752:
about 40 percent white, the student bodies at public and charter schools are overwhelmingly
African American. Conversely, New Orleans has one of the highest percentages of children enrolled in private schools within Louisiana and the United States. Some attribute this growth to the "strong relationship between Catholic and independent schools," however, another possible explanation could be the public's apprehension towards public schools in general. Whether or not this is an issue of race, the trends in demographics between public, charter and private schools are clear: public and charter schools, with highly concentrated African American populations, suffer from under funding of hurricane-damaged facilities, faculties, and staffs, and educational resources whereas private schools, with highly concentrated white populations, benefit from private funding. It is predicted that if achievement levels continue to rise, white students will begin to return to public schools to help create more diverse student bodies at public and charter school systems but only time will tell. Although there are no legal requirements that schools integrate, there are legal requirements that they improve.
726:
the school board office and dispersed after the police arrived in riot gear. Reporters flocked to the city to report on the civil unrest. The protesters yelling at the six-year-old girls made the city look undesirable to many people. So much, that many people wrote to the mayor at the time. Mayor
Morrison soon asked reporters to leave but did not address the protests. Soon the rioting died down and the school year continued. The residents of New Orleans realized that it made them look bad and changed their behavior. Many white families moved to the St. Bernard Parish and between 1960 and 1970, the white population fell in the Lower Ninth Ward by 77 percent.
105:
677:, was the legal counsel in the case against the integration of public schools. Making it all the way to the Supreme Court, Rault and Perez's case was dismissed and Wright's ruling was upheld. The state legislature continued to ignore the integration order, and the NAACP demanded that Judge Wright enforce his ruling. On July 15, 1959, in response to the state legislature's resistance and the NAACP's request, Judge Wright gave a deadline of March 1, 1960, to the OPSB, the date that it would be required to integrate public schools.
744:
remains a deep division of demographics in contemporary private and public schools in New
Orleans. Two decades following the crisis, white enrollment fell by almost half as middle- and upper-class white and black families began to send their children to private institutions. A relatively steady decrease in white enrollment in private schools and a slight increase in African American enrollment at public schools continued so that by the 2004–2005 school year (the year before
36:
681:
their parents to choose any of the former White or Black schools closest to their homes. While many racial separatists disapproved of Wright's decision, organizations such as Save Our
Schools and the Committee for Public Education called for the integration plan to be pushed forward. The plan would apply only to the first grade, which carried the highest percentage of black students.
722:
a large crowd of angry protestors. As word spread that McDonogh No. 19 and
William Frantz were the schools that would be chosen for integration, more people joined the protest. Concerned White parents began picking up their children. A group formed and began chanting "segregation forever". They also cheered for every white student who left school that day.
655:(1955) called for integration to take place with "all deliberate speed"—a phrase interpreted differently by each side. Supporters of desegregation thought that it meant schools should be desegregated immediately, but opponents of desegregation believed that leniency was allowed in the time frame for desegregation.
