Brown v. Board of Education

1468:

closures violated the state constitution, and a panel of federal judges ruled they violated the U.S. Constitution. In early February 1959, both the Arlington County (also subject to a NAACP lawsuit, and which had lost its elected school board pursuant to other parts of the Stanley Plan) and Norfolk schools desegregated peacefully. Soon, all counties reopened and integrated with the exception of Prince Edward County that took the extreme step of choosing not to appropriate any funding for its school system, thus forcing all its public schools to close, although Prince Edward County provided tuition grants for all students, regardless of their race, to use for private, nonsectarian education. Since no private schools existed for blacks within the county, black children in the county either had to leave the county to receive any education between 1959 and 1963, or received no education. All private schools in the region remained racially segregated. This lasted until 1964, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled Prince Edward County's decision to provide tuition grants for private schools that only admitted whites violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, in the case of

2079:...we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out ... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just couldn't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates. 1892:

series of cases ... The Court's realistic choice, therefore, was either to abandon the quest for equality by allowing segregation or to forbid segregation in order to achieve equality. There was no third choice. Either choice would violate one aspect of the original understanding, but there was no possibility of avoiding that. Since equality and segregation were mutually inconsistent, though the ratifiers did not understand that, both could not be honored. When that is seen, it is obvious the Court must choose equality and prohibit state-imposed segregation. The purpose that brought the fourteenth amendment into being was equality before the law, and equality, not separation, was written into the law.

553: 1527: 1900:, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General's office during Harry Truman's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court's decision, and stated that the NAACP's arguments did not present strong evidence. Elman has been criticized for offering a self-aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades. However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court's most outspoken advocates of the 45: 1129:

could afford schooling usually attended private schools, while the education of Southern black children was "almost nonexistent", to the point that in some Southern states the education of black people was forbidden by law. The Court contrasted this with the situation in 1954: "Today, education is perhaps the most important function of our local and state governments." The Court concluded that, in making its ruling, it would have to "consider public education in light of its full development and its present place in American life throughout the Nation."

883:

facilities, the curricula, courses of study, qualification and quality of teachers, as well as other educational facilities in the two sets of schools comparable." The lower court observed that "colored children in many instances are required to travel much greater distances than they would be required to travel could they attend a white school" but also noted that the school district "transports colored children to and from school free of charge" and that "no such service provided to white children." In the Delaware case the district court judge in

1615: 1421:

integration, putting up legal obstacles to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation.

12702: 5406: 961: 1842:. In addition, Berger argues that the views of the draftsmen of the 14th Amendment in 1866 are decisive—as opposed to the views of later readers of the 14th Amendment (including the views of supporters of the 14th Amendment after this amendment's passage and ratification due to the fact that even their views and beliefs about the meaning and scope of this Amendment could and sometimes did change over time—like with 8264: 2023:. They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools' policy of "open enrollment" had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred" schools that would create both predominantly African-American and predominantly European-American schools within the district. The district court reopened the 1089: 1539:

neighborhood attendance centers in January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option. Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka's schools: "They accepted it ... It wasn't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals."

1463:, to study the issue and make recommendations. The commission recommended giving localities "broad discretion" in meeting the new judicial requirements. However, in 1956, a special session of the Virginia legislature adopted a legislative package which allowed the governor to simply close all schools under desegregation orders from federal courts. In early 1958, newly elected Governor 1678:. Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time." In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the 1792:, since that was the US Congress that actually passed the 14th Amendment) and also criticized McConnell's view that the 1954 view of "civil rights" should be decisive in interpreting the 14th Amendment as opposed to the 1866 view of "civil rights." Berger also argues that McConnell failed to provide any evidence that the 702:, proclaiming that "Our American system like all others is on trial both at home and abroad, ... the extent to which we maintain the spirit of our constitution with its Bill of Rights, will in the long run do more to make it both secure and the object of adulation than the number of hydrogen bombs we stockpile." 2441:

As a direct offshoot of the 1948 "Universal Declaration of Human Rights," it sought to dismantle any scientific justification or basis for racism and proclaimed that race was not a biological fact of nature but a dangerous social myth. As a milestone, this critically important declaration contributed

1865:

has written: "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that 'distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their

1114:

Reargument was largely devoted to the circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. It covered exhaustively consideration of the Amendment in Congress, ratification by the states, then-existing practices in racial segregation, and the views of proponents and opponents of

927:

in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States," five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from

4371:

wrote: "I have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters—Vinson, Reed, Jackson, and Clark." Id. Justice Jackson's longtime legal secretary had a different view, calling Rehnquist's Senate testimony an attempt to "smear the reputation

4323:

had been on the books for 60 years; Congress had never acted, and the same Congress that had promulgated the 14th Amendment had required segregation in the District schools. . . . I saw factors on both sides. . . . I did not agree then, and I certainly do not agree now,

1891:

By 1954, when Brown came up for decision, it had been apparent for some time that segregation rarely if ever produced equality. Quite aside from any question of psychology, the physical facilities provided for blacks were not as good as those provided for whites. That had been demonstrated in a long

1774:

who spearheaded the 14th Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools. Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th Amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress

1737:

Given that desegregation has not produced the predicted leaps forward in black educational achievement, there is no reason to think that black students cannot learn as well when surrounded by members of their own race as when they are in an integrated environment. (...) Because of their "distinctive

1665:

was right and should be reaffirmed." Rehnquist continued, "To the argument ... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights

1395:

Native American communities were also heavily impacted by segregation laws with native children also being prohibited from attending white institutions. Native American children considered light-complexioned were allowed to ride school buses to previously all white schools, while dark-skinned Native

1268:

decision, African-American teachers, principals, and other school staff who worked in segregated Black schools were fired or laid off as Southerners sought to create a system of integrated schools with White leadership. According to historian Michael Fultz, "In many ways the South moved faster, with

1109:

The Court's opinion began by discussing whether the Fourteenth Amendment, adopted in 1868, was meant to abolish segregation in public education. The Court said that it had been unable to reach a conclusion on the question, even after hearing a second round of oral arguments from the parties' lawyers

1079:

resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion. Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justice Jackson dropped his concurrence and Reed finally decided to drop his dissent. The final decision

882:

The Kansas case was unique among the group in that there was no contention of gross inferiority of the segregated schools' physical plant, curriculum, or staff. The district court found substantial equality as to all such factors. The lower court, in its opinion, noted that, in Topeka, "the physical

1990:

White students in the county were given assistance to attend white-only "private academies" that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme

773:

The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received

1974:

as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years—and in some cases for a decade or more—using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private" schools, and "token" integration where a few carefully selected

1195:

We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation

980:

opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be

799:

children, the court denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings, transportation, curricula, and educational qualifications of teachers. This finding would be specifically cited in the subsequent Supreme Court opinion of

4328:

is right and should be reaffirmed. I had ideas on both sides, and I do not think I ever really finally settled in my own mind on that. . . . round the lunch table I am sure I defended it. . . . I thought there were good arguments to be made in support of it. (S. Hrg.

1538:

Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to

1467:

closed public schools in Charlottesville, Norfolk, and Warren County rather than comply with desegregation orders, leaving 10,000 children without schools despite efforts of various parent groups. However, he reconsidered when on the Lee-Jackson state holiday, the Virginia Supreme Court ruled the

1943:

was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court." In Sowell's estimation, "Dunbar, which had been accepting outstanding black students from anywhere in the city, could now accept only students from the rough ghetto neighborhood in which it was

1128:

The Court said the question was complicated by the major social and governmental changes that had taken place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It observed that public schools had been uncommon in the American South in the late 1860s. At that time, Southern white children whose families

730:

The suit called for the school district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The Topeka Board of Education operated separate elementary schools due to a 1879 Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white

1733:

Segregation was not unconstitutional because it might have caused psychological feelings of inferiority. Public school systems that separated blacks and provided them with superior educational resources making blacks "feel" superior to whites sent to lesser schools—would violate the Fourteenth

1248:

The reaction of the white South to this judicial onslaught on its institutions was noisy and stubborn. Certain "border states," which had formerly maintained segregated school systems, did integrate, and others permitted the token admission of a few Negro students to schools that had once been

1136:

Court did not address this issue, however, probably because some of the school districts involved in the case had made improvements to their black schools to "equalize" them with the quality of the white schools. This prevented the Court from finding a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's

1420:

ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D. E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted

1141:

in "measurable inequalities" between all white and black schools and forced the Court to look to the effects of segregation itself. The Court therefore framed the case around the more general question of whether the principle of "separate but equal" was constitutional when applied to public

689:

in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes?" Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India." Chief Justice

1778:

In response to Michael McConnell's research, Raoul Berger argued that the Congressmen and Senators who were advocating in favor of school desegregation in the 1870s were trying to rewrite the 14th Amendment in order to make the 14th Amendment fit their political agenda and that the actual

1054:

dinner, where the president told him: "These are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African-American plaintiffs.

