space, and air-distribution/equipment interactions. In addition to being used for developing the HRTs, the EC Classification can be used to show compliance on product sheets, provide internal design specifications, or specify requirements in purchase orders.
500:, thus making complex cross-sections possible. Aluminum is also much lighter than copper, offering less mechanical stress on delicate electronic components. Some heat sinks made from aluminum have a copper core as a trade off. The heat sink's contact surface (the base) must be flat and smooth to ensure the best thermal contact with the object needing cooling. Frequently a
586:), all other gases being excluded. The most common heat pipe for electronics thermal management has a copper envelope and wick, with water as the working fluid. Copper/methanol is used if the heat pipe needs to operate below the freezing point of water, and aluminum/ammonia heat pipes are used for electronics cooling in space.
811:
A major obstacle for effective thermal management is the way heat-release data is currently reported. Suppliers generally specify the maximum (nameplate) heat release from the equipment. In reality, equipment configuration and traffic diversity will result in significantly lower heat release numbers.
724:
Thermal simulations give engineers a visual representation of the temperature and airflow inside the equipment. Thermal simulations enable engineers to design the cooling system; to optimise a design to reduce power consumption, weight and cost; and to verify the thermal design to ensure there are no
176:
device. The units are °C/W. For example, a heatsink rated at 10 °C/W will get 10 °C hotter than the surrounding air when it dissipates 1 Watt of heat. Thus, a heatsink with a low °C/W value is more efficient than a heatsink with a high °C/W value. Given two semiconductor devices in the same
849:
Energy consumption by telecommunications equipment currently accounts for a high percentage of the total energy consumed in central offices. Most of this energy is subsequently released as heat to the surrounding equipment space. Since most of the remaining central office energy use goes to cool the
836:
The Room-Cooling classification (RC-Class) refers to the way the overall equipment space is air-conditioned (cooled). The main purpose of RC-Classes is to provide a logical classification and description of legacy and non-legacy room-cooling schemes or protocols in the central office environment. In
758:
Traditionally, the first time the thermal design of the equipment is verified is after a prototype has been built. The device is powered up, perhaps inside an environmental chamber, and temperatures of the critical parts of the system are measured using sensors such as thermocouples. If any problems
737:
Thermal simulation is often required to determine how to effectively cool components within design constraints. Simulation enables the design and verification of the thermal design of the equipment at a very early stage and throughout the design of the electronic and mechanical parts. Designing with
703:
cooling sinks are being researched to provide better cooling. Boron arsenide has been reported with high thermal conductivity and high thermal boundary conductance with gallium nitride transistors and thus better performance than diamond and silicon carbide cooling technologies. For example, funded
670:
Synthetic jet air movers have no moving parts and are thus maintenance free. Due to the high heat transfer coefficients, high reliability but lower overall flow rates, Synthetic jet air movers are usually used at the chip level and not at the system level for cooling. However depending on the size
666:
is produced by a continual flow of vortices that are formed by alternating brief ejection and suction of air across an opening such that the net mass flux is zero. A unique feature of these jets is that they are formed entirely from the working fluid of the flow system in which they are deployed can
649:
There are no moving parts, so a
Peltier plate is maintenance free. It has a relatively low efficiency, so thermoelectric cooling is generally used for electronic devices, such as infra-red sensors, that need to operate at temperatures below ambient. For cooling these devices, the solid state nature
645:
to create a heat flux between the junction of two different conductors of electricity by applying an electric current. This effect is commonly used for cooling electronic components and small instruments. In practice, many such junctions may be arranged in series to increase the effect to the amount
840:
Supplemental-Cooling classes (SC-Class) provide a classification of supplemental cooling techniques. Service providers use supplemental/spot-cooling solutions to supplement the cooling capacity (e.g., to treat occurrences of “hot spots”) provided by the general room-cooling protocol as expressed by
520:
Online heat sink calculators from companies such as Novel
Concepts, Inc. and at www.heatsinkcalculator.com can accurately estimate forced and natural convection heat sink performance. For more complex heat sink geometries, or heat sinks with multiple materials or multiple fluids, computation fluid
413:
Placing a conductive thick metal plate, referred to as a cold plate, as a heat transfer interface between a heat source and a cold flowing fluid (or any other heat sink) may improve the cooling performance. In such arrangement, the heat source is cooled under the thick plate instead of being cooled
824:
In the traditional room cooling class utilized by the majority of service providers, equipment cooling would benefit from air intake and exhaust locations that help move air from the front aisle to the rear aisle. The traditional front-bottom to top-rear pattern, however, has been replaced in some
