20:
2159:
high thermal effusivity does not change as drastically. Deriving and understanding the thermal inertia of the surface can help to recognize small-scale features of that surface. In conjunction with other data, thermal inertia can help to characterize surface materials and the geologic processes responsible for forming these materials.
2158:
A rough approximation to thermal inertia is sometimes obtained from the amplitude of the diurnal temperature curve (i.e. maximum minus minimum surface temperature). The temperature of a material with low thermal effusivity changes significantly during the day, while the temperature of a material with
1608:
Even though the underlying heat equation is parabolic and not hyperbolic (i.e. it does not support waves), if we in some rough sense allow ourselves to think of a temperature jump as two materials are brought into contact as a "signal", then the transmission of the temperature signal from 1 to 2 is
1600:
2791:
1318:
561:
can be reached by a body. By contrast a body's effusivity (also sometimes called inertia, accumulation, responsiveness etc.) is its ability to resist a temperature change when subjected to a time-periodic, or similarly perturbative,
2054:
1958:
183:
1670:. Clearly, this analogy must be used with caution; among other caveats, it only applies in a transient sense, to media which are large enough (or time scales short enough) to be considered effectively infinite in extent.
2238:(due to surface roughness, oxidation, impurities, etc.) between the sensor and sample may also exist. Evaluations with high heat dissipation (driven by large temperature differentials) can likewise be influenced by an
1057:
893:
541:
2326:
332:
271:
553:
are related quantities; respectively a product versus a ratio of a material's fundamental transport and storage properties. The diffusivity appears explicitly in the heat equation, which is an energy
1128:
964:
2089:
1413:
2931:
796:
2203:. Thermal effusivity and diffusivity of the materials being inspected can serve to simplify the mathematical modelling of, and thus interpretation of results from these techniques.
2125:
1668:
347:
to heat flow through a thin surface-like region. It becomes particularly useful when the region is selected adjacent to a material's actual surface. Knowing the effusivity and
2155:
applications, thermal inertia represents a complex combination of particle size, rock abundance, bedrock outcropping and the degree of induration (i.e. thickness and hardness).
1605:
This expression is valid for all times for semi-infinite bodies in perfect thermal contact. It is also a good first guess for the initial contact temperature for finite bodies.
1382:
1352:
998:
834:
1167:
99:
1134:
Assume that the temperature within the characteristic diffusion length on either side of the boundary between the two materials is uniformly at the contact temperature
1875:
1405:
742:
65:
1855:
1788:
119:
1815:
1159:
719:
692:
658:
631:
604:
434:
407:
376:
1835:
1751:
1724:
206:
1963:
1883:
127:
2242:. All of these factors, along with the body's finite dimensions, must be considered during execution of measurements and interpretation of results.
664:
based on their relative effusivities. This relationship can be demonstrated with a very simple "control volume" back-of-the-envelope calculation:
436:
are the temperature of the two bodies, then upon contact, the temperature of the contact interface (assumed to be a smooth surface) becomes
1006:
842:
2726:
Rajamanickam, P. (2020). Thermal explosion characteristics of a gelled hypergolic droplet. Journal of
Propulsion and Power, 36(2), 264-270.
2174:. The thermal effusivities of stagnant and frozen water underestimate the vast thermal inertia of the dynamic and multi-layered ocean.
442:
563:
2908:
1678:
An application of thermal effusivity is the quasi-qualitative measurement of coolness or warmth "feel" of materials, also known as
2267:
276:
215:
2606:
i.e. their thermal capacity is sufficiently large that their temperatures will not change measurably owing to this heat transfer
1062:
898:
2250:
This is a list of the thermal effusivity of some common substances, evaluated at room temperature unless otherwise indicated.
2711:
2675:
1595:{\displaystyle T_{m}=T_{1}+\left(T_{2}-T_{1}\right){\frac {r_{2}}{r_{2}+r_{1}}}={\frac {r_{1}T_{1}+r_{2}T_{2}}{r_{1}+r_{2}}}}
2231:. The diffusive process of conduction may dominate the thermal behavior of solid bodies near and below room temperature.