1796:

who ratified the 14th Amendment understood it at the time as prohibiting school segregation and that whenever the question of school segregation's compatibility with the US Constitution (as opposed to the separate question of school segregation's compatibility with US state law and/or

1513:

of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of

1209:

The Court did not close with an order to implement the integration of the schools of the various jurisdictions. Instead, it requested the parties re-appear before the Court the following Term to hold arguments on what the appropriate remedy should be. This became the case known as

9735: 968:

In spring 1953, the court heard the case, but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.

1179:

The Court supported this conclusion with citations—in a footnote, not the main text of the opinion—to several psychological studies purporting to show that segregating black children made them feel inferior and interfered with their learning. These studies included those of

2040:

After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to

1969:

Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed" was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted

932:

noted that "the existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills." The brief also quoted a letter by

1146:

We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational

1534:

The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 onwards. The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level".

1904:

philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations. Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President

1986:

did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.

794:

wrote the opinion for the three-judge District Court panel, including nine "findings of fact," based on the evidence presented at trial. Although finding number eight stated that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on

5772: 1673:

However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson's tentative views for his own use." Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in

1160:

In answer, the Court held that it did. The Court ruled that state-mandated segregation, even if implemented in schools of otherwise equal quality, is inherently unequal because of its psychological impact upon the segregated children.

1070:

Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the court must overrule

12817: 1080:

was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the court. Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion.

3847: 1062:

faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a

1860:

The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example,

1165:

To separate from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be

940:

lamenting that "the United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country."

3517:

Howell, Mark C., John Ben Shepperd, Attorney General of the State of Texas: His Role in the Continuation of Segregation in Texas, 1953–1957, Master's Thesis, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas, July

769:

As directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and redirected to the segregated schools.

1729:

itself did not need to rely upon any psychological or social-science research in order to announce the simple, yet fundamental truth that the Government cannot discriminate among its citizens on the basis of race. ...

1428:, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African-American teachers from the local "negro school" were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in 1783:

to have segregated schools. Berger criticized McConnell for being unable to find any reference to school segregation—let alone any reference to a desire to prohibit it—among supporters of the 14th Amendment in the

488:

In May 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Browns. The Court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," and therefore laws that impose them violate the

902:—who was later appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967—argued the case before the Supreme Court for the plaintiffs. Assistant attorney general Paul Wilson—later distinguished emeritus professor of law at the 1115:

the Amendment. This discussion and our own investigation convince us that, although these sources cast some light, it is not enough to resolve the problem with which we are faced. At best, they are inconclusive.

8725: 1380:" incident. Wallace sought to uphold his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" promise he had given in his 1963 inaugural address. Wallace moved aside only when confronted by General 1249:

racially unmixed. However, the Deep South made no moves to obey the judicial command, and in some districts there can be no doubt that the Desegregation decision hardened resistance to integration proposals.

10571: 4454:, S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986). 4289:, S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986). 9671: 5251: 641:

in all schools, while masquerading as providing separate but equal treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black Americans.

12074: 12069: 9663: 4319:

had been wrongly decided at the time, that it was not a good interpretation of the equal protection clause to say that when you segregate people by race, there is no denial of equal protection. But

1849:, who initially opposed school desegregation but later changed his mind and supported it). To back up his view about original intent being decisive, Berger cites—among other things—an 1871 quote by 1191:

The Court then concluded its relatively short opinion by declaring that segregated public education was inherently unequal, violated the Equal Protection Clause, and therefore was unconstitutional:

10374: 4447: 4282: 1132:

During the segregation era, it was common for black schools to have fewer resources and poorer facilities than white schools despite the equality required by the "separate but equal" doctrine. The

465:

at the school closest to their home, instead requiring her to ride a bus to a segregated black school farther away. The Browns and twelve other local black families in similar situations filed a

9815: 4491:

Rehnquist ultimately embraced the Warren Court's Brown decision, and after he joined the Court he made no attempt to dismantle the civil-rights revolution, as political opponents feared he would.

4329:

99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States, July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986)

12081: 11822: 9783: 9639: 3897: 10462: 10278: 3839: 1734:

Amendment, whether or not the white students felt stigmatized, just as do school systems in which the positions of the races are reversed. Psychological injury or benefit is irrelevant ...

1400:'s desegregation campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, contacted him for assistance. King promptly responded to the tribal leaders and through his intervention the problem was quickly resolved. 681:

during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism were doing to America's international image. When Justice

9938: 2122: 2031:

on a 2–1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment. In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District's request for

778:, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, Vivian Scales, and Lucinda Todd. The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88. 12086: 8701: 2069:

case, beginning with the work of the NAACP's Legal Defense Fund's efforts to combat 'separate but equal' in graduate school education and culminating in the historical 1954 decision.

1494:

caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but

10112: 1762:

did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including

1738:

histories and traditions," black schools can function as the center and symbol of black communities, and provide examples of independent black leadership, success, and achievement.

4399: 4363:

wrote: "In the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. Those four were Black, Burton, Minton, and myself."

9647: 8907: 4981: 1857:

where Garfield challenged Bingham's recollection of a statement that Bingham had previously made in 1866—with Garfield telling Bingham that he can make but not unmake history.

1801:, where courts have often ruled against school segregation) reached the judiciary in the couple of decades after the passage and ratification of the 14th Amendment (whether in 12807: 11757: 9775: 8961: 1958:" the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed," a phrase traceable to 1099:

On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Brown family and the other plaintiffs. The decision consists of a single opinion written by

4813: 3701: 1659:

decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by 'liberal' colleagues but I think

1725:

did not say that "racially isolated" schools were inherently inferior; the harm that it identified was tied purely to de jure segregation, not de facto segregation. Indeed,

887:

ordered that the black students be admitted to the white high school due to the substantial harm of segregation and the differences that made the separate schools unequal.

5003: 4300: 4108: 2432: 8499: 2461: 1036:

and expressed concerns about the proposed decision's enforceability. Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President

666: 2942: 10595: 8022: 6307: 2598: 594:'s Equal Protection Clause ("no State shall ... deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws"). Racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 2001:, declaring that "...the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out" and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race. 10494: 9392: 2346: 1581:, the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The court buttressed its holding by citing (in 8002: 9368: 8805: 5513: 2489: 1954:

In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as "

724: 470: 259: 141: 5247: 12607: 12602: 12151: 10883: 10740: 9607: 9487: 8309: 8046: 5672: 4955: 1997: 1755: 1634: 1470: 1334:, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods. 591: 494: 356: 255: 4542: 2406: 1509:

principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first

469:

lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Topeka Board of Education, alleging its segregation policy was unconstitutional. A special three-judge court of the

12414: 12286: 10871: 10438: 10088: 9575: 9551: 8749: 8693: 7800: 5643: 5581: 5008: 4568: 3817: 3753: 2228: 401: 208: 164: 145: 91: 17: 3096: 12802: 10382: 9447: 8773: 8741: 5970: 3152: 2028: 1910: 1767: 1549: 828: 774:

by the U.S. Supreme Court justices. The 13 plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming,

759: 5143: 4440: 4279: 2846: 2660: 2376: 10414: 10326: 10270: 10184: 10176: 10072: 9970: 8094: 7942: 5732: 4512: 3568: 2787: 12767: 12757: 10981: 10555: 9930: 9799: 9719: 8653: 8249: 879:, found that discrimination was unlawful; in all the other cases the plaintiffs had lost as the original courts had found discrimination to be lawful. 4186:

But he at minimum established popular sentiment and practice, along with legal and scientific testimony on race, as a link in his train of reasoning.

