Theory of everything

2225: 8341: 1152: 1669:, remains a favorite candidate in the theoretical physics community. Supersymmetric grand unified theories seem plausible not only for their theoretical "beauty", but because they naturally produce large quantities of dark matter, and because the inflationary force may be related to grand unified theory physics (although it does not seem to form an inevitable part of the theory). Yet grand unified theories are clearly not the final answer; both the current standard model and all proposed GUTs are 8596: 658:). To resolve the incompatibility, a theoretical framework revealing a deeper underlying reality, unifying gravity with the other three interactions, must be discovered to harmoniously integrate the realms of general relativity and quantum mechanics into a seamless whole: a theory of everything may be defined as a comprehensive theory that, in principle, would be capable of describing all physical phenomena in the universe. 49: 8608: 1990:. As some of the approaches mentioned above, its direct goal isn't necessarily to achieve a theory of everything but primarily a working theory of quantum gravity, which might eventually include the standard model and become a candidate for a theory of everything. Its founding principle is that spacetime is fundamentally discrete and that the spacetime events are related by a 1805:, which is (roughly) the question of why gravity is so much weaker than any other force. The extra-dimensional solution involves allowing gravity to propagate into the other dimensions while keeping other forces confined to a 4-dimensional spacetime, an idea that has been realized with explicit stringy mechanisms. 2091:

was originally a believer in the Theory of Everything, but after considering Gödel's Theorem, he concluded that one was not obtainable. "Some people will be very disappointed if there is not an ultimate theory that can be formulated as a finite number of principles. I used to belong to that camp, but

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of particle physics, they remain distinct. Thus, the pursuit of a theory of everything remained unsuccessful: neither a unification of the strong and electroweak forces – which Laplace would have called 'contact forces' – nor a unification of these forces with gravitation had been achieved.

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that he hoped would show that these two forces are really manifestations of one grand, underlying principle. During the last few decades of his life, this ambition alienated Einstein from the rest of mainstream of physics, as the mainstream was instead far more excited about the emerging framework of

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combining gravity with electromagnetism began with a renewed interest. In Einstein's day, the strong and the weak forces had not yet been discovered, yet he found the potential existence of two other distinct forces, gravity and electromagnetism, far more alluring. This launched his 40-year voyage in

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General relativity and quantum mechanics have been repeatedly validated in their separate fields of relevance. Since the usual domains of applicability of general relativity and quantum mechanics are so different, most situations require that only one of the two theories be used. The two theories are

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Bilson-Thompson's original paper suggested that the higher-generation fermions could be represented by more complicated braidings, although explicit constructions of these structures were not given. The electric charge, color, and parity properties of such fermions would arise in the same way as for

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as an example: The underlying rules are simple and complete, but there are formally undecidable questions about the game's behaviors. Analogously, it may (or may not) be possible to completely state the underlying rules of physics with a finite number of well-defined laws, but there is little doubt

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has stated that "Gödel's theorem implies that pure mathematics is inexhaustible. No matter how many problems we solve, there will always be other problems that cannot be solved within the existing rules. Because of Gödel's theorem, physics is inexhaustible too. The laws of physics are a finite set

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suggests that attempts to construct a theory of everything are bound to fail. Gödel's theorem, informally stated, asserts that any formal theory sufficient to express elementary arithmetical facts and strong enough for them to be proved is either inconsistent (both a statement and its denial can be

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Gravity and electromagnetism are able to coexist as entries in a list of classical forces, but for many years it seemed that gravity could not be incorporated into the quantum framework, let alone unified with the other fundamental forces. For this reason, work on unification, for much of the 20th

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An intellect which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of

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mean that a theory of everything cannot exist. On the other hand, the scholars invoking Gödel's Theorem appear, at least in some cases, to be referring not to the underlying rules, but to the understandability of the behavior of all physical systems, as when Hawking mentions arranging blocks into

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includes equations that do not have exact solutions, it is widely accepted as a valid theory because all of its equations with exact solutions have been experimentally verified. Likewise, a theory of everything must work for a wide range of simple examples in such a way that we can be reasonably

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nuclear forces, which differ both from gravity and from electromagnetism. A further hurdle was the acceptance that in a theory of everything, quantum mechanics had to be incorporated from the outset, rather than emerging as a consequence of a deterministic unified theory, as Einstein had hoped.