2059:
2192:
methods that utilize the wave-like characteristics of heat propagation through a transfer medium. These methods include
1682:. It is a particularly important metric for textiles, fabrics, and building materials. Rather than temperature, skin
348:
2621:
2826:"Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment: Investigation description and surface science results"
3127:
1730:
thermal response (rigorously, during times less than the heat diffusion time to transit the wall) as the insulation
2136:
751:
2763:
2239:
2932:"Novel Analytical Approach for Estimation of Thermal Diffusivity and Effusivity for Detection of Osteoporosis"
2211:
When a material is measured from the surface with short test times by any transient method or instrument, the
2094:
1690:, a high effusivity metal object is detected as cool while a low effusivity fabric is sensed as being warmer.
1686:
are highly responsive to the inward or outward flow of heat. Thus, despite having similar temperatures near
744:
after being brought into contact, heat will have diffused across the boundary between the two materials. The
340:
for a semi-infinite rigid body where heat transfer is dominated by the diffusive process of conduction only.
209:
667:
Consider the following 1D heat conduction problem. Region 1 is material 1, initially at uniform temperature
3132:
2825:
2572:
1612:
2151:
such as Mars can be approximated from the thermal effusivity of its near-surface geologic materials. In
208:
to denote the thermal responsivity, although it usuage along with an exponential becomes difficult. The
3142:
2894:
2235:
2220:
3137:
2183:
2167:
1313:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{1}(\rho c_{p})_{1}(T_{1}-T_{m})=\Delta x_{2}(\rho c_{p})_{2}(T_{m}-T_{2})}
68:
2999:
1357:
1327:
973:
809:
2761:
Williams, F. A. (2009). "Simplified theory for ignition times of hypergolic gelled propellants".
3105:
74:
2189:
546:
Specialty sensors have also been developed based on this relationship to measure effusivity.
1860:
1387:
724:
50:
3050:
1840:
1760:
554:
104:
2943:
2840:
1793:
1137:
697:
670:
636:
609:
582:
412:
385:
354:
44:
2740:
1161:(this is the essence of a control-volume approach). Conservation of energy dictates that
8:
2577:
745:
558:
550:
43:
with its surroundings. It is defined as the square root of the product of the material's
2947:
2844:
2959:
2647:
2216:
2148:
1820:
1736:
1709:
1703:
803:
351:
of each of two material bodies then enables an estimate of their interface temperature
191:
2963:
2707:
2671:
2224:
101:) or as the ratio of thermal conductivity to the square root of thermal diffusivity (
3083:
2049:{\displaystyle t<t_{L}={\frac {L^{2}}{4\pi \alpha }}={\frac {r^{2}}{4\pi U^{2}}}}
1953:{\displaystyle U_{dyn}(t)=r{\sqrt {\frac {\pi }{4t}}}\approx {\frac {r}{\sqrt {t}}}}
2951:
2875:
2848:
2806:
2772:
2699:
2643:
1687:
178:{\displaystyle r={\frac {\lambda }{\sqrt {\alpha }}}={\sqrt {\lambda \rho c_{p}}}.}
2665:
2163:
1699:
379:
336:
23:
Thermal effusivity sensor typically used in the direct measurement of materials.
2152:
1683:
633:
are brought in perfect thermal contact, the temperature at the contact surface
40:
28:
2955:
2810:
2703:
343:
Thermal effusivity is a parameter that emerges upon applying solutions of the
3121:
2587:
2582:
2228:
2212:
2140:
1679:
799:
661:
344:
2879:
2162:
On Earth, thermal inertia of the global ocean is a major factor influencing
2866:
Price, John C. (20 June 1977). "Thermal
Mapping: A New View of the Earth".