820:
As stated in GR-3028, most equipment environments maintain cool front (maintenance) aisles and hot rear (wiring) aisles, where cool supply air is delivered to the front aisles and hot air is removed from the rear aisles. This scheme provides multiple benefits, including effective equipment cooling
749:
It is easy to design a cooling system for almost any equipment if there is unlimited space, power and budget. However, the majority of equipment will have a rigid specification that leaves a limited margin for error. There is a constant pressure to reduce power requirements, system weight and cost
799:
the most common way of cooling modern telecommunications equipment internally is by utilizing multiple high-speed fans to create forced convection cooling. Although direct and indirect liquid cooling may be introduced in the future, the current design of new electronic equipment is geared towards
787:
Thermal management measures must be taken to accommodate high heat release equipment in telecommunications rooms. Generic supplemental/spot cooling techniques, as well as turnkey cooling solutions developed by equipment manufacturers are viable solutions. Such solutions could allow very high heat
321:
In the battery used for electric vehicles, Nominal battery performance is usually specified for working temperatures somewhere in the +20 °C to +30 °C range; however, the actual performance can deviate substantially from this if the battery is operated at higher or, in particular, lower
807:
The existing environmental solutions in telecommunications facilities have inherent limitations. For example, most mature central offices have limited space available for large air duct installations that are required for cooling high heat density equipment rooms. Furthermore, steep temperature
516:
Heat sink performance (including free convection, forced convection, liquid cooled, and any combination thereof) is a function of material, geometry, and overall surface heat transfer coefficient. Generally, forced convection heat sink thermal performance is improved by increasing the thermal
832:
The EC-Class syntax provides a flexible and important “common language.” It is used for developing Heat-Release
Targets (HRTs), which are important for network reliability, equipment and space planning, and infrastructure capacity planning. HRTs take into account physical limitations of the
803:
A well-developed "holistic" approach is required to understand current and future thermal management problems. Space cooling on one hand, and equipment cooling on the other, cannot be viewed as two isolated parts of the overall thermal challenge. The main purpose of an equipment facility's
850:
equipment room, the economic impact of making the electronic equipment energy-efficient would be considerable for companies that use and operate telecommunications equipment. It would reduce capital costs for support systems, and improve thermal conditions in the equipment room.
491:
alloy. Copper and aluminum are among the most-frequently used materials for this purpose within electronic devices. Copper (401 W/(m·K) at 300 K) is significantly more expensive than aluminum (237 W/(m·K) at 300 K) but is also roughly twice as efficient as a
750:
parts, without compromising performance or reliability. Thermal simulation allows experimentation with optimisation, such as modifying heatsink geometry or reducing fan speeds in a virtual environment, which is faster, cheaper and safer than physical experiment and measurement.
400:
A heat sink usually consists of a metal structure with one or more flat surfaces to ensure good thermal contact with the components to be cooled, and an array of comb or fin like protrusions to increase the surface contact with the air, and thus the rate of heat dissipation.
100:
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with the second, lowering the temperature of the first object, fulfilling the heat sink's role as a cooling device. Efficient function of a heat sink relies on rapid transfer of thermal energy from the first object to the heat sink, and the heat sink to the second object.
517:
conductivity of the heat sink materials, increasing the surface area (usually by adding extended surfaces, such as fins or foam metal) and by increasing the overall area heat transfer coefficient (usually by increase fluid velocity, such as adding fans, pumps, etc.).
686:
The basic principle has been understood for some time but only in recent years have seen developments in the design and manufacture of EFA devices that may allow them to find practical and economical applications, such as in micro-cooling of electronics components.
459:
A heat sink usually consists of a base with one or more flat surfaces and an array of comb or fin-like protrusions to increase the heat sink's surface area contacting the air, and thus increasing the heat dissipation rate. While a heat sink is a static object, a
828:
A classification of equipment (shelves and cabinets) into
Equipment-Cooling (EC) classes serves the purpose of classifying the equipment with regard to the cooling air intake and hot air exhaust locations, i.e., the equipment airflow schemes or protocols.
189:
A heatsink's thermal mass can be considered as a capacitor (storing heat instead of charge) and the thermal resistance as an electrical resistance (giving a measure of how fast stored heat can be dissipated). Together, these two components form a thermal
404:
A heat sink is sometimes used in conjunction with a fan to increase the rate of airflow over the heat sink. This maintains a larger temperature gradient by replacing warmed air faster than convection would. This is known as a forced air system.