725:
Soon a group known as "The
Cheerleaders" formed. They were a group of mostly middle-class housewives, outraged by the schools' desegregation. Leander Perez, a popular white supremacist leader, held a meeting which 5,000 people attended. The day after Perez's meeting, hundreds of teenagers gathered at
717:
on
November 14, 1960. The public held the opinion that an uptown school would be used because children in the uptown schools had wealthier parents that could afford to enroll their children in a segregated school. Instead, desegregation happened in significantly more impoverished schools in the Lower
688:
When it came time to allow students to apply to transfer schools, the school board made it as difficult as possible. With specific criteria such as availability of transportation and intelligence testing, it was almost impossible for Black students to transfer schools. To delay the integration of the
721:
Five girls were selected to attend white schools but of the five only four decided to transfer: Leona Tate, Tessie
Prevost, and Gaile Etienne attended McDonogh No. 19, while Ruby Bridges attended William Frantz Elementary. The girls were escorted to and from school by U.S. marshals. They were met by
684:
Once again, Wright made an agreement with the legislature to delay the plan until
November 14. The board was convinced that if it delayed the plan until after the start of the school year, the students would not transfer after they were already comfortable at the school that they were attending. The
680:
Wright created a new plan when the school board failed to meet the March 1 deadline, as well as the extended deadline of March 16. The deadline for Judge Wright's desegregation plan was
September 1960 when all public schools opened for the year. This plan allowed children to transfer schools and for
734:
John F. Kennedy with the intention to seek his opinion on the situation. They claimed that federally prohibiting state interference against the state's will was wrong. Kennedy designated Clark Clifford to meet the group. He said it was inappropriate for Kennedy to talk about such matters; but after
608:
ruling be upheld and enforced. Within this community was Wilbert Aubert. Aubert, along with Leontine Luke, called for a meeting of the Ninth Ward Civic and Improvement League. This meeting was held November 6, 1951 at the Macarty School for Black Students. Following this meeting, the League created
751:
Some progress to improve the quality of education in New Orleans has been made since the crisis and Hurricane Katrina: test scores have improved, new charter schools are opening, and facilities are being upgraded. One thing that remains the same, however, is that although the city's population is
729:
In total 194 people were arrested for loitering, 27 for vandalism, and 29 for carrying a concealed weapon. Stabbing and gas bombing incidents happened throughout the city and a large fight between groups of black and white people broke out. Several Louisiana officials flew to Florida to meet with
748:), 94 percent of New Orleans public school students were from lower-income, African American families who could not afford to send their children to private schools. Among these schools, two-thirds of them were rated "Academically Unacceptable" according to Louisiana's accountability standards.
743:
In years following the New Orleans School Crisis of 1960, the city quickly tried to forget one of the most tumultuous parts of its history. The young African American girls who were chosen to be the first to integrate the New Orleans public schools "were largely forgotten". Despite this, there
578:
that added language to include "Black Men" in the understanding of "all men created" equal. The state constitution included Article 135, which required Louisiana to provide free public education to all students. It also outlawed racially-segregated schools. The
534:. They became known as The New Orleans Four. All four 6-year-old girls were met with death threats, racial slurs, and taunts. Widespread boycotts began immediately, and by the end of the day, few white children remained at either school.
1116:"Parents for Educational Freedom in North Carolina (PEFNC)." Parents for Educational Freedom in North Carolina PEFNC. Parents for Educational Freedom in North Carolina, May 7, 2012. Web. April 30, 2014.
452:
670:
and the Louisiana State Legislature ordered all public schools to maintain segregation laws. The legislature also passed a bill allowing them to declare public schools as either White or colored.
604:" school facilities. Many Black public schools were not held to the same standards as White public schools. Suffering from overcrowded and outdated schools, the Black community demanded that the
545:
began accompanying the four girls to their respective schools, while death threats against them continued. During the next few days, other white parents began returning their children to school.
813:
1107:
Abramson, Larry. "Parents Push For Diversity In New Orleans' Schools." All Things Considered. National Public Radio. New Orleans, Louisiana, August 30, 2010. Npr.org. Web. April 30, 2014.
457:
639:
The case called into question whether segregation in schools was constitutional and, if so, called for equal and fair conditions in African American schools. It was a 1954 Kansas case,
697:
and the legislature time to propose 30 bills that would make integration illegal even though Wright had already declared most of them unconstitutional. Less than 24 hours later, the
632:
allowed the case to proceed. It was at this time that the NAACP wanted to take further action and tackle segregation as a whole. On September 5, 1952, Tureaud filed a new suit,
685:
delay would also allow enough time for the board and the legislature to create a plan that would create a law allowing them to decide where a child could and could not attend.
782:. "New Orleans School Crisis." In KnowLA Encyclopedia of Louisiana, edited by David Johnson. Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities, 2010–. Article published March 31, 2011.