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No physical theory to date is believed to be precisely accurate. Instead, physics has proceeded by a series of "successive approximations" allowing more and more accurate predictions over a wider and wider range of phenomena. Some physicists believe that it is therefore a mistake to confuse

2200:(Newton's laws of motion and gravitation) that work "well enough" for simple examples, like the motion of planets in empty space. These principles have worked so well on simple examples that we can be reasonably confident they will work for more complex examples. For example, although 688:), consists of varying combinations of vibrating strings (or strands) with preferred patterns of vibration. String theory further claims that it is through these specific oscillatory patterns of strings that a particle of unique mass and force charge is created (that is to say, the 1661:(GUTs) have been proposed to unify electromagnetism and the weak and strong forces. Grand unification would imply the existence of an electronuclear force; it is expected to set in at energies of the order of 10 GeV, far greater than could be reached by any currently feasible 1684:

The final step in the graph requires resolving the separation between quantum mechanics and gravitation, often equated with general relativity. Numerous researchers concentrate their efforts on this specific step; nevertheless, no accepted theory of

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The debates do not make the point at issue clear. Possibly the only issue at stake is the right to apply the high-status term "fundamental" to the respective subjects of research. A well-known debate over this took place between Steven Weinberg and

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from one kind into another, the theory of everything should also predict all the different kinds of particles possible. The usual assumed path of theories is given in the following graph, where each unification step leads one level up on the graph.

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was possibly the first philosopher to have described nature with axioms (or principles) and then deduce new results from them. Any "theory of everything" is similarly expected to be based on axioms and to deduce all observable phenomena from them.

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Weinberg points out that calculating the precise motion of an actual projectile in the Earth's atmosphere is impossible. So how can we know we have an adequate theory for describing the motion of projectiles? Weinberg suggests that we know

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This model leads to an interpretation of electric and color charge as topological quantities (electric as number and chirality of twists carried on the individual ribbons and colour as variants of such twisting for fixed electric charge).

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quantum mechanics. Einstein wrote to a friend in the early 1940s, "I have become a lonely old chap who is mainly known because he doesn't wear socks and who is exhibited as a curiosity on special occasions." Prominent contributors were

2179:. The advocates of emergence argue that emergent laws, especially those describing complex or living systems are independent of the low-level, microscopic laws. In this view, emergent laws are as fundamental as a theory of everything. 1963:

the first generation. The model was expressly generalized for an infinite number of generations and for the weak force bosons (but not for photons or gluons) in a 2008 paper by Bilson-Thompson, Hackett, Kauffman and Smolin.

1781:, in which it was realized that applying general relativity to a 5-dimensional universe, with one space dimension small and curled up, looks from the 4-dimensional perspective like the usual general relativity together with 1878:

One proposed solution is that many or all of these possibilities are realized in one or another of a huge number of universes, but that only a small number of them are habitable. Hence what we normally conceive as the

2078:, pointed out that, because a "theory of everything" will certainly be a consistent non-trivial mathematical theory, it must be incomplete. He claims that this dooms searches for a deterministic theory of everything. 618:, etc. On the other hand, quantum mechanics is a theoretical framework that focuses primarily on three non-gravitational forces for understanding the universe in regions of both very small scale and low mass: 1689:, and thus no accepted theory of everything, has emerged with observational evidence. It is usually assumed that the theory of everything will also solve the remaining problems of grand unified theories. 1946:

that would describe the interactions of such particles, nor is it possible to show that such particles are fermions, nor that the gauge groups or interactions of the Standard Model are realised. Use of

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is that seven extra dimensions are required for the theory's consistency, on top of the four dimensions in our universe. In this regard, string theory can be seen as building on the insights of the

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Over the past few centuries, two theoretical frameworks have been developed that, together, most closely resemble a theory of everything. These two theories upon which all modern physics rests are

2481:"Don't Expect a 'Theory of Everything' to Explain It All – Not even the most advanced physics can reveal everything we want to know about the history and future of the cosmos, or about ourselves" 1867:

In the late 1990s, it was noted that one major hurdle in this endeavor is that the number of possible 4-dimensional universes is incredibly large. The small, "curled up" extra dimensions can be

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position that the theory of everything is the fundamental law and that all other theories that apply within the universe are a consequence of the theory of everything. Another view is that

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in an enormous number of different ways (one estimate is 10 ) each of which leads to different properties for the low-energy particles and forces. This array of models is known as the

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Research into string theory has been encouraged by a variety of theoretical and experimental factors. On the experimental side, the particle content of the standard model supplemented with

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At present, there is no candidate theory of everything that includes the standard model of particle physics and general relativity and that, at the same time, is able to calculate the

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theoretical models with the true nature of reality, and hold that the series of approximations will never terminate in the "truth". Einstein himself expressed this view on occasions.