260:
computer systems because the higher a microprocessor's cooling rate, the faster the computer can operate without instability; generally, faster operation leads to higher performance. Many companies now compete to offer the best heat sink for
708:, research has been underway using high-power density gallium nitride transistors with synthetic diamonds as thermal conductors. Also, some heat sinks are constructed of multiple materials with desirable characteristics, such as
533:
currents of the warm air being allowed to escape the confines of the component to be replaced by cooler air. Since warm air normally rises, this method usually requires venting at the top or sides of the casing to be effective.
589:
The advantage of heat pipes is their great efficiency in transferring heat. The thermal conductivity of heat pipes can be as high as 100,000 W/m K, in contrast to copper, which has a thermal conductivity of around 400 W/m K.
542:
If there is more air being forced into a system than being pumped out (due to an imbalance in the number of fans), this is referred to as a 'positive' airflow, as the pressure inside the unit is higher than outside.
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of the metal combined with its large surface area result in the rapid transfer of thermal energy to the surrounding, cooler, air. This cools the heat sink and whatever it is in direct thermal contact with. Use of
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with an associated time constant given by the product of R and C. This quantity can be used to calculate the dynamic heat dissipation capability of a device, in an analogous way to the electrical case.
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29:
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Using thermal simulation as part of the design process enables the creation of an optimal and innovative product design that performs to specification and meets customers' reliability requirements.
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Free convection thermoelectric cooler (Peltier cooler) with heat sink surface temperature contours, and rising warmer air and falling cooler air flow trajectories, predicted using a
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451:(in cooling electronic devices) ensures good transfer of thermal energy to the heat sink. Similarly, a fan may improve the transfer of thermal energy from the heat sink to the air.
151:, heat pipes, and others. In cases of extreme low environmental temperatures, it may actually be necessary to heat the electronic components to achieve satisfactory operation.
508:. Further, a clamping mechanism, screws, or thermal adhesive hold the heat sink tightly onto the component, but specifically without pressure that would crush the component.
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circuit boards, preventing excessive heat from damaging sensitive nearby electronics. In the simplest case, this means partially gripping a component using a heavy metal
32:
60×60×10 mm straight-finned heat sink with a thermal profile and swirling animated forced convection flow trajectories from a tubeaxial fan, predicted using a
574:, and a wick to return the working fluid from the evaporator to the condenser. The pipe contains both saturated liquid and vapor of a working fluid (such as
837:
addition to being used for developing HRTs, the RC-classification can be used in internal central office design specifications or in purchase orders.
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release equipment to be housed in a central office that has a heat density at or near the cooling capacity available from the central air handler.
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has always meant greater cooling needs, and the inherently hotter chips meant more concerns for the enthusiast. Efficient heat sinks are vital to
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A balanced or neutral airflow is the most efficient, although a slightly positive airflow can result in less dust build up if filtered properly
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Due to recent technological developments and public interest, the retail heat sink market has reached an all-time high. In the early 2000s,
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of the
Peltier plates outweighs their poor efficiency. Thermoelectric junctions are typically around 10% as efficient as the ideal
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between the hot and cold interfaces. A typical heat pipe consists of sealed hollow tube made of a thermoconductive metal such as
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309:, can usually tolerate soldering temperatures without damage. On the other hand, electrical components such as magnetic
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4 MATERIALS ISSUES - Materials for High-Density
Electronic Packaging and Interconnection - The National Academies Press
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input, if there are no other energy interactions. There are several techniques for cooling including various styles of
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945:"OSHA Technical Manual (OTM) - Section III: Chapter 4 - Heat Stress - Occupational Safety and Health Administration"
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equipment with other airflow patterns that may not ensure adequate equipment cooling in high heat density areas.
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were produced that emitted more and more heat than earlier, escalating requirements for quality cooling systems.
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thermal properties in mind from the start reduces the risk of last minute design changes to fix thermal issues.
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often aids a heat sink by providing increased airflow over the heat sink—thus maintaining a larger temperature
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Radial Heat Sink with
Thermal Profile and Swirling Forced Convection Flow Trajectories (using CFD analysis)
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426:("heat") from an object at high temperature to a second object at a lower temperature with a much greater
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can malfunction if exposed to higher powered soldering irons, so this practice is still very much in use.
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There are a wide range of software tools that are designed for thermal simulation of electronics include
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1090:"Spot Cooling Heat Pipes - When to Use Heat Pipes, HiK™ Plates, Vapor Chambers, and Conduction Cooling"
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is a heat transfer device that uses evaporation and condensation of a two-phase "working fluid" or
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by replacing the warmed air more quickly than passive convection achieves alone—this is known as a
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Pin Fin Heat Sink with
Thermal Profile and Dione Convection Flow Trajectories (using CFD analysis)
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are examples of electronics that need a heat sink to reduce their temperature through increased
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produce a net momentum to the flow of a system without net mass injection to the system.