621:
227:
408:
548:
It took ten more years for the New Orleans public schools to fully integrate. In September 1962, the Catholic schools of Orleans Parish were also integrated.
426:
402:
379:
1233:
1185:
673:
Fighting along with the Louisiana State Legislature against integration was the OPSB and board member Emile Wagner. Gerald Rault, assisted by Judge
1238:
1125:
The State of Public Education in New Orleans: 2013 Report. Publication. New Orleans: Cowen Institute for Public Education Initiatives, 2013. Print.
838:
Sarah Holtz & Mark Cave, "The Other Empty Classroom: Bearing Witness To Desegregation," February 15, 2018, New Orleans Public Radio, at
1223:
1095:
New Orleans Public Schools History: A Brief Overview. Rep. The Cowen Institute for Public Education Initiatives, 2007. Web. April 30, 2014.
698:
761:
349:
658:
Despite progressive feelings in New Orleans on desegregating the city, feelings toward the school system took a different turn. After
363:
693:
ordered the principals of the two integrated public schools to close their schools Monday, November 14. That would give Governor
505:
641:
174:
1002:
Landphair, Juliette (1999). "Sewerage, Sidewalks, and Schools: The New Orleans Ninth Ward and Public School Desegregation".
892:
731:
17:
54:
46:
1228:
1151:
969:
961:
135:
72:
1011:
710:
584:
531:
139:
666:'s ruling on February 15, 1956, ordering the OPSB to create an integration plan for all public schools, Senator
853:
342:
239:
714:
629:
523:
1140:
839:
628:, they sought better conditions within the African American schools. Two years later, U.S. District Judge
735:
the meeting Clifford telephoned Christian Faser, who he had just met with, claiming that Kennedy agreed.
701:
ruled all 30 bills unconstitutional. On November 14, the school system had officially been desegregated.
610:
538:
509:
500:
1213:
244:
104:
335:
1053:
645:, however, that called for nationwide desegregation of all public schools. Following this original
1189:
893:"E. J. Edmunds, School Integration, and White Supremacist Backlash in Reconstruction New Orleans"
421:
1218:
851:
Manning, Diane T.; Rogers, Perry (2002). "Desegregation of the New Orleans Parochial Schools".
542:
518:
On the morning of November 14, 1960, two New Orleans elementary schools began desegregation.
462:
359:
96:
797:
St. Mark's and the Social Gospel: Methodist Women and Civil Rights in New Orleans, 1895–1965
202:
McDonogh No. 19 Elementary School and William Frantz Elementary School desegregated in 1960
8:
432:
954:
600:, public schools for both White and African American students were required to support "
1073:
1044:
Wieder, Alan (1987). "The New Orleans School Crisis of 1960: Causes and Consequences".
1023:
920:
870:
667:
601:
596:
588:
580:
563:
557:
495:
468:
181:
169:
161:
1165:
1157:
1147:
1065:
1015:
975:
965:
924:
912:
862:
745:
327:
1142:
The Second Battle of New Orleans: The Hundred-Year Struggle to Integrate the Schools
1057:
904:
690:
663:
512:
439:
1186:"Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board and the Desegregation of New Orleans Schools"
956:
Race and Education: Narrative Essays, Oral Histories, and Documentary Photography
474:
392:
273:
1207:
1069:
1019:
916:
866:
674:
617:
316:
290:
110:
1169:
979:
814:"Fifty years later, students recall integrating New Orleans public schools"
694:
575:
527:
304:
278:
567:
491:
143:
114:
908:
779:
1027:
874:
636:, with 21 sets of students as plaintiffs including Earl Benjamin Bush.
519:
1077:
571:
147:
515:
ordered desegregation in New Orleans to begin on November 14, 1960.