1068:), and most notably, Albert Einstein and his collaborators. Einstein searched in earnest for, but ultimately failed to find, a unifying theory (see Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac equations). 2129:

Since most physicists would consider the statement of the underlying rules to suffice as the definition of a "theory of everything", most physicists argue that Gödel's Theorem does

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may eventually play a fundamental role in a theory of everything, but that is not its primary aim. Loop quantum gravity also introduces a lower bound on the possible length scales.

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In this graph, electroweak unification occurs at around 100 GeV, grand unification is predicted to occur at 10 GeV, and unification of the GUT force with gravity is expected at the

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speculated that the apparent diversity of observed phenomena was due to a single type of interaction, namely the motions and collisions of atoms. The concept of 'atom' proposed by

3069: 4488: 2727: 2445:"Can a Computer Devise a Theory of Everything? - It might be possible, physicists say, but not anytime soon. And there's no guarantee that we humans will understand the result" 916:

could, if it knew the position and velocity of every particle at a given time, along with the laws of nature, calculate the position of any particle at any other time:

2454: 795:), and the goal being to predict events by recording events against a time measure and then look for recurrent patterns. The debate between the universe having either 4793: 1019:'s boast that "the underlying physical laws necessary for the mathematical theory of a large part of physics and the whole of chemistry are thus completely known". 1708:, supposedly composed of fundamental particles outside the scheme of the standard model. However, the existence of these forces and particles has not been proven. 4034:

Bilson-Thompson, Sundance; Hackett, Jonathan; Kauffman, Lou; Smolin, Lee (2008). "Particle Identifications from Symmetries of Braided Ribbon Network Invariants".

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In addition to explaining the forces listed in the graph, a theory of everything may also explain the status of at least two candidate forces suggested by modern

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the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes.

999:, he challenged researchers to find an axiomatic basis to all of physics. In this problem he thus asked for what today would be called a theory of everything. 2685:"Black Holes May Hide a Mind-Bending Secret About Our Universe – Take gravity, add quantum mechanics, stir. What do you get? Just maybe, a holographic cosmos" 3695:

Aspinwall, Paul S.; Greene, Brian R.; Morrison, David R. (1994). "Calabi-Yau moduli space, mirror manifolds and spacetime topology change in string theory".

2694: 2490: 942:, and thus that Laplace's vision has to be amended: a theory of everything must include gravitation and quantum mechanics. Even ignoring quantum mechanics, 819:

correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long.

8226: 538: 475: 879:'s description of the long-distance force of gravity implied that not all forces in nature result from things coming into contact. Newton's work in his 3893: 1089:

century, focused on understanding the three forces described by quantum mechanics: electromagnetism and the weak and strong forces. The first two were

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interactions, and to extra dimensions, but did not address the detailed experimental requirements. Another important property of string theory is its

4628: 1665:. Although the simplest grand unified theories have been experimentally ruled out, the idea of a grand unified theory, especially when linked with 3324: 8370: 4930: 4271:

Schmidhuber, Jürgen (2002). "Hierarchies of generalized Kolmogorov complexities and nonenumerable universal measures computable in the limit".

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confident it will work for every situation in physics. Difficulties in creating a theory of everything often begin to appear when combining

3186: 654:– such as those that exist within a black hole or during the beginning stages of the universe (i.e., the moment immediately following the 4186: 242: 3127:

Gorban, Alexander N.; Karlin, Ilya (2013). "Hilbert's 6th Problem: Exact and approximate hydrodynamic manifolds for kinetic equations".

8634: 4736: 669:, which evolved into a candidate for the theory of everything, but not without drawbacks (most notably, its apparent lack of currently 2759: 2717: 2126:

that there are questions about the behavior of physical systems which are formally undecidable on the basis of those underlying laws.