3787: 3126: 1577:

of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time. In deciding

11570: 10705: 10152: 9751: 9567: 9543: 9244: 501:. However, the decision's 14 pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court's second decision in 5718: 5209:. transcript of program produced by KTWU Channel 11 in Topeka, Kansas. Originally aired May 3, 2004.: KTWU Video. September 10, 2005. Archived from 12797: 12792: 12064: 10454: 10446: 10064: 9866: 9655: 5811: 3665: 1490:, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the 754:, as well as an assistant pastor at his local church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by a childhood friend, Charles Scott. Brown's daughter 12612: 11852: 10104: 9527: 8821: 8608: 6553: 6444: 5864: 4924: 2963: 2512: 3723: 1779:

understanding of the 14th Amendment from 1866 to 1868 (which is when the 14th Amendment was actually passed and ratified) does, in fact, permit

598:

that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Beginning in the 1930s, a legal strategy was pursued, led by scholars at

420:

are unconstitutional, even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality. The decision partially overruled the Court's 1896 decision

12681: 12656: 9052: 8099: 3604: 12742: 12666: 12661: 11593: 11041: 10603: 9954: 9711: 9559: 9352: 8007: 6345: 6264: 4376: 3947: 378: 3022: 2628: 2567: 964:

The members of the U.S. Supreme Court that on May 17, 1954, ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

12382: 12218: 11927: 11917: 11575: 11565: 1920:"a decision that changed America for the better, and forever." Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling. 2736: 12782: 12752: 12424: 12196: 10406: 10318: 8945: 7977: 7972: 7760: 7742: 6474: 6383: 5749: 5176: 3780:"Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al., Appellees, 267 F.2d 733 (8th Cir. 1959)" 2964:"Anthony Lester, "Brown v. Board of Education Overseas" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 148, No. 4, December 2004" 5044: 4622: 2814: 12812: 12644: 11588: 11583: 9204: 6523: 6225: 945: 5768:

Documents from the district court, including the original complaint and trial transcript, at the Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse

4035: 2754: 1240:." In the face of entrenched Southern opposition, progress on integrating American schools was slow. The American political historian 622:, 339 U.S. 637 (1950), suggesting that racial segregation was inherently unequal (at least in some settings), which paved the way for 526:

where racial segregation was deeply entrenched in society. Many Southern governmental and political leaders embraced a plan known as "

12303: 11807: 10916: 10430: 9962: 8977: 8300: 8079: 6630: 6332: 4989: 4087: 4059: 4011: 1491: 5758: 5709: 3635: 2993: 2535: 12651: 12281: 11802: 11024: 10856: 8114: 8069: 7737: 6620: 6548: 6274: 6154: 4801: 2694: 2027:

case after a 25-year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs' request finding the schools "unitary". In 1989, a three-judge panel of the

3693: 12762: 12737: 12617: 12577: 12419: 12323: 12252: 11857: 10243: 9108: 8709: 8576: 8028: 6416: 6016: 1771: 1566: 952:

made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision."

638: 577: 3979: 1975:

black children were admitted to former white-only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.

590:(1896), which held that as long as the separate facilities for separate races were equal, state segregation did not violate the 12676: 12671: 12639: 12409: 12313: 12276: 12223: 12057: 9615: 8789: 8600: 6394: 4310: 4112: 2436: 2111: 2042: 1553: 5690: 3537: 2877: 2269: 12747: 12634: 12592: 12404: 10952: 10818: 10813: 10698: 8969: 7765: 5885: 5334: 5308: 5289: 5160: 5075: 4746: 4352: 4179: 4145: 3071: 2925: 2306: 2156: 2098: 1940: 751: 5819: 3461: 2946: 12582: 12567: 12431: 12340: 12335: 12269: 10730: 10120: 9807: 9791: 9695: 8151: 6615: 6563: 6509: 5911: 5202: 4478: 2606: 2536:"Legacy of Brown: Many people part of local case, Thirteen parents representing 20 children signed up as Topeka plaintiffs" 1044:

as Chief Justice. Warren had supported the integration of Mexican-American students in California school systems following

731:

students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka

1582: 12787: 12557: 12394: 12364: 12146: 11725: 10937: 9703: 8813: 8129: 6558: 6494: 5857: 2841: 920: 910: 2338: 12547: 12441: 12357: 12201: 11982: 11782: 10933: 10911: 10519: 10235: 10160: 9424: 6568: 6543: 6528: 6257: 5925: 1100: 618: 581: 405: 49: 2481: 534:, in order to frustrate attempts to force them to de-segregate their school systems. Four years later, in the case of 12694: 11084: 10735: 10579: 8519: 8074: 7947: 6421: 6198: 5543: 5481: 5457: 4904: 4853: 4266: 4208: 3880: 3263: 3229: 1793: 247: 4947: 12772: 12622: 12587: 12572: 12330: 11932: 11176: 11146: 10962: 10691: 10398: 9268: 8109: 7851: 6322: 6209: 4536: 2398: 1341:, fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years. When 934: 462: 70: 5409: 3757: 1556:

under the National Park Service on October 26, 1992, and redesignated a National Historical Park on May 12, 2022.

1357:

murdered him. Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994.

984:

Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued. Justices

12629: 12552: 12347: 12191: 11922: 11787: 11492: 11131: 9148: 8993: 8507: 8136: 8124: 6600: 6538: 3088: 2037:

and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit's mandate.

1618: 1301: 5787:, a commemoration of the 70th Anniversary of the decision in the first set of cases created by the Oyez.org team 3809: 3163: 12399: 12293: 12208: 11812: 9978: 8836: 5850: 5490: 5139: 4464: 3436: 3209: 3193: 2836: 2668: 2368: 2016: 1983: 1396:

children from the same band were still barred from riding the same buses. Tribal leaders, having learned about

233: 193: 182: 12436: 12369: 12352: 12298: 12247: 12186: 12091: 12052: 11992: 11792: 11181: 11161: 10968: 10947: 8620: 8359: 8293: 8146: 8089: 7888: 6230: 6203: 6021: 4774: 4506: 4427: 3932: 3562: 2783: 2722: 1377: 137: 2019:, persuaded Linda Brown Smith—who now had her own children in Topeka schools—to be a plaintiff in reopening 786:

The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in

118: 12259: 12235: 12230: 12213: 12181: 12124: 11237: 11186: 11019: 9376: 9228: 9180: 8921: 8536: 8268: 8234: 8141: 7997: 7982: 7606: 7126: 6650: 6451: 6358: 6247: 5663: 5628: 5601: 5232: 3779: 3118: 1868: 1293: 226: 5121: 3483:

Fultz, Michael (Spring 2004). "The Displacement of Black Educators Post-Brown: An Overview and Analysis".

200: 12524: 12516: 12459: 12374: 11862: 11767: 11623: 11605: 11507: 11166: 11136: 10861: 10760: 10262: 8733: 8584: 8041: 7775: 7536: 6533: 6499: 6479: 6363: 6242: 5523: 3428: 1789: 1502:

who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on

1486:

policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In

1184:, whose experiments in the 1940s had suggested that black American children from segregated environments 1020:, and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African-American community; 3957: 1075:

to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive

430:

as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that had come to be known as "

12777: 12727: 12542: 12479: 12469: 12019: 11777: 11737: 11094: 10788: 9384: 8119: 7987: 7957: 6941: 6696: 6585: 6515: 5986: 4064: 4040: 4016: 3984: 3952: 3657: 2759: 2633: 2540: 1413: 498: 4916: 2970: 2520: 1308:

responded by asserting federal control over the Arkansas National Guard and deploying troops from the

898:

donated $ 75,000 to help pay for the NAACP's efforts at the Supreme Court. The NAACP's chief counsel,

564:(in red). Kansas where Topeka is located allowed local school districts to enforce segregation (blue). 552: 12822: 12451: 12264: 12096: 11657: 11156: 10994: 10801: 10587: 9994: 9986: 9599: 9020: 8953: 7785: 7616: 7586: 7521: 7006: 6645: 6625: 6595: 6504: 6438: 6411: 6377: 6120: 5901: 3731: 1483: 1024:

wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out."

868: 385: 5798: 5610: 5449:

Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality

3600: 1651:

wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" when he was a law clerk for Justice

12141: 11705: 11618: 11262: 11051: 10866: 10806: 10796: 10722: 10619: 10563: 9727: 9284: 9252: 8883: 8677: 8661: 8286: 7686: 7646: 7171: 7076: 6484: 6433: 6426: 6399: 6339: 6220: 6130: 6054: 4802:"Original Intent-As Perceived by Michael McConnell 91 Northwestern University Law Review 1996–1997" 2805:"District Court Opinion: Brown et al. v Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, kansas et al" 2200:

One source gives Eisenhower's quote as saying "big black bucks" instead of "big overgrown Negroes".

2011:

In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott Jr. (son of the original

1866:

very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality,'

1759: 1685:

Chief Justice Warren's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge

1196:

complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.