2195:
2245:
2852:
2171:
2144:
1757:
temperature obtained by the side after a long time. A dynamic U-factor
2166:. Ocean thermal inertia is much greater than land inertia because of
1052:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{2}\simeq {\sqrt {\alpha _{2}\cdot \Delta t}}}
888:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{1}\simeq {\sqrt {\alpha _{1}\cdot \Delta t}}}
2930:
Sharma, Anshul; Mulaveesala, Ravibabu; Arora, Vanita (1 June 2020).
2776:
1731:
19:
536:{\displaystyle T_{m}={\frac {r_{1}T_{1}+r_{2}T_{2}}{r_{1}+r_{2}}}}
16:
Ability of a material to exchange thermal energy with surroundings
334:. Thermal effusivity is a good approximation for the material's
694:, and region 2 is material 2, initially at uniform temperature
2321:{\displaystyle {\rm {kJ}}/({\rm {m^{2}K}}{\sqrt {\rm {s}}})}
327:{\displaystyle {\rm {J}}/({\rm {m^{2}K}}{\sqrt {\rm {s}}})}
266:{\displaystyle {\rm {W}}{\sqrt {\rm {s}}}/({\rm {m^{2}K}})}
2147:
surface temperature variations. The thermal inertia of a
1123:{\displaystyle \alpha _{2}=\lambda _{2}/(\rho c_{p})_{2}}
959:{\displaystyle \alpha _{1}=\lambda _{1}/(\rho c_{p})_{1}}
2246:
Thermal effusivity of selected materials and substances
2929:
1726:
performs nearly the same role in limiting the initial
579:
If two semi-infinite bodies initially at temperatures
2789:
2640:
Handbook of
Friction Materials and Their Applications
2270:
2097:
2084:{\displaystyle r={\frac {\lambda }{\sqrt {\alpha }}}}
2062:
1966:
1886:
1863:
1843:
1823:
1796:
1763:
1739:
1712:
1615:
1416:
1390:
1360:
1330:
1170:
1140:
1065:
1009:
976:
901:
845:
812:
754:
727:
700:
673:
639:
612:
585:
445:
415:
388:
357:
279:
218:
194:
130:
107:
77:
53:
2997:
1706:imposed abruptly onto one side, thermal effusivity
1407:yields an expression for the contact temperature.
574:
2824:Christensen, P.R.; et al. (25 October 2001).
2741:"Mathematical Theory of Thermal Inertia Revisited"
2320:
2188:Thermographic inspection encompasses a variety of
2119:
2083:
2048:
1952:
1869:
1849:
1829:
1809:
1782:
1745:
1718:
1662:
1594:
1399:
1376:
1346:
1312:
1153:
1122:
1051:
992:
958:
887:
828:
790:
736:
713:
686:
652:
625:
598:
535:
428:
401:
370:
326:
265:
200:
177:
113:
93:
59:
2792:"A New Thermal Inertia Model Based on Effusivity"
3119:
2738:
2622:A reference defining various thermal properties
2663:
2206:
970:Similarly, a characteristic diffusion length
791:{\displaystyle \alpha =\lambda /(\rho c_{p})}
3045:
3043:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3033:
2993:
2909:"Transfer and Storage of Heat in the Oceans"
2892:
2693:
1673:
3031:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3015:
3013:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2823:
2748:46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
2177:
1324:Substitution of the expressions above for
39:, is a measure of its ability to exchange
3081:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3010:
2970:
2833:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
2790:van der Maas, J.; Maldonado, E. (1997).
2760:
2659:
2657:
2120:{\displaystyle U={\frac {\lambda }{L}}.}
18:
3084:"Simple thermal analysis for buildings"
3051:"Materials Thermal Properties Database"
2689:
2687:
2633:
2631:
2629:
3120:
2998:Clemens J.M. Lasance (November 2007).
2739:Veto, M.S.; Christensen, P.R. (2015).
2734:
2732:
2696:Wärme- und Stoffübertragung 4. Auflage
3068:
2865:
2799:International Journal of Solar Energy
2654:
2637:
806:), a characteristic diffusion length
2684:
2664:Carslaw, H.S.; Jaeger, J.C. (1959).