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were once a single fundamental force. According to string theory, every particle in the universe, at its most ultramicroscopic level (

8612: 4328: 2344: 2310: 8355: 4658: 2305: 8219: 5234: 5054: 4390: 3751:; Liu, Xiao; McGreevy, John; Saltman, Alex; Silverstein, Eva (2005). "Things fall apart: Topology change from winding tachyons". 2008:

does not assume any pre-existing arena (dimensional space), but rather attempts to show how the spacetime fabric itself evolves.

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Greene, Brian R.; Morrison, David R.; Strominger, Andrew (1995). "Black hole condensation and the unification of string vacua".

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derived from its axioms) or incomplete, in the sense that there is a true statement that can't be derived in the formal theory.

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rather than dictated by theory. This has led to criticism of string theory, arguing that it cannot make useful (i.e., original,

5935: 5213: 5162: 4721: 4375: 961:. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, it gradually became apparent that many common examples of forces – contact forces, 262: 2055:

In parallel to the intense search for a theory of everything, various scholars have debated the possibility of its discovery.

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and philosopher David Wallace about dark matter, parallel universes and explaining why these and the present Universe exist.

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is extremely hard to detect but does not prevent formal theories of everything describable by very few bits of information.

815:, where the current universe was preceded and will be followed by an infinite number of universes. Time scales mentioned in 5298: 4984: 4915: 4891: 4864: 2359: 2315: 1738: 946:

is sufficient to guarantee that the future of any sufficiently complex mechanical or astronomical system is unpredictable.

192: 17: 3926: 2064: 8556: 5038: 1109:: the electromagnetic and weak forces appear distinct at low energies because the particles carrying the weak force, the 480: 197: 7472: 2257: 2155:

There is a philosophical debate within the physics community as to whether a theory of everything deserves to be called

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Robertson, Douglas S. (2007). "Goedel's Theorem, the Theory of Everything, and the Future of Science and Mathematics".

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Nilles, Hans Peter; Ramos-Sánchez, Saúl; Ratz, Michael; Vaudrevange, Patrick K. S. (2009). "From strings to the MSSM".

2480: 1358: 524: 4250: 2039:. Most particle physicists expect that the outcome of ongoing experiments – the search for new particles at the large 8380: 4872: 4701: 4568: 4514: 4497: 1832:. String theory has mechanisms that may explain why fermions come in three hierarchical generations, and explain the 842:

was an early philosophical attempt to unify phenomena observed in nature. The concept of 'atom' also appeared in the

745: 40: 8561: 4614: 2326: 485: 227: 3096:"Experimental Researches in Electricity. Twenty-Fourth Series. On the Possible Relation of Gravity to Electricity" 2224: 953:

discovered a connection between electricity and magnetism, triggering decades of work that culminated in 1865, in

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Bilson-Thompson, Sundance O.; Markopoulou, Fotini; Smolin, Lee (2007). "Quantum gravity and the standard model".

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into a physical question. This definitional discrepancy may explain some of the disagreement among researchers.

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Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein

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Einstein, letter to Felix Klein, 1917. (On determinism and approximations.) Quoted in Pais (1982), Ch. 17.

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Beasley, Chris; Heckman, Jonathan J; Vafa, Cumrun (2009). "GUTs and exceptional branes in F-theory — I".

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There have been recent claims that loop quantum gravity may be able to reproduce features resembling the

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between quark generations. On the theoretical side, it has begun to address some of the key questions in

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Finster, F.; Kleiner, J. (2015). "Causal fermion systems as a candidate for a unified physical theory".

1131:, which carries the electromagnetic force, is massless. At higher energies W bosons and Z bosons can be 8069: 7986: 6204: 5632: 5453: 5157: 4799: 4711: 4663: 2278: 2213:, as the equations of quantum mechanics begin to falter when the force of gravity is applied to them. 996: 8526: 6657: 6010: 5828: 5637: 5394: 4951: 4946: 4543: 3363: 2263: 2102:

physics. In 2000, Schmidhuber explicitly constructed limit-computable, deterministic universes whose

1943: 1845: 720:

was used with an ironic reference to various overgeneralized theories. For example, a grandfather of