763: 747: 699: 4380: 2575: 1526: 12732: 12474: 12024: 11678: 11647: 11427: 11367: 11232: 10975: 10627: 10192: 10048: 9309: 9236: 8629: 8544: 8036: 7451: 7221: 6886: 6866: 6781: 6736: 6312: 6269: 6252: 6090: 6059: 6011: 5932: 5502: 4843: 3754:""Summary of 'Civilities and Civil Rights': by William H. Chafe" George Mason University website" 3221: 3063: 2638: 2298: 1313: 1181: 1138: 544:, and explicitly stated that state officials and legislators had no power to nullify its ruling. 490: 251: 186: 4508:

The Supreme Court, 2012 Term – Comment: Windsor and Brown: Marriage Equality and Racial Equality

4156:? There were, perhaps, some important intellectual roots; this was the era of scientific racism. 3564:

The Supreme Court, 2012 Term – Comment: Windsor and Brown: Marriage Equality and Racial Equality

3185: 3179: 3031: 2442:

to the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.'

12389: 12119: 11357: 11151: 11141: 11079: 10889: 10828: 9858: 7491: 7226: 7211: 7206: 7081: 6936: 6776: 6721: 6291: 6141: 6064: 6035: 5997: 5742: 4538:

What Can Brown Do For You: Neutral Principles and the Struggle Over the Equal Protection Clause

2104: 1846: 1822: 1798: 1397: 1385: 1237: 1076: 876: 561: 511: 8278: 5180: 4169: 3872:

Power, Protest, and the Public Schools: Jewish and African American Struggles in New York City

3055: 2915: 2292: 1430:

Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al.

976:, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the court to gather a consensus around a 12464: 11977: 11842: 11797: 11613: 11332: 11297: 11116: 11099: 10906: 10823: 10547: 10390: 10358: 9946: 9495: 8443: 8335: 8084: 7621: 7436: 7066: 6971: 6951: 6921: 6610: 6605: 6352: 6317: 6215: 6179: 5873: 5647: 5585: 5157:

Topeka Public Schools Desegregation History: "The Naming of Scott Computer Technology Magnet"

5012: 4575: 4572: 4342: 4135: 3870: 2804: 2232: 2143: 1369: 1350: 1269:

more 'deliberate speed' in displacing Black educators than it did in desegregating schools."

1046: 1013: 924: 443: 212: 168: 149: 83: 5564: 4917:"Supreme Court History: Expanding civil rights, biographies of the robes: Felix Frankfurter" 4592: 12706: 12114: 11877: 11688: 11640: 11512: 11402: 11307: 11074: 11064: 11036: 10901: 10755: 10539: 10286: 10136: 10029: 9834: 9767: 9276: 9212: 9092: 8929: 8757: 8717: 8669: 8104: 7992: 7790: 7671: 7576: 7386: 7016: 6174: 5906: 5494: 4692: 4588: 4045: 3989: 3250: 2764: 1763: 1354: 1346: 1305: 1037: 903: 863:

case, the only case of the five originating from a student protest, began when 16-year-old

695: 106: 5778:

curated by Michigan State University's Diversity of Excellence through Artistic Expression

5473:

All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education

5039:. University of Louisville School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 2007-01. 4083: 4069: 4021: 1689:

decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber" and

1585:) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools. 919:("friend of the court") brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on 8: 12489: 11847: 11762: 11242: 11031: 10921: 10851: 10470: 10422: 10366: 10302: 10294: 10227: 10144: 10080: 9743: 9687: 9631: 9623: 9260: 9140: 9124: 9001: 8781: 8765: 8459: 8343: 7867: 7828: 7376: 7336: 7286: 7196: 7156: 7131: 7086: 6891: 6846: 6691: 6671: 6640: 6635: 6578: 6489: 6284: 6237: 6187: 6148: 5318: 4701: 4656: 4597: 4563: 3627: 2987: 2545: 1963: 1843: 1785: 1710: 1328: 1281:

organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to the implementation of desegregation.

1241: 895: 650:'s 1950 Statement, signed by a wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled 606:, that sought to undermine states' public education segregation by first focusing on the 293: 98: 12494: 5654: 5592: 5532: 2153:(1976), bars segregation in private schools whereas Brown only applies to public schools 12562: 12499: 12242: 11700: 11467: 11447: 11352: 11277: 11104: 11009: 10999: 10987: 10878: 10775: 10750: 10531: 10350: 10342: 10168: 10128: 10096: 10013: 9882: 9874: 9842: 9759: 9583: 9535: 9511: 9479: 9400: 9344: 9336: 9188: 9084: 8899: 8568: 8483: 8412: 8323: 8184: 7952: 7936: 7929: 7908: 7900: 7894: 7857: 7691: 7601: 7581: 7506: 7486: 7476: 7456: 7371: 7256: 7201: 7146: 7051: 6831: 6746: 6405: 6389: 6369: 6135: 6100: 6027: 5681: 5619: 5431: 5378: 5226: 5015: 4768: 4751: 4718: 4673: 4614: 4421: 4404: 4360: 4241: 3908: 3500: 3496: 3214: 3157: 2716: 2699: 2235: 2128: 2116: 1901: 1837: 1661: 1622: 1570: 1565:, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of 1561: 1487: 1448: 1309: 1258: 1064: 1059: 993: 985: 929: 864: 682: 586: 527: 439: 431: 422: 413: 371: 317: 305: 215: 171: 5510:

Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience

1614: 12009: 11730: 11392: 11362: 10957: 10714: 10666: 10658: 10611: 10334: 10208: 9922: 9679: 9519: 9503: 9454: 9440: 9416: 9172: 9156: 9116: 9044: 8985: 8685: 8592: 8528: 8475: 8367: 8052: 7967: 7962: 7922: 7795: 7566: 7551: 7516: 7296: 7216: 7161: 6946: 6110: 6105: 5977: 5963: 5956: 5917: 5539: 5477: 5471: 5453: 5349: 5330: 5304: 5285: 5277: 5099: 5074:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1955. Civil Rights Movement Archive. 4900: 4849: 4368: 4348: 4262: 4245: 4204: 4175: 4141: 3926: 3876: 3601:"De La Beckwith v. State, 707 So. 2d 547 – Miss: Supreme Court 1997 – Google Scholar" 3588:

From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality

3504: 3432: 3354: 3259: 3225: 3189: 3148: 3067: 2921: 2428: 2302: 2149: 2072: 1928: 1850: 1652: 1648: 1638: 1598: 1574: 1464: 1452: 1425: 1373: 1278: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1017: 973: 899: 848: 838: 818: 755: 657: 652: 612: 599: 482: 458: 447: 427: 309: 297: 152: 5842: 4519:

citing Learned Hand, The Bill of Rights at 55 (Oliver Wendell Holmes Lecture, 1958).

4259:

Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education

3898:"Exposing the Whole Segregation Myth: The Harlem Nine and New York City Schools" in 3388: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3279: 3277: 3275: 660:

as well as morally condemning racism. Another work that the Supreme Court cited was

12165: 12136: 12131: 12029: 11997: 11970: 11695: 11312: 11282: 11272: 11267: 10834: 9914: 9890: 9471: 9220: 9196: 9060: 8467: 8435: 8383: 8229: 8214: 8204: 8174: 7915: 7862: 7711: 7696: 7661: 7526: 7471: 7461: 7356: 7231: 7166: 7041: 6956: 6916: 6906: 6896: 6881: 6876: 6851: 6741: 6125: 6040: 6003: 5524:"Chapter 11: 'Our decision does not end but begins the struggle over segregation': 5467: 5370: 5326: 4896: 4835: 4710: 4665: 4606: 4473: 4305: 4233: 3529: 3492: 3018: 2869: 2800: 2261: 1959: 1862: 1828: 1818: 1690: 1543: 1297: 853: 736: 12818:

United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision

5767: 5155: 5067: 2433:"Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946–1962)" 1821:), courts have always affirmed the constitutionality of school segregation—as did 1092:

Chief justice Earl Warren, the author of the Supreme Court's unanimous opinion in

86: 12160: 11987: 11897: 11892: 11823:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

11673: 11628: 11482: 11472: 11452: 11437: 11337: 11212: 11202: 10841: 9736:

Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville

9328: 9068: 8937: 8491: 8451: 8375: 8224: 8209: 8194: 8012: 7641: 7631: 7591: 7571: 7531: 7406: 7396: 7361: 7321: 7306: 7241: 7106: 7056: 6986: 6871: 6821: 6806: 6796: 6791: 6771: 6756: 6751: 6726: 6666: 6590: 6193: 6164: 6159: 6115: 6095: 6074: 6046: 5753: 5164: 4643: 4546: 4516: 4502: 4468: 4451: 4286: 4091: 3572: 3558: 3453: 3422: 3379: 3272: 2997: 2477: 1935:

argued that when Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of

1705: 1630: 1589: 1510: 1456: 1389: 1381: 1009: 775: 607: 536: 5699: 5210: 2740: 12597: 12002: 11965: 11955: 11715: 11710: 11652: 11487: 11417: 11347: 11342: 10846: 10770: 10478: 10310: 10056: 10021: 9898: 9408: 9164: 9076: 8845: 8351: 8263: 8244: 7833: 7681: 7666: 7596: 7546: 7511: 7496: 7481: 7441: 7421: 7411: 7366: 7351: 7331: 7101: 7071: 7061: 7031: 7021: 6931: 6901: 6701: 6327: 6279: 6169: 5447: 5443: 4839: 3424:

The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida

2046: 1906: 1770:, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions," argue that the 1626: 1365: 1005: 997: 891: 823: 720: 573: 454: 329: 4654:, originalism, and constitutional theory: a response to Professor Mcconnell". 4237: 1261:

movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them.