2626:
2139:is a key phenomenon controlling the
2130:
2911:. UCAR Center for Science Education
2729:
1693:
1663:{\displaystyle r_{1}/(r_{1}+r_{2})}
13:
2648:10.1016/B978-0-08-100619-1.00009-2
2309:
2301:
2292:
2276:
2273:
1391:
1361:
1331:
1242:
1171:
1041:
1010:
977:
877:
846:
813:
728:
557:, and measures the speed at which
315:
307:
298:
282:
255:
246:
229:
221:
14:
3154:
3098:
2694:Baehr, H.D.; Stephan, K. (2004).
1702:having a stepped "constant heat"
575:Temperature at a contact surface
2923:
2901:
2886:
2868:Journal of Geophysical Research
2859:
2817:
2170:, especially through the upper
569:
2893:Michon Scott (24 April 2006).
2783:
2754:
2720:
2642:. Elsevier. pp. 123–134.
2615:
2600:
2315:
2286:
2240:interfacial thermal resistance
1909:
1903:
1657:
1631:
1307:
1281:
1272:
1255:
1236:
1210:
1201:
1184:
1111:
1094:
947:
930:
785:
769:
321:
292:
260:
240:
1:
2593:
2254:List of thermal effusivities
2215:mechanisms generally include
2667:Conduction of Heat in Solids
1377:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{2}}
1347:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{1}}
993:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{2}}
829:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{1}}
721:. Given some period of time
188:Some authors use the symbol
7:
2670:. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
2573:Thermal contact conductance
2566:
212:for thermal effusivity are
10:
3159:
3082:Tim Dwyer (January 2013).
2638:Dante, Roberto C. (2016).
2207:Measurement interpretation
2181:
1817:for the wall of thickness
94:{\displaystyle \rho c_{p}}
2956:10.1109/JSEN.2020.2973233
2897:. NASA Earth Observatory.
2895:"Earth's Big Heat Bucket"
2811:10.1080/01425919708914334
2704:10.1007/978-3-662-10833-8
2698:. Springer. p. 172.
2330:
2261:
2258:
1857:and thermal conductivity
1674:Heat sensed by human skin
3128:Thermodynamic properties
2426:PVC - polyvinyl chloride
2184:Thermographic inspection
2178:Thermographic inspection
2168:convective heat transfer
2135:For planetary surfaces,
1870:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1400:{\displaystyle \Delta t}
737:{\displaystyle \Delta t}
69:volumetric heat capacity
60:{\displaystyle \lambda }
3106:"Thermal heat transfer"
3004:electronics-cooling.com
2880:10.1029/JC082i018p02582
2764:J. Propulsion and Power
1850:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1783:{\displaystyle U_{dyn}}
549:Thermal effusivity and
349:equilibrium temperature
114:{\displaystyle \alpha }
2562:(*) minimal advection
2322:
2190:nondestructive testing
2121:
2085:
2050:
1954:
1871:
1851:
1837:, thermal diffusivity
1831:
1811:
1784:
1753:plays in defining the
1747:
1720:
1664:
1596:
1401:
1378:
1348:
1314:
1155:
1124:
1053:
994:
960:
889:
830:
792:
738:
715:
688:
654:
627:
600:
537:
430:
403:
372:
328:
267:
202:
179:
115:
95:
61:
24:
2466:Quartz - fused silica
2323:
2122:
2086:
2051:
1955:
1872:
1852:
1832:
1812:
1810:{\displaystyle t_{L}}
1790:and a diffusion time
1785:
1748:
1721:
1665:
1597:
1402:
1379:
1349:
1315:
1156:
1154:{\displaystyle T_{m}}
1125:
1054:
995:
961:
890:
831:
793:
739:
716:
714:{\displaystyle T_{2}}
689:
687:{\displaystyle T_{1}}
655:
653:{\displaystyle T_{m}}
628:
626:{\displaystyle T_{2}}
601:
599:{\displaystyle T_{1}}
555:conservation equation
538:
431:
429:{\displaystyle T_{2}}
404:
402:{\displaystyle T_{1}}
373:
371:{\displaystyle T_{m}}
329:
268:
203:
180:
116:
96:
62:
22:
2936:IEEE Sensors Journal
2853:10.1029/2000JE001370
2839:(E10): 23823–23871.