1061:
783:
662:, five female African American students transferred. Despite Judge
651:
570:
worked toward equal access to education for all citizens. In 1868,
537:
On November 16, a race riot broke out in front of a meeting of the
587:
to power, erasing the work done to desegregate schools during the
583:
led to the withdrawal of federal troops in Louisiana and returned
1161:
622:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
228:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
205:
Catholic Schools of Orleans Parish desegregated in 1962
357:
113:
to integrate white only public elementary schools in
799:, pp. 161–162 (University of Tennessee Press, 2011).
616:
Aubert took action against the OPSB with the aid of
1139:
953:
1205:
522:, Tessie Provost, and Gail Etienne, enrolled at
1103:
1101:
508:was unconstitutional. The conflict peaked when
937:Louisiana Const. of 1868, title VII, art. 135
850:
490:was a period of intense public resistance in
343:
1098:
1091:
1089:
1087:
626:Rosana Aubert v. Orleans Parish School Board
609:an initiative to file a lawsuit against the
1039:
1037:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
709:The New Orleans school district integrated
699:U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
947:
945:
943:
807:
805:
762:Desegregated public schools in New Orleans
350:
336:
27:1960 unrest following racial desegregation
1234:November 1960 events in the United States
1146:(1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
1084:
1001:
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
1034:
986:
811:
1239:School segregation in the United States
940:
802:
488:New Orleans school desegregation crisis
453:Nashville Student Movement Freedom Ride
398:New Orleans school desegregation crisis
90:New Orleans school desegregation crisis
14:
1206:
1043:
951:
109:The New Orleans Four were escorted by
1137:
890:
689:schools even further, Superintendent
642:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
331:
175:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
886:
884:
812:Reckdahl, Katy (November 14, 2010).
594:Under the 1896 Supreme Court ruling
506:racial segregation of public schools
29:
1224:Events of the civil rights movement
1183:
634:Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board
24:
1131:
458:Missouri to Louisiana Freedom Ride
186:"All deliberate speed" ordered in
45:tone or style may not reflect the
25:
1250:
1177:
960:. New York: Peter Lang. pp.
881:
780:"New Orleans Four Legacy Project"
620:, the chief legal counsel of the
136:McDonogh No. 19 Elementary School
1012:Louisiana Historical Association
784:http://www.knowla.org/entry/723/
711:William Frantz Elementary School
704:
532:William Frantz Elementary School
140:William Frantz Elementary School
103:
55:guide to writing better articles
34:
1119:
1110:
649:decision, the Supreme Court in
931:
897:History of Education Quarterly
854:The Journal of Negro Education
844:
832:
789:
773:
13:
1:
767:
715:McDonogh 19 Elementary School
630:Herbert William Christenberry
551:
524:McDonogh 19 Elementary School
142:located in the Ninth Ward of
738:
7:
891:Zelbo, Sian (August 2019).
755:
611:Orleans Parish School Board
539:Orleans Parish School Board
501:Brown v. Board of Education
245:Orleans Parish School Board
10:
1255:
555:
475:Murder of Clarence Triggs
371:
263:
258:
216:
211:
196:
172:" doctrine overturned by
154:
130:
122:
102:
94:
89:
1229:Education in New Orleans
1054:Clark Atlanta University
820:. New Orleans, Louisiana
1190:Federal Judicial Center
494:that followed the 1954
422:Baton Rouge bus boycott
543:United States marshals
541:. Following the riot,
952:Wieder, Alan (1997).
828:– via NOLA.com.
463:Murder of Oneal Moore
360:Civil rights movement
299:Governor of Louisiana
240:Governor of Louisiana
97:civil rights movement
1184:Douglas, Davison M.
1138:Baker, Liva (1996).