447: 272: 257: 237: 4567:: Are we getting closer, or is a final theory of matter and the universe impossible? Debate between 4219: 4206:

A Computer Scientist's View of Life, the Universe, and Everything. Lecture Notes in Computer Science

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Laplace thus envisaged a combination of gravitation and mechanics as a theory of everything. Modern

8531: 6360: 6281: 6211: 5652: 5565: 5380: 5338: 5291: 5167: 5048: 4877: 4004: 3805: 2367: 2353: 2122: 1935: 457: 307: 2302: – Physics inside a bounded region is fully captured by physics at the boundary of the region 1942:

constituted of braids of spacetime as the building blocks. However, there is no derivation of the

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Strominger, Andrew; Vafa, Cumrun (1996). "Microscopic origin of the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy".

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of rules, and include the rules for doing mathematics, so that Gödel's theorem applies to them."

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The Trouble With Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next

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In the 20th century, the search for a unifying theory was interrupted by the discovery of the

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claims to have introduced the acronym "TOE" into the technical literature in an article in

417: 312: 177: 172: 129: 7670: 4317: 8: 8483: 7854: 7779: 7467: 7316: 7279: 6878: 6846: 6734: 6544: 6430: 6326: 6261: 6199: 6161: 6067: 6015: 5988: 5779: 5759: 5627: 5612: 5473: 5357: 5284: 4086: 2320: 2107: 2098:(1997) has argued against this view; he asserts that Gödel's theorems are irrelevant for 1952: 1900: 1884: 1753: 954: 755: 619: 576: 4367: 4294: 4121: 4078: 3973: 3854: 3782: 3774: 3718: 3665: 3591: 3538: 3472: 3464: 3411: 3343: 3242: 3199: 3150: 2840: 2795: 2625: 2559: 1041: 8511: 8281: 8165: 8064: 7217: 7090: 6998: 6919: 6539: 6301: 6286: 5848: 5833: 5754: 5739: 5260: 4726: 4683: 4554: 4280: 4242: 4141: 4090: 4064: 4035: 3985: 3959: 3866: 3840: 3786: 3760: 3730: 3704: 3677: 3651: 3622: 3603: 3577: 3550: 3524: 3495: 3476: 3450: 3423: 3397: 3264: 3228: 3162: 3136: 3019: 2965: 2852: 2689: 2637: 2611: 2581: 2545: 2485: 2449: 2210: 2201: 1995: 1976: 1756: 1728: 1693: 1403: 1283: 1179: 1027: 913: 823: 591: 347: 277: 217: 4394: 3981: 3351: 708:

in addition to the four common dimensions for a ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime.

8397: 8175: 8131: 8112: 7562: 7502: 7200: 7073: 7068: 6662: 6462: 6452: 6405: 6079: 5893: 5749: 5684: 5577: 5478: 5367: 5362: 5347: 5244: 5152: 4896: 4824: 4538: 4510: 4493: 4420: 4232: 4133: 3811: 3726: 3673: 3599: 3554: 3480: 3419: 3355: 3294: 3287: 3254: 3074: 3030: 2997: 2972: 2925: 2900: 2875: 2809: 2660: 2641: 2633: 2571: 2517: 2417: 2248: – Argument for the existence of God based on the observable beauty of the world 2206: 2176: 2103: 1948: 1868: 1798: 935: 851: 796: 784: 750: 595: 422: 202: 84: 4246: 4094: 3989: 3870: 3790: 3734: 3681: 3546: 3427: 3158: 2585: 1797:, which together with extra dimensions are the two main proposals for resolving the 901:

by explaining these apparent actions at a distance under one single law: the law of

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to yield sensible answers. This is usually regarded as a sign that these are only

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Dreams of a Final Theory: The Scientist's Search for the Ultimate Laws of Nature

1951:

concepts made it possible to demonstrate that the particles are able to survive

977:– result from electrical interactions between the smallest particles of matter. 8536: 8235: 8180: 8108: 7995: 7913: 7804: 7647: 7582: 7547: 7537: 7127: 6895: 6588: 6578: 6365: 6336: 6291: 5930: 5858: 5823: 5647: 5560: 5488: 5468: 5458: 5125: 4564: 3915: 2680: 2567: 2476: 2440: 2230: 2168: 1919: 1802: 1766:, is the theory of everything. There is no widespread consensus on this issue. 1139: 1110: 1057: 631: 615: 109: 104: 70: 7717: 4302: 4033: 3862: 1151: 8628: 8506: 8465: 8161: 8127: 8029: 7981: 7627: 7612: 7557: 7351: 7306: 7294: 7188: 7183: 7117: 7097: 6868: 6741: 6712: 6410: 6380: 6311: 6296: 6147: 5960: 5955: 5925: 5801: 5764: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5540: 5428: 5376: 5062: 4731: 3949: 3515:

Heckman, Jonathan J.; Vafa, Cumrun (2010). "Flavor Hierarchy from F-theory".