2416:Concrete cinderblock
2268:
2201:thermal wave imaging
2095:
2060:
1964:
1960: ; during
1884:
1861:
1841:
1821:
1794:
1761:
1737:
1710:
1613:
1414:
1388:
1358:
1328:
1168:
1138:
1063:
1007:
974:
899:
843:
810:
752:
725:
698:
671:
637:
610:
583:
443:
413:
386:
355:
277:
273:, or, equivalently,
216:
192:
128:
105:
75:
51:
45:thermal conductivity
37:thermal responsivity
3133:Physical quantities
2948:2020ISenJ..20.6046S
2845:2001JGR...10623823C
2578:Thermal diffusivity
2262:Thermal effusivity
2255:
2149:terrestrial planet
1384:and elimination of
1000:into material 2 is
836:into material 1 is
746:thermal diffusivity
559:thermal equilibrium
551:thermal diffusivity
2318:
2253:
2236:contact resistance
2217:thermal conduction
2117:
2081:
2046:
1950:
1877:are specified by:
1867:
1847:
1827:
1807:
1780:
1743:
1716:
1704:boundary condition
1660:
1592:
1397:
1374:
1344:
1310:
1151:
1120:
1049:
990:
956:
885:
826:
804:diffusion equation
788:
734:
711:
684:
650:
623:
596:
533:
426:
399:
368:
324:
263:
198:
175:
111:
91:
57:
33:thermal effusivity
25:
3143:Materials testing
2942:(11): 6046–6054.
2874:(18): 2582–2590.
2713:978-3-662-10834-5
2677:978-0-19-853368-9
2563:
2559:
2558:
2313:
2131:Planetary science
2112:
2079:
2078:
2044:
2009:
1948:
1947:
1933:
1932:
1830:{\displaystyle L}
1746:{\displaystyle U}
1719:{\displaystyle e}
1590:
1513:
1047:
883:
748:of a material is
531:
378:when placed into
319:
233:
201:{\displaystyle e}
170:
147:
146:
3150:
3113:
3092:
3091:
3088:cibsejournal.com
3079:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3047:
3008:
3007:
3000:"Materials Data"
2995:
2968:
2967:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2830:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2805:(1–3): 131–160.
2796:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2771:(6): 1354–1357.
2758:
2752:
2751:
2745:
2736:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2691:
2682:
2681:
2661:
2652:
2651:
2635:
2624:
2619:
2607:
2604:
2561:
2486:Concrete (dense)
2327:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2285:
2280:
2279:
2256:
2252:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2105:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2074:
2070:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2025:
2024:
2015:
2010:
2008:
1997:
1996:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1949:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1920:
1919:
1902:
1901:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1694:Diathermal walls
1688:room temperature
1669:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1643:
1642:
1630:
1625:
1624:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1575:
1574:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1553:
1552:
1540:
1539:
1530:
1529:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1498:
1497:
1487:
1486:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1457:
1456:
1439:
1438:
1426:
1425:
1406:
1404:
1403:
1398:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1375:
1373:
1372:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1293:
1292:
1280:
1279:
1270:
1269:
1254:
1253:
1235:
1234:
1222:
1221:
1209:
1208:
1199:
1198:
1183:
1182:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1129:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1109:
1108:
1093:
1088:
1087:
1075:
1074:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1037:
1036:
1027:
1022:
1021:
999:
997:
996:
991:
989:
988:
965:
963:
962:
957:
955:
954:
945:
944:
929:
924:
923:
911:
910:
894:
892:
891:
886:
884:
873:
872:
863:
858:
857:
835:
833:
832:
827:
825:
824:
797:
795:
794:
789:
784:
783:
768:
743:
741:
740:
735:
720:
718:
717:
712:
710:
709:
693:
691:
690:
685:
683:
682:
659:
657:
656:
651:
649:
648:
632:
630:
629:
624:
622:
621:
605:
603:
602:
597:
595:
594:
564:forcing function
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35:, also known as
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3138:Heat conduction
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2209:
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2137:thermal inertia