409:Lombard v. Louisiana
18:The New Orleans Four
909:10.1017/heq.2019.26
433:Garner v. Louisiana
427:Baton Rouge sit-ins
416:City of Baton Rouge
403:New Orleans sit-ins
387:City of New Orleans
818:The Times-Picayune
668:William M. Rainach
602:separate but equal
597:Plessy v. Ferguson
581:Compromise of 1877
558:Massive resistance
510:U.S. Circuit Judge
496:U.S. Supreme Court
469:Brown v. Louisiana
393:Sugar Bowl of 1956
380:Louisiana v. NAACP
374:State of Louisiana
182:Massive resistance
170:Separate but equal
162:Plessy v. Ferguson
1214:1960 in Louisiana
1004:Louisiana History
746:Hurricane Katrina
483:
482:
326:
325:
254:
253:
126:November 14, 1960
83:
82:
75:
49:used on Knowledge
47:encyclopedic tone
16:(Redirected from
1246:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1173:
1145:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1096:
1093:
1082:
1081:
1041:
1032:
1031:
999:
984:
983:
959:
949:
938:
935:
929:
928:
888:
879:
878:
848:
842:
836:
830:
829:
827:
825:
809:
800:
793:
787:
777:
691:James F. Redmond
664:J. Skelly Wright
513:J. Skelly Wright
447:Other localities
440:Cox v. Louisiana
366:
352:
345:
338:
329:
328:
218:
217:
107:
87:
86:
78:
71:
67:
64:
58:
57:for suggestions.
53:See Knowledge's
38:
37:
30:
21:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1204:
1203:
1194:
1192:
1180:
1154:
1134:
1132:Further reading
1129:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1099:
1094:
1085:
1042:
1035:
1000:
987:
972:
950:
941:
936:
932:
889:
882:
849:
845:
837:
833:
823:
821:
810:
803:
794:
790:
778:
774:
770:
758:
741:
732:President-elect
707:
574:ratified a new
560:
554:
484:
479:
367:
358:
356:
322:
321:
295:
250:
233:
150:
118:
79:
68:
62:
59:
52:
43:This article's
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1252:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1202:
1201:
1179:
1178:External links
1176:
1175:
1174:
1152:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1118:
1109:
1097:
1083:
1062:10.2307/274776
1033:
985:
970:
939:
930:
903:(3): 379–406.
880:
861:(1/2): 31–42.
843:
831:
801:
788:
771:
769:
766:
765:
764:
757:
754:
740:
737:
706:
703:
589:Reconstruction
553:
550:
481:
480:
478:
477:
472:
465:
460:
455:
444:
443:
436:
429:
424:
413:
412:
405:
400:
395:
384:
383:
372:
369:
368:
355:
354:
347:
340:
332:
324:
323:
320:
319:
308:
307:
296:
294:
293:
282:
281:
276:
274:McDonogh Three
265:
264:
261:
260:
256:
255:
252:
251:
249:
248:
242:
236:
234:
232:
231:
225:
221:
214:
213:
209:
208:
207:
206:
203:
198:
194:
193:
192:
191:
184:
179:
166:
156:
152:
151:
134:
132:
128:
127:
124:
120:
119:
108:
100:
99:
92:
91:
81:
80:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1251:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1219:1960 protests
1217:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1153:9780060168087
1149:
1144:
1143:
1136:
1135:
1122:
1113:
1104:
1102:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1038:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
981:
977:
973:
971:9780820436906
967:
963:
958:
957:
948:
946:
944:
934:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
887:
885:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
855:
847:
840:
835:
819:
815:
808:
806:
798:
792:
785:
781:
776:
772:
763:
760:
759:
753:
749:
747:
736:
733:
727:
723:
719:
716:
712:
705:Desegregation
702:
700:
696:
692:
686:
682:
678:
676:
675:Leander Perez
671:
669:
665:
661:
656:
654:
653:
648:
644:
643:
637:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
618:A. P. Tureaud
614:
612:
607:
603:
599:
598:
592:
590:
586:
582:
577:
573:
569:
565:
559:
549:
546:
544:
540:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
516:
514:
511:
507:
503:
502:
497:
493:
489:
476:
473:
471:
470:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
450:
449:
448:
442:
441:
437:
435:
434:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
419:
418:
417:
411:
410:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
390:
389:
388:
382:
381:
377:
376:
375:
370:
365:
361:
353:
348:
346:
341:
339:
334:
333:
330:
318:
317:Leander Perez
315:
314:
313:
312:
306:
303:
302:
301:
300:
292:
291:A. P. Tureaud
289:
288:
287:
286:
280:
277:
275:
272:
271:
270:
269:
262:
257:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
235:
229:
226:
223:
222:
220:
219:
215:
210:
204:
201:
200:
199:
195:
189:
185:
183:
180:
177:
176:
171:
167:
164:
163:
159:
158:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
112:
111:U.S. Marshals
106:
101:
98:
93:
88:
85:
77:
74:
66:
63:November 2023
56:
50:
48:
41:
32:
31:
19:
1195:November 12,
1193:. Retrieved
1141:
1121:
1112:
1049:
1045:
1007:
1003:
955:
933:
900:
896:
858:
852:
846:
834:
822:. Retrieved
817:
796:
795:Ellen Blue,
791:
775:
750:
742:
728:
724:
720:
718:Ninth Ward.
708:
695:Jimmie Davis
687:
683:
679:
672:
659:
657:
650:
646:
640:
638:
633:
625:
624:(NAACP). In
615:
605:
595:
593:
576:Constitution
562:In the post-
561:
547:
536:
530:enrolled at
528:Ruby Bridges
517:
499:
487:
485:
467:
446:
445:
438:
431:
415:
414:
407:
397:
386:
385:
378:
373:
310:
309:
305:Jimmie Davis
298:
297:
285:NAACP member
284:
283:
279:Ruby Bridges
267:
266:
259:Lead figures
187:
173:
160:
95:Part of the
84:
69:
60:
44:
568:New Orleans
492:New Orleans
197:Resulted in
144:New Orleans
115:New Orleans
1208:Categories
1056:: 122–31.
768:References
556:See also:
552:Background
520:Leona Tate
498:ruling in
1070:0031-8906
1020:0024-6816
1014:: 35–62.
925:201397373
917:0018-2680
867:2167-6437
824:April 11,
739:Aftermath
585:Democrats
572:Louisiana
564:Civil War
364:Louisiana
190:II (1955)
155:Caused by
148:Louisiana
1170:34026757
980:35762690
756:See also
652:Brown II
613:(OPSB).
526:, while
311:Attorney
268:Students
224:Students
131:Location
1162:96-4158
1028:4233555
875:3211223
230:(NAACP)
212:Parties
1168:
1160:
1150:
1078:274776
1076:
1068:
1046:Phylon
1026:
1018:
978:
968:
923:
915:
873:
865:
606:Plessy
247:(OPSB)
178:(1954)
165:(1896)
117:, 1960
1074:JSTOR
1052:(2).
1024:JSTOR
1010:(1).
962:71–82
921:S2CID
871:JSTOR
660:Brown
647:Brown
591:Era.
566:Era,
504:that
188:Brown
1197:2022
1166:OCLC
1158:LCCN
1148:ISBN
1066:ISSN
1016:ISSN
976:OCLC
966:ISBN
913:ISSN
863:ISSN
826:2024
713:and
486:The
138:and
123:Date
1058:doi
905:doi
362:in
1210::
1188:.
1164:.
1156:.
1100:^
1086:^
1072:.
1064:.
1050:48
1048:.
1036:^
1022:.
1008:40
1006:.
988:^
974:.
964:.
942:^
919:.
911:.
901:59
899:.
895:.
883:^
869:.
859:71
857:.
816:.
804:^
146:,
1199:.
1172:.
1080:.
1060::
1030:.
982:.
927:.
907::
877:.
841:.
786:.
351:e
344:t
337:v
168:"
76:)
70:(
65:)
61:(
51:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