3250: 2827:

Ellis, John (1986). "The Superstring: Theory of Everything, or of Nothing?".

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for understanding the universe in regions of both large scale and high mass:

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This article is about the hypothetical physical concept. For other uses, see

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of the 17th century posited that all forces could be ultimately reduced to

800: 677: 651: 635: 407: 392: 357: 317: 124: 4606: 4599:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Brian Greene, John Barrow & Val Gibson ( 791:, with their interest being to relate celestial movement to human events ( 8402: 8296: 8264: 8259: 8136: 8117: 8044: 8015: 7943: 7933: 7883: 7760: 7632: 7602: 7552: 7477: 7431: 7411: 7365: 7311: 7143: 7134: 7028: 6890: 6831: 6826: 6763: 6697: 6679: 6598: 6593: 6551: 6375: 6251: 6086: 5878: 5657: 5555: 5438: 5404: 5372: 4989: 4572: 4285: 3748: 2718:"Scientists Created a Black Hole in The Lab, And Then It Started to Glow" 2272: 2044: 1987: 1888: 1705: 1701: 1619: 1434: 1175: 1156: 1102: 1061: 847: 442: 287: 282: 157: 114: 94: 89: 61: 4547:

episode about the search for the theory of everything and string theory.

3233: 2275: – Attempts to unify relativity, gravitation, and quantum mechanics 1971:

Among other attempts to develop a theory of everything is the theory of

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is a type of string vibrating another way, and so forth). String theory/

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Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of Nature

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Donagi, Ron; Wijnholt, Martijn (2008). "Model Building with F-Theory".

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Horowitz, Gary. "The Origin of Black Hole Entropy in String Theory".

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Theory of Everything: Scalar Potential Model of the Big and the Small

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produced by colliding protons decaying into hadron jets and electrons

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10.1002/1099-0526(200005/06)5:5<22::AID-CPLX4>3.0.CO;2-0

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Cowen, Ron (16 November 2015). "The quantum source of space-time".

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Abstracts of the Papers Communicated to the Royal Society of London

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Duff, M. J. (2011). "String and M-Theory: Answering the Critics".

3529: 3455: 3402: 3387: 3141: 2874:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. pp. 1–13, 99. 1681:, omitting crucial phenomena relevant only at very high energies. 1007:

In the late 1920s, the then new quantum mechanics showed that the

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considered incompatible in regions of extremely small scale – the

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with electricity and magnetism. However, he found no connection.

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Relativity versus quantum mechanics: the battle for the universe

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Relativity versus quantum mechanics: the battle for the universe

4318:"The nature and significance of Gödel's incompleteness theorems" 3070:

From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time

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Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein

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Hilbert's "World Equations" and His Vision of a Unified Science

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Carlip, Steven (2001). "Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report".

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The Theory of Everything: The Origin and Fate of the Universe

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easily and the unified nature of the force becomes apparent.

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Fritzsch, Harald (1977). "THE WORLD OF FLAVOUR AND COLOUR".

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SMOLIN, L. (2004). "An Invitation to Loop Quantum Gravity".

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The New Cosmic Onion: Quarks and the Nature of the Universe

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Castelvecchi, Davide; Valerie Jamieson (August 12, 2006).

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While the strong and electroweak forces coexist under the

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between the atoms, then imagined as tiny solid particles.

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that fully explains and links together all aspects of the

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into the electroweak force. Electroweak unification is a

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were examples of (quantum) electrical forces, justifying

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in 1986. Over time, the term stuck in popularizations of

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International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science

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https://cds.cern.ch/record/875256/files/CM-P00061728.pdf

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is a hypothetical, singular, all-encompassing, coherent

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