2133:
2104:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2069:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2037:
2033:
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2020:
2016:
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1992:
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380:thermal contact
362:
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337:thermal inertia
314:
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31:, a material's
17:
12:
11:
5:
3156:
3146:
3145:
3140:
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3100:
3099:External links
3097:
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2182:Main article:
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2153:remote sensing
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2100:
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41:thermal energy
29:thermodynamics
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3155:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
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3131:
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3111:
3107:
3103:
3102:
3089:
3085:
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3055:thermtest.com
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2588:Heat capacity
2586:
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2583:Heat equation
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2213:heat transfer
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1680:thermoception
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821:
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801:
800:heat equation
780:
776:
772:
765:
761:
758:
755:
747:
731:
706:
702:
679:
675:
665:
663:
662:weighted mean
645:
641:
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614:
591:
587:
567:
565:
560:
556:
552:
547:
525:
521:
517:
512:
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451:
447:
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363:
359:
350:
346:
345:heat equation
341:
339:
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302:
288:
250:
236:
211:
195:
172:
165:
161:
157:
154:
149:
143:
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108:
86:
82:
78:
70:
54:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
3110:HyperPhysics
3109:
3087:
3058:. Retrieved
3054:
3003:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2913:. Retrieved
2903:
2888:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2836:
2832:
2819:
2802:
2798:
2785:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2747:
2722:
2695:
2666:
2639:
2617:
2602:
2560:
2396:Plasterboard
2249:
2233:
2210:
2200:
2196:thermography
2193:
2187:
2161:
2157:
2134:
1754:
1727:
1697:
1677:
1607:
1604:
1323:
1133:
969:
666:
578:
570:Applications
548:
545:
342:
335:
187:
36:
32:
26:
2331:References
2194:Pulse-echo
2172:mixed layer
2056:where
798:. From the
3122:Categories
3060:17 January
2594:References
2436:Sand (dry)
2366:Balsa Wood
2221:convection
660:will be a
67:) and its
2964:213986857
2389:0.36-0.66
2386:Pine Wood
2259:Material
2225:radiation
2107:λ
2091:and
2076:α
2072:λ
2031:π
2006:α
2003:π
1936:≈
1922:π
1865:λ
1845:α
1459:−
1392:Δ
1362:Δ
1332:Δ
1295:−
1259:ρ
1243:Δ
1224:−
1188:ρ
1172:Δ
1098:ρ
1081:λ
1068:α
1042:Δ
1039:⋅
1030:α
1024:≃
1011:Δ
978:Δ
934:ρ
917:λ
904:α
878:Δ
875:⋅
866:α
860:≃
847:Δ
814:Δ
773:ρ
762:λ
756:α
729:Δ
158:ρ
155:λ
144:α
140:λ
109:α
79:ρ
55:λ
2567:See also
2540:Aluminum
2476:Water *
2145:seasonal
1732:U-factor
1059:, where
895:, where
210:SI units
2944:Bibcode
2915:3 March
2841:Bibcode
2520:Silicon
2499:2.0-3.0
2496:Granite
2449:1.0-1.6
2409:0.5-2.6
2141:diurnal
1728:dynamic
2962:
2710:
2674:
2550:Copper
2336:Air *
1755:static
1698:For a
2960:S2CID
2829:(PDF)
2795:(PDF)
2744:(PDF)
2446:Brick
2376:Paper
2339:0.006
382:. If
3062:2023
2917:2023
2708:ISBN
2672:ISBN
2553:36.9
2543:23.7
2533:15.9
2530:Iron
2523:14.4
2456:Skin
2439:0.63
2419:0.59
2406:Soil
2399:0.38
2369:0.26
2356:Cork
2349:0.07
2346:Wool
2227:and
2199:and
2143:and
1971:<
1354:and
802:(or
606:and
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