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Regulation of the temperature of electronic circuitry to prevent inefficiency or failure
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Heat
Management in Integrated circuits: On-chip and system-level monitoring and cooling
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or similar clamp. Modern semiconductor devices, which are designed to be assembled by
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refrigerator, compared with 40% achieved by conventional compression cycle systems.
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overclocking enthusiasts. Prominent aftermarket heat sink manufacturers include:
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temperatures, so some electric cars have heating and cooling for their batteries.
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19:"Heat dissipation" redirects here. For passive heat dissipation in buildings, see
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The most common design of a heat sink is a metal device with many fins. The high
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1130:"New chip coated with man-made diamonds promises smaller, more powerful radars"
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233:. It has a higher thermal conductivity value in Z-direction than xy-direction.
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1108:"Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Introduction to Thermoelectric Cooling"
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430:. This rapid transfer of thermal energy quickly brings the first object into
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and have become essential to modern microelectronics. In common use, it is a
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Thermal
Management in Telecommunications Central Offices: Thermal GR-3028,
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issues when the equipment is built. Most thermal simulation software uses
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1227:. London, United Kingdom: The Institution of Engineering and Technology.
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496:. Aluminum has the significant advantage that it can be easily formed by
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techniques to predict temperature and airflow of an electronics system.
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is used to ensure optimal thermal contact; such compounds often contain
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to transport large quantities of heat with a very small difference in
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1258:"New Carbon Nanotube Sheets Claim World's Top Heat-Sink Performance"
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dynamics (CFD) analysis is recommended (see graphics on this page).
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Ideally, heat sinks are made from a good thermal conductor such as
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1156:"Raytheon to Modernize Tactical Radio Frequency Sensors for DARPA"
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and complexity of the systems they can be used for both at times.
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963:"The Effect of Forced Air Cooling on Heat Sink Thermal Ratings"
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1072:"Heat Sink Calculator: Online Heat Sink Analysis and Design"
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More recently, high thermal conductivity materials such as
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Thermal Management in Telecommunications Central Offices,
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1262:
IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News
1180:"White Paper: Thermal Simulation in the Design Process"
712:, which can store a great deal of energy due to their
917:
Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications
381:). Heat sinks have become almost essential to modern
353:
component's hot surface—though in most cases, a thin
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177:package, a lower junction to ambient resistance (R
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422:Heat sinks function by efficiently transferring
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297:Temporary heat sinks were sometimes used while
107:(aluminium) incorporating a heat pipe (copper)
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447:(for example coolants in refrigeration) and
135:. The amount of heat output is equal to the
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600:Thermoelectric effect § Peltier effect
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529:This term describes device cooling by the
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1036:"Reed Switches - Electronics in Meccano"
229:, in order to increase thermal transfer
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800:maintaining air as the cooling medium.
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914:Cengel, Yunus; Ghajar, Afshin (2015).
860:Heat generation in integrated circuits
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870:Thermal management of high-power LEDs
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923:. McGraw Hill. pp. Chapter 15.
349:object brought into contact with an
211:thermal interface material or mastic
369:and heat dissipation (primarily by
357:mediates between the two surfaces.
217:) is used to fill the gaps between
60:Heat sink in a workstation computer
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865:Thermal resistance in electronics
720:Thermal simulation of electronics
1409:Failure of electronic components
675:Electrostatic fluid acceleration
646:of heating or cooling required.
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783:Telecommunications environments
681:electrostatic fluid accelerator
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95:CPU heat sink with fan attached
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341:Heat sinks are widely used in
164:This is usually quoted as the
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1154:Manuel, Rojoef (2023-11-17).
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821:and high thermal efficiency.
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160:Thermal resistance of devices
1404:List of emerging electronics
1223:Ogrenci-Memik, Seda (2015).