727:. The plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. 12721: 11555: 11537: 11527: 11497: 11442: 11397: 11382: 11327: 11317: 11302: 11252: 11247: 11217: 11014: 10942: 10765: 10572:

Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank

10200: 9591: 9463: 9132: 9100: 9028: 8891: 8797: 8645: 8560: 8239: 8169: 8017: 7883: 7706: 7636: 7541: 7391: 7326: 7311: 7301: 7261: 7186: 7176: 7136: 7121: 7011: 7001: 6961: 6911: 6786: 6711: 6681: 5499:

Brown v. Board of Education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy

5353: 4977: 4532: 4084:

Breaking barriers: Topekans reflect on role in desegregating nation's schools

3255: 3216:

Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy

2457: 2095:, the first black child to attend an all-white elementary school in the South 1932: 1825: 1444: 1376:

to prevent the enrollment of two black students in what became known as the "

1331: 1324: 1317: 1254: 915: 791: 661: 531: 1439:, involving the Prince Edward County schools. Significant opposition to the 739:; Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter; and 11867: 11635: 11560: 11532: 11517: 11502: 11457: 11432: 11412: 11322: 11292: 11287: 11257: 11207: 11059: 10745: 10486: 9850: 9036: 8391: 8199: 8179: 7701: 7656: 7651: 7611: 7446: 7426: 7381: 7316: 7251: 7236: 7151: 7141: 7096: 7046: 7036: 7026: 6996: 6991: 6981: 6966: 6926: 6861: 6841: 6836: 6816: 6811: 6801: 6761: 6716: 6686: 6069: 5790: 5519: 4797: 4220:

Schaffer, Gavin (2007). ""'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the

2690: 2092: 1897: 1854: 1750:

in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary," make the case that

1747: 1743: 1686: 1515: 1460: 1342: 1320:

to ensure the black students could safely register for and attend classes.

1289: 1233: 1021: 937: 906:—conducted the state's ambivalent defense in his first appellate argument. 758:, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to 740: 716: 674: 519: 466: 417: 321: 4699:: The originalist justification for Brown: a reply to Professor Klarman". 11887: 11872: 11720: 11683: 11522: 11477: 11462: 11227: 11222: 11069: 9360: 8637: 8552: 8424: 8219: 8189: 7816: 7780: 7721: 7716: 7676: 7626: 7561: 7556: 7466: 7416: 7346: 7341: 7281: 7266: 7116: 7111: 6976: 6856: 6826: 6766: 6731: 5992: 4742: 4395: 3245: 2809: 2136: 1880: 1499: 1338: 1103: 1051: 1041: 691: 473:

heard the case and ruled against the Browns, relying on the precedent of

277: 230: 9816:

Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College

3342: 11422: 11407: 11377: 11372: 11121: 11089: 10928: 10896: 9906: 7843: 7501: 7431: 7401: 7271: 7246: 7191: 7091: 6706: 6676: 5382: 4948:"President Speaks at Brown v Board of Education National Historic Site" 4722: 4677: 4618: 2033: 1810: 1542:

The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of

1327:

Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But

1228:, but most white Southerners decried it. Many white Southerners viewed 989: 630: 595: 523: 507:(1955) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed". 409: 285: 102: 11758:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

9784:

Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1

9640:

Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.

5203:"Black/White and Brown: Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka" 1592:

played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the

1323:

Also in 1957, Florida's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an

12036: 11882: 11387: 11171: 11109: 11004: 7821: 7291: 7276: 5733:

A copy of Florida's 1957 Interposition Resolution in Response to the

5436: 5248:"Linda Brown, Who Was At Center Of Brown v. Board Of Education, Dies" 3053: 2737:"Last surviving Brown v. Board plaintiff dies at 88 - TwinCities.com" 2183:

and a series of later Supreme Court decisions have severely weakened

1780: 1758:. They support this reading of the 14th Amendment by noting that the 1754:

cannot be defended by reference to the original understanding of the

1408:

In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting

1185: 204: 10683: 5374: 4714: 4669: 4610: 3900:

Freedom north: Black freedom struggles outside the South, 1940–1980"

2297:. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. 2123:

List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment

960: 12509: 12504: 12014: 8702:

Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists

7181: 5032: 5028: 4224:

and the Question of "Race" in Science after the Second World War".

1924: 1832: 1432:; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal. 1285: 1212: 981:

used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument.

843: 833: 678: 190: 179: 134: 11773:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

5534:

I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases

4201:

Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education

4137:

Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education

477:

and its "separate but equal" doctrine. The Browns, represented by

426:, which had held that racial segregation laws did not violate the 11126: 7770: 3911:. pp. 65–91. Archived from the original on February 27, 2017 1814: 1361: 762:, her segregated black school one mile (1.6 km) away, while 3980:"Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka information release" 2049:

is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the

719:

lawsuit was filed against the Board of Education of the City of

560:. Racial segregation was required throughout the states in the 11960: 8908:

Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York

8308: 7838: 5806: 5739:

Made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida.

5420: 1806: 1296:

to block the entry of nine black students, later known as the "

1058:

While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the

1008:

noted that Congress had not adopted desegregation legislation;

972:

The court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice

670:(1944). Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration. 647: 44: 8962:

Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community

1944:

located" as a detrimental consequence of the SCOTUS decision.

1498:

helped stimulate activism among African-American parents like

1088: 1067:, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment. 11772: 6573: 3694:"Dr. King spoke out against the genocide of Native Americans" 796: 732: 686: 603: 478: 2294:

Meditations of a Militant Moderate: Cool Views on Hot Topics

2119:, federal judge who made a similar ruling in an earlier case 11817: 5723: 2876:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1951–1953. 2661:"Plaintiffs & Attorneys in Brown v. Board of Education" 2463:

An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy

2075:

later recalled the experience of being refused enrollment:

1802: 1704:

decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice

1447:, who led the Byrd Organization and promised a strategy of 875:

case was the only one where a trial court, affirmed by the

735:. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman 667:

An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy

223: 197: 5781: 3089:"When Eisenhower and Warren Squared Off Over Civil Rights" 2320: 2318: 2175:

Although the Supreme Court has never explicitly overruled

1939:

that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal,"

10596:

Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett

8500:

O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.

5737:

decision, with Gov. Collin's handwritten rejection of it.

5432:

Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture

4553:

73 HARV. L. REV. 1 (Oliver Wendell Holmes Lecture, 1959).

1788:

of this amendment (specifically in the recordings of the

9393:

Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma

5561:

Brown v. Board of Education : a documentary history

3058:. In George R. Goethals; Georgia Jones Sorenson (eds.). 2917:

The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945–1968

2187:

to the point that it is usually considered to have been

453:

The case began in 1951 when the public school system in

8806:

Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.

8023:

Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam

7801:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)" 5346:

Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure

4879:

See, e.g., Randall Kennedy. "A Reply to Philip Elman."

2897: 2895: 2315: 812:

as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases:

725:

United States District Court for the District of Kansas

9488:

Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County

8047:

African American founding fathers of the United States

6400:

Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement

6265:

John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights

5719:

Case information and transcripts on The Curiae Project

5361:

Schauer, Frederick (1997). "Generality and Equality".

5329:(5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3536:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1957. 3460:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1954. 2695:"Zelma Henderson, Who Aided Desegregation, Dies at 88" 2268:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1954. 2083:

Linda Brown died on March 25, 2018, at the age of 75.

1998:

Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County

1682:

decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent.

1471:

Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County

258:, because separate facilities are inherently unequal. 12808:

United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court

9552:

United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education

8694:

City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health

5872: 3634:. Civil Rights Movement History 1963 (January–June). 2369:"An Organized Legal Campaign – Separate Is Not Equal" 2241: 1032:

disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to

485:, appealed the ruling directly to the Supreme Court. 10383:

San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez

9448:

Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County

8774:

Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England

2892: 2837:"Separate Is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education" 2755:"School facilities for Negroes here held comparable" 1775:

a few years following the amendment's ratification.

1768:

United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit

1655:

in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the

1530:

Judgment and order of the Supreme Court for the case

829:

Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County

698:, echoed Douglas's concerns in a 1954 speech to the 10271:

Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.

8095:

Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument

4848:, New York: New York University Press, p. 97, 4845:

What 'Brown v. Board of Education' should have said

1697:impossible to justify based on neutral principles. 1455:, a member of the Byrd Organization, appointed the 766:, a white school, was seven blocks from her house. 9931:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney 9800:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action 8654:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth 5531: 5301:The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation 5098: 3213: 3162: 3030: 2990:Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education 2482:"The Global Impact of Brown v. Board of Education" 1666:of the minorities are." Rehnquist also argued for 1546:, NAACP chapter president who organized the case. 948:has written that "Although the Court's opinion in 9568:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 9245:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health 5348:(5th ed.). Eagan, MN: West Thomson/Reuters. 4838:(2001), "Days, J., concurring", in Balkan, Jack; 4747:"From 19th-Century View, Desegregation Is a Test" 4400:"The Memo That Rehnquist Wrote and Had to Disown" 4377:"Telling the Truth About Chief Justice Rehnquist" 2870:"Student Strike at Moton High (VA) (April, 1951)" 1416:school board declared that it would abide by the 1412:, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954, the 1224:Americans mostly cheered the Court's decision in 364:This case overturned a previous ruling or rulings 189:383 (D. Kan. 1979); judgment for defendants, 671 12719: 11808:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 10447:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc. 9656:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 6631:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 5812:Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions 4551:Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, 4109:"Topeka Public Schools – About McKinley Burnett" 3054:Gill Robinson Hickman; Richard A. Couto (2006). 2958: 2956: 2799: 2399:"The Power of Precedent – Separate Is Not Equal" 1602:was founded in 1960, in part in response to the 185:(D. Kan. 1955); motion to intervene granted, 84 73:, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, et al. 11853:Black players in professional American football 11803:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 9528:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 9053:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co. 6621:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 6554:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights 6445:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 2403:Smithsonian National Museum of American History 2373:Smithsonian National Museum of American History 1050:. However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a 580:. Such state policies had been endorsed by the 8100:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument 4408:. Archived from the original on April 12, 2016 2703:. Archived from the original on April 25, 2009 694:, nominated to the Supreme Court by President 471:U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas 229:(10th Cir. 1992); judgment for defendants, 56 10699: 10604:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs 9955:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County 9712:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell 9560:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education 9353:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education 8294: 8008:List of lynching victims in the United States 6346:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 5858: 4861: 4755:. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015 4593:"Originalism and the desegregation decisions" 4344:Decision: How the Supreme Court Decides Cases 3403: 3401: 3184:. New York: Doubleday & Company. p. 3086: 2953: 2427: 1609: 750:, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the 610:setting. This led to success in the cases of 379:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education 11566:Historically black colleges and universities 8822:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 8726:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health 8609:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 5343: 4870:, Vol. 100, No. 8 (June 1987), pp. 1938–1948 3875:. Rutgers University Press. pp. 51–66. 3687: 3685: 3683: 3348: 3060:The quest for a general theory of leadership 2262:"Brown v. Board of Education Decision (May)" 1872:, 320 U.S. 81 (1943). . . ." 658:attempts at scientifically justifying racism 522:was "noisy and stubborn", especially in the 12803:United States school desegregation case law 10407:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia 10319:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections 9308: 8946:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police 6475:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights 5763:, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library 5747:, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library 5344:Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012). 5282:Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies 5276: 5179:. PBS NewsHour. May 9, 2014. Archived from 4347:. Oxford University Press USA. p. 96. 4280:"A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" 4072:on September 29, 2007 – via CJOnline. 4024:on September 26, 2007 – via CJOnline. 3408: 3392: 3373: 3360: 3332: 3296: 3283: 2943:"Brown v. Board of Ed: Key Cold War weapon" 1435:Virginia had one of the companion cases in 867:organized and led a 450-student walkout of 576:in the United States had been dominated by 556:Educational segregation in the US prior to 438:, and its related cases, paved the way for 10706: 10692: 9672:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education 9205:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill 8301: 8287: 6524:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership 5865: 5851: 5743:U.S. District Court of Kansas: Records of 5538:. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 133–150. 5284:(6th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. 4374: 3398: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3005: 803: 457:, refused to enroll the daughter of local 12768:History of education in the United States 12758:American Civil Liberties Union litigation 11783:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 10431:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer 9963:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan 8978:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee 8080:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument 5317: 4834: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4691: 4587: 3680: 3628:"Standing In the Schoolhouse Door (June)" 3208: 3147: 2920:. Cornell University Press. p. 121. 2767:on November 1, 2006 – via CJOnline. 2596: 2324: 1219: 1083: 781: 9664:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1 8115:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change 6155:University of Georgia desegregation riot 5817: 5466: 4441:Cases where Justice Rehnquist has cited 4340: 4219: 4174:. Oxford University Press. p. 184. 3810:"Revisionist History Season 2 Episode 3" 3017: 2533: 1708:, himself an African American, wrote in 1613: 1525: 1110:specifically on the historical sources. 1087: 959: 551: 12798:United States equal protection case law 12793:School segregation in the United States 10375:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co. 10244:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward 9109:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur 8710:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services 8577:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services 8029:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence 7766:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" 7761:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" 5518: 5360: 5298: 4923:. Educational Broadcasting Corp., PBS. 4642: 4301:"Memos may not hold Roberts's opinions" 4252: 4203:By Austin Sarat. Page 55 and 59. 1997. 4196: 4194: 4167: 4140:. Oxford University Press. p. 55. 3002: 2599:"Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka" 2510: 2476: 2336: 2247: 2015:team member), with assistance from the 1345:sued in 1963 to desegregate schools in 710: 568:For much of the 60 years preceding the 14: 12720: 12682:Topics related to the African diaspora 11788:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 10518: 9616:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver 8411: 8322: 7943:African-American women in the movement 6395:White House Conference on Civil Rights 6226:"Segregation now, segregation forever" 5640:Brown v. Board of Education (Brown II) 5442: 5239: 4976: 4781: 4741: 4394: 4375:Dershowitz, Alan (September 4, 2005). 4048:on April 5, 2008 – via CJOnline. 3868: 3691: 3668:from the original on February 23, 2023 3511: 3177: 2817:from the original on November 14, 2021 2492:from the original on February 23, 2023 2456: 2290: 2112:History of African Americans in Kansas 2043:Topeka Unified School District No. 501 1718:has been misunderstood by the courts. 1186:preferred white dolls over black dolls 944:British barrister and parliamentarian 746:The named African-American plaintiff, 705: 656:. This declaration denounced previous 12662:Landmark African-American legislation 10713: 10687: 10646: 10517: 9307: 8970:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams 8410: 8321: 8282: 6384:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections 5846: 5712:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 5303:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5135:Brown v. Unified School Dist. No. 501 5105:. University of North Carolina Press. 5096: 5004:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 4578: (1995) (Thomas, J., concurring). 4463: 4133: 4036:"First step taken to end segregation" 3850:from the original on October 30, 2019 3632:Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement 3482: 3454:""Massive Resistance" to Integration" 3420: 3414: 3129:from the original on January 10, 2015 3099:from the original on October 31, 2020 2940: 2913: 2421: 2284: 2157:Timeline of the civil rights movement 1982:, the U.S. District Court ruled that 955: 540:, the Court reaffirmed its ruling in 434:". The Court's unanimous decision in 397:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 32:1954 United States Supreme Court case 18:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 12743:May 1954 events in the United States 11793:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 9696:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education 8837:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes 8152:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument 6616:Regional Council of Negro Leadership 6564:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 6510:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights 5987:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company 5912:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore 5245: 5065: 5027: 4982:"Dunbar High School After 100 Years" 4958:from the original on October 5, 2017 4945: 4927:from the original on August 30, 2017 4481:from the original on January 4, 2010 4191: 4111:. September 24, 2006. Archived from 3895: 3790:from the original on August 29, 2022 3692:Bender, Albert (February 13, 2014). 3625: 3527: 3451: 3244: 3087:O'Donnell, Michael (March 9, 2018). 2867: 2849:from the original on August 20, 2019 2343:American Federalism: An Encyclopedia 2339:"Brown v. Board of Education (1954)" 2259: 1588:Both scholarly and popular ideas of 1459:, 32 Democrats led by state senator 859:All were NAACP-sponsored cases. The 144:1951); probable jurisdiction noted, 12147:African-American Vernacular English 10463:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools 10279:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth 9704:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co. 8814:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo 8790:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt 8601:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt 6559:Lowndes County Freedom Organization 6495:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 6165:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address 5413:interview with Charles Ogletree on 5254:from the original on March 26, 2018 4952:georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov 4510:, 127 Harv. L. Rev. 127, 142 (2013) 4044:. September 9, 1953. Archived from 4012:"Racial bar down for teachers here" 3988:. February 28, 2002. Archived from 2842:National Museum of American History 2689: 2683: 2379:from the original on April 25, 2020 1368:personally blocked the door to the 346:Warren, joined by a unanimous court 24: 12783:Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower 12753:African-American history of Kansas 12065:U.S. cities with large populations 11768:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 10236:Arlington County Board v. Richards 10161:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero 9939:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co. 9425:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents 8310:United States Fourteenth Amendment 8003:African-American churches attacked 6569:Montgomery Improvement Association 6544:Georgia Council on Human Relations 6529:Council of Federated Organizations 6500:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 6258:16th Street Baptist Church bombing 6216:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot 6022:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom 5926:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents 5553: 5528:, 1954: Justice Robert H. Jackson" 5391: 4806:Northwestern University Law Review 4796: 4020:. January 19, 1956. Archived from 3704:from the original on June 25, 2021 3638:from the original on June 10, 2023 3566:127 Harv. L. Rev. 127, 153 (2013). 3497:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2004.tb00144.x 3335:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764 (quoting 3056:"Causality, change and leadership" 2914:Boyle, Kevin (November 21, 1995). 2667:. Brown Foundation. Archived from 2637:. October 26, 1992. Archived from 2409:from the original on June 13, 2020 619:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents 50:Supreme Court of the United States 25: 12834: 12813:United States Supreme Court cases 10938:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 10934:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 10741:African American founding fathers 10580:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents 10121:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n 8075:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute 7948:Jews in the civil rights movement 5820:"Basic Equal Protection Analysis" 5818:Galloway, Russell W. Jr. (1989). 5650:294 (1955) is available from: 5588:483 (1954) is available from: 5570: 5078:from the original on June 8, 2023 5047:from the original on May 11, 2024 4625:from the original on June 4, 2020 4309:. August 23, 2005. Archived from 3820:from the original on July 6, 2017 3607:from the original on June 4, 2023 3540:from the original on June 8, 2023 3464:from the original on June 8, 2023 2880:from the original on June 8, 2023 2629:"A Legacy Tour of the Brown Case" 2349:from the original on June 8, 2023 2272:from the original on June 8, 2023 2099:Civil rights movement (1896–1954) 2056: 2045:on July 27, 1999. One of the new 1232:as "a day of catastrophe—a 1106:, which all the justices joined. 12700: 11818:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 10963:Nadir of American race relations 10399:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas 9808:Fisher v. University of Texas II 9269:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co. 8269:Civil rights movement portal 8262: 8110:Freedom Riders National Monument 7852:The Kingdom of God Is Within You 6364:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches 6323:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests 6210:Second Emancipation Proclamation 5404: 5246:Romo, Vanessa (March 26, 2018). 5195: 5169: 5149: 5127: 5109: 5090: 5072:'All Deliberate Speed' Decision" 5059: 5021: 4946:Bush, George W. (May 17, 2004). 4816:from the original on May 2, 2019 3153:"The Gang That Always Liked Ike" 2763:. August 3, 1951. Archived from 928:colonial rule. Attorney General 43: 27:1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision 10824:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 10814:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 10113:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach 9792:Fisher v. University of Texas I 9149:Moore v. City of East Cleveland 8994:Los Angeles County v. Humphries 8508:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish 8137:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum 8125:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial 6601:National Council of Negro Women 6539:Deacons for Defense and Justice 5795:, Civil Rights Digital Library. 4996: 4970: 4939: 4909: 4886: 4873: 4828: 4735: 4581: 4556: 4522: 4496: 4457: 4434: 4388: 4334: 4292: 4272: 4213: 4161: 4127: 4101: 4076: 4052: 4028: 4004: 3972: 3956:. July 10, 2001. Archived from 3940: 3889: 3862: 3832: 3802: 3772: 3746: 3716: 3650: 3619: 3593: 3577: 3552: 3521: 3476: 3445: 3366: 3326: 3314: 3302: 3289: 3238: 3202: 3171: 3141: 3111: 3080: 3047: 2980: 2934: 2907: 2861: 2829: 2793: 2771: 2747: 2729: 2653: 2621: 2590: 2560: 2527: 2504: 2470: 2450: 2194: 1840:in the United States of America 1714:(1995) that at the very least, 1569:in 1896 under the doctrine of " 1302:Little Rock Central High School 677:were both at the height of the 442:and was a major victory of the 12763:Civil rights movement case law 12738:1954 in United States case law 11813:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 10819:Civil right movement 1896–1954 9979:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B. 6017:Mansfield school desegregation 5269: 4068:. May 18, 1954. Archived from 3485:History of Education Quarterly 2739:. May 24, 2008. Archived from 2574:. May 12, 2004. Archived from 2511:Dudziak, Mary L. (June 2004). 2391: 2361: 2330: 2253: 2218: 2169: 2017:American Civil Liberties Union 1984:Prince Edward County, Virginia 1482:Many Northern cities also had 1443:verdict included U.S. Senator 1403: 1264:For several decades after the 446:, and a model for many future 196:(D. Kan. 1987); reversed, 892 13: 1: 11993:Cherokee freedmen controversy 10969:The Negro Motorist Green Book 9648:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman 8853:McNeese v. Board of Education 8360:United States v. Wong Kim Ark 8147:National Voting Rights Museum 8090:Civil Rights Movement Archive 7889:Lynching in the United States 7776:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" 6231:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 6204:University of Chicago sit-ins 5971:Davis v. Prince Edward County 5799:"Supreme Court Landmark Case 5759:Online documents relating to 5177:"Brown v. Board of Education" 5142: (D. Kan. 1999), 3664:. American Experience. 2000. 3534:Civil Rights Movement Archive 3458:Civil Rights Movement Archive 3376:, § 9.3.3.1, pp. 764–65. 3363:, § 9.3.3.1, pp. 764–65. 2941:Neier, Aryeh (May 14, 2014). 2874:Civil Rights Movement Archive 2786: (D. Kan. 1951), 2534:Anderson, Ric (May 9, 2004). 2466:. New York: Harper & Row. 2266:Civil Rights Movement Archive 2207: 1573:" were, in part, tied to the 1378:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1300:" after the desegregation of 1272: 1000:were predisposed to overturn 547: 503: 400:, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a 12748:20th-century American trials 9377:Hirabayashi v. United States 9229:DeShaney v. Winnebago County 9181:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co. 8922:Owen v. City of Independence 8537:Pierce v. Society of Sisters 8142:National Civil Rights Museum 7998:March on Washington Movement 7983:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church 6452:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 5761:Brown vs. Board of Education 5299:Lofgren, Charles A. (1987). 4168:Lofgren, Charles A. (1988). 3421:Rabby, Glenda Alice (1999). 2212: 2067:Brown vs. Board of Education 2004: 1909:spoke at the opening of the 1869:Hirabayashi v. United States 1294:Arkansas Army National Guard 1236:—a day something like 637:asserted that the system of 222:); judgment reinstated, 978 133:Judgment for defendants, 98 7: 11863:Black players in ice hockey 11798:National Urban League (NUL) 11624:American Society of Muslims 10862:Selma to Montgomery marches 10782:Brown v. Board of Education 10263:United States v. Cruikshank 9433:Brown v. Board of Education 8734:Planned Parenthood v. Casey 8585:Planned Parenthood v. Casey 7786:"This Little Light of Mine" 6534:Dallas County Voters League 6480:Atlanta Negro Voters League 6243:Letter from Birmingham Jail 5950:Brown v. Board of Education 5801:Brown v. Board of Education 5792:Brown v. Board of Education 5775:Brown v. Board of Education 5745:Brown v. Board of Education 5725:Brown v. Board of Education 5578:Brown v. Board of Education 5526:Brown v. Board of Education 5140:56 F. Supp. 2d 1212 5117:Brown v. Board of Education 4445:in support of a proposition 4443:Brown v. Board of Education 4226:Journal of American Studies 3869:Weiner, Melissa F. (2010). 3429:University of Georgia Press 2779:Brown v. Board of Education 2517:Journal of American History 2337:Cottrol, Robert J. (2006). 2225:Brown v. Board of Education 2086: 1947: 1937:Brown v. Board of Education 1912:Brown v. Board of Education 1790:39th United States Congress 1657:Brown v. Board of Education 1643:Brown v. Board of Education 1579:Brown v. Board of Education 810:Brown v. Board of Education 582:United States Supreme Court 246:Segregation of students in 38:Brown v. Board of Education 10: 12839: 12788:Public education in Kansas 12020:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 11778:Nashville Student Movement 10789:Children of the plantation 9385:Korematsu v. United States 8120:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 7988:Holt Street Baptist Church 7958:16th Street Baptist Church 6942:Annie Bell Robinson Devine 6586:Nashville Student Movement 6516:An Appeal for Human Rights 5700:Oyez (oral argument audio) 5476:. New York: W. W. Norton. 5323:The American Supreme Court 5124: (10th Cir. 1989). 4540:, 58 DUKE L.J. 1049 (2008) 4341:Schwartz, Bernard (1997). 4096:The Topeka Capital-Journal 3349:Nowak & Rotunda (2012) 3181:The Memoirs of Earl Warren 2513:"Brown as a Cold War Case" 1836:The General Principles of 1772:Radical Reconstructionists 1610:Legal criticism and praise 1559:The intellectual roots of 1414:Greensboro, North Carolina 1392:had ordered to intervene. 673:The United States and the 616:, 339 U.S. 629 (1950) and 105:2094; 53 Ohio Op. 326; 38 12690: 12657:Index of related articles 12535: 12450: 12174: 12107: 12045: 11945: 11906: 11838: 11831: 11746: 11666: 11658:Doctrine of Father Divine 11604: 11546: 11195: 11050: 11042:Women's suffrage movement 10995:Reconstruction Amendments 10802:Voting Rights Act of 1965 10721: 10653: 10647: 10642: 10588:United States v. Morrison 10526: 10513: 10254: 10219: 10040: 10005: 9995:United States v. Skrmetti 9987:United States v. Virginia 9826: 9600:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson 9320: 9316: 9303: 9021:Jacobson v. Massachusetts 9012: 8954:Gonzaga University v. Doe 8832: 8619: 8518: 8423: 8419: 8406: 8330: 8317: 8258: 8160: 8062: 7876: 7809: 7751: 7730: 7617:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson 7587:Modjeska Monteith Simkins 6659: 6651:Women's Political Council 6646:Wednesdays in Mississippi 6641:United Auto Workers (UAW) 6626:Southern Regional Council 6596:Northern Student Movement 6505:Committee for Freedom Now 6465: 6412:Memphis sanitation strike 6378:Voting Rights Act of 1965 6300: 6121:Savannah Protest Movement 6083: 5941: 5902:Journey of Reconciliation 5894: 5881: 5403: 5398: 5101:They Closed Their Schools 4773:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4549:citing Herbert Wechsler, 4426:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4238:10.1017/S0021875807003477 4060:"Little Effect On Topeka" 3931:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3724:"Civil Rights Greensboro" 3411:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 765. 3395:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 765. 3299:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764. 3286:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764. 3123:www.digitalhistory.uh.edu 2721:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2568:"Black, White, and Brown" 2065:retells the story of the 1766:, a federal judge on the 1633:at a 2004 exhibit on the 1521: 386:Berea College v. Kentucky 369: 362: 355: 350: 342: 337: 271: 266: 245: 240: 159: 129: 124: 114: 78: 65: 59:Reargued December 8, 1953 56: 42: 37: 12707:United States portal 12142:African-American English 11571:Inventors and scientists 11263:George Washington Carver 10867:Chicago Freedom Movement 10620:United States v. Georgia 10564:City of Boerne v. Flores 9728:United States v. Fordice 9285:Williams v. Pennsylvania 9253:Washington v. Glucksberg 6485:Atlanta Student Movement 6434:Civil Rights Act of 1968 6359:1964–1965 Scripto strike 6340:Civil Rights Act of 1964 6238:1963 Birmingham campaign 6131:Civil Rights Act of 1960 6055:Civil Rights Act of 1957 5727:National Historical Park 5468:Ogletree, Charles J. Jr. 5231:: CS1 maint: location ( 5163:October 1, 2007, at the 4324:with the statement that 2760:The Topeka State Journal 2597:Finkelman, Paul (2009). 2435:. UNESCO. Archived from 2299:Rowman & Littlefield 2162: 1760:Civil Rights Act of 1875 1477: 890:Under the leadership of 700:American Bar Association 260:District Court of Kansas 12773:Legal history of Kansas 12630:African-American firsts 11679:Back-to-Africa movement 11648:Black Hebrew Israelites 11428:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 10976:Partus sequitur ventrem 10628:Shelby County v. Holder 10193:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido 10049:Patsone v. Pennsylvania 9310:Equal Protection Clause 9237:Michael H. v. Gerald D. 8630:United States v. Vuitch 8545:Griswold v. Connecticut 8037:Voter Education Project 7791:"We Shall Not Be Moved" 7452:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 6887:Josephine Dobbs Clement 6313:Chester school protests 6308:Twenty-fourth Amendment 6270:Detroit Walk to Freedom 6012:Tallahassee bus boycott 5933:Baton Rouge bus boycott 5503:Oxford University Press 4812:. Heinonline.org: 242. 4515:March 25, 2015, at the 4326:Plessy against Ferguson 4090:April 27, 2004, at the 3571:March 25, 2015, at the 3222:Oxford University Press 3064:Edward Elgar Publishing 2784:98 F. Supp. 797 2053:case and civil rights. 1877:The Tempting of America 1670:with other law clerks. 1314:101st Airborne Division 1277:Texas Attorney General 1182:Kenneth and Mamie Clark 1139:Equal Protection Clause 804:Supreme Court arguments 491:Equal Protection Clause 252:Equal Protection Clause 57:Argued December 9, 1952 12598:Spingarn Medal winners 12087:States and territories 11858:Black NFL quarterbacks 11358:Martin Luther King Jr. 10890:Dred Scott v. Sandford 10829:Montgomery bus boycott 10495:Armour v. Indianapolis 9859:Moritz v. Commissioner 8915:Procunier v. Navarette 8833:Civil rights liability 8621:Abortion jurisprudence 8250:Movement photographers 7492:Bernice Johnson Reagon 7212:Martin Luther King Sr. 7207:Martin Luther King Jr. 6777:William Holmes Borders 6549:Highlander Folk School 6439:Poor People's Campaign 6292:St. Augustine movement 6142:Gomillion v. Lightfoot 6065:Katz Drug Store sit-in 6036:Royal Ice Cream sit-in 5998:Montgomery bus boycott 5824:Santa Clara Law Review 4640:Response to McConnell: 4545:March 4, 2016, at the 4469:"Rehnquist the Great?" 4450:June 15, 2007, at the 4398:(September 11, 2005). 4285:June 15, 2007, at the 4261:. By John P. Jackson. 4134:Sarat, Austin (1997). 3844:www2.vcdh.virginia.edu 3530:"The Little Rock Nine" 3339:, 347 U.S. at 492–93). 2996:June 30, 2015, at the 2105:Dred Scott v. Sandford 2081: 1978:For example, based on 1914:National Historic Site 1894: 1847:William Morris Stewart 1823:Michigan Supreme Court 1799:US state constitutions 1740: 1645: 1554:National Historic Site 1531: 1492:Second Great Migration 1398:Martin Luther King Jr. 1386:Alabama National Guard 1351:White Citizens Council 1251: 1220:Reaction and aftermath 1207: 1177: 1158: 1126: 1096: 1084:Supreme Court decision 965: 923:considerations of the 909:In December 1952, the 877:Delaware Supreme Court 782:District court opinion 565: 562:Southern United States 530:", created by Senator 512:Southern United States 357:U.S. Const. amend. XIV 11908:Athletic associations 11843:Negro league baseball 11614:African-American Jews 11333:Ketanji Brown Jackson 11298:Henry Highland Garnet 11157:Negro National