1054:"Battery Thermal Management"
727:Computational fluid dynamics
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68:An artist's impression of a
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502:thermally conductive grease
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10:
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706:U.S. Department of Defense
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455:Construction and materials
449:thermal interface material
377:and to a lesser extent by
355:thermal interface material
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221:surfaces, such as between
205:Thermal interface material
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199:Thermal interface material
72:heat sink, rendered using
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1776:Computer hardware cooling
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816:Equipment cooling classes
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658:Synthetic jet air cooling
147:, forced air systems and
1647:Electromagnetic warfare
1617:Automotive electronics
1566:Robotic vacuum cleaner
1526:Information technology
1331:Electronic engineering
1076:heatsinkcalculator.com
710:phase change materials
641:take advantage of the
605:Peltier cooling plates
594:Peltier cooling plates
525:Convective air cooling
185:Thermal time constants
145:thermoelectric coolers
131:and prevent premature
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1551:Portable media player
1424:Molecular electronics
1419:Low-power electronics
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1745:Terahertz technology
1726:Open-source hardware
1682:Consumer electronics
1652:Electronics industry
1414:Flexible electronics
1321:Analogue electronics
875:Thermal design power
440:thermal conductivity
1721:Nuclear electronics
1546:Networking hardware
1449:Quantum electronics
1434:Organic electronics
1356:Printed electronics
1326:Digital electronics
691:Recent developments
432:thermal equilibrium
383:integrated circuits
361:and power handling
1699:Marine electronics
1672:Integrated circuit
1591:Video game console
1389:2020s in computing
1371:Thermal management
538:Forced air cooling
242:Personal computers
166:thermal resistance
125:thermal management
113:electronic devices
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1740:Radio electronics
1366:Schematic capture
1351:Power electronics
1264:. 7 December 2017
1021:978-0-309-04233-8
697:synthetic diamond
494:thermal conductor
470:forced-air system
123:and thus require
87:analysis package.
36:analysis package.
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1735:Radio navigation
1632:Data acquisition
1341:Microelectronics
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1182:. Archived from
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1160:The Defense Post
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968:. Archived from
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885:Computer cooling
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506:colloidal silver
307:reflow soldering
219:thermal transfer
119:generate excess
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1692:Small appliance
1687:Major appliance
1667:Home automation
1657:Embedded system
1612:Audio equipment
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1596:Washing machine
1521:Home theater PC
1477:Central heating
1472:Air conditioner
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1429:Nanoelectronics
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1336:Instrumentation
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359:Microprocessors
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21:passive cooling
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598:Main article:
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791:According to
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1605:Applications
1586:Water heater
1561:Refrigerator
1541:Mobile phone
1444:Piezotronics
1370:
1266:. Retrieved
1261:
1224:
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1199:
1188:. Retrieved
1184:the original
1174:
1163:. Retrieved
1159:
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1138:. Retrieved
1136:. 2023-11-16
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399:
397:, and more.
367:thermal mass
340:
320:
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275:Thermalright
254:Overclocking
252:
245:
237:Applications
214:
210:
208:
188:
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110:
25:
1712:electronics
1516:Home cinema
1454:Spintronics
1394:Atomtronics
1307:Electronics
1134:Defense One
564:temperature
512:Performance
343:electronics
279:Thermaltake
258:overclocked
129:reliability
127:to improve
70:motherboard
1770:Categories
1716:Multimedia
1706:technology
1581:Television
1511:Home robot
1501:Dishwasher
1463:Electronic
1268:2017-12-09
1209:Telcordia.
1190:2015-08-27
1165:2023-11-30
1140:2023-11-30
1110:. Ferrotec
979:2010-06-29
901:References
550:Heat pipes
531:convection
409:Cold plate
375:convection
371:conduction
351:electronic
331:Heat sinks
231:efficiency
192:RC circuit
141:heat sinks
1704:Microwave
1576:Telephone
1465:equipment
1439:Photonics
1243:934678500
880:Heat pipe
795:GR-3028,
793:Telcordia
572:aluminium
556:heat pipe
498:extrusion
418:Principle
379:radiation
337:Heat sink
317:Batteries
299:soldering
293:Soldering
267:Aero Cool
227:heatsinks
117:circuitry
105:heat sink
1754:Wireless
1710:Military
1642:e-health
1622:Avionics
1491:Notebook
1487:Computer
1380:Advanced
1314:Branches
1114:30 April
998:. 1990.
890:Radiator
854:See also
769:6SigmaET
763:Software
745:Optimise
580:methanol
489:aluminum
466:gradient
283:Swiftech
170:junction
155:Overview
1506:Freezer
704:by the
584:ammonia
560:coolant
271:Foxconn
133:failure
1637:e-book
1571:Tablet
1531:Cooker
1496:Camera
1382:topics
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754:Verify
733:Design
568:copper
485:copper
477:silver
445:fluids
287:Zalman
285:, and
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1750:Wired
1731:Radar
1556:Radio
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966:(PDF)
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773:Ansys
576:water
487:, or
385:like
347:metal
213:(aka
168:from
137:power
1752:and
1733:and
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1229:ISBN
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391:DSPs
373:and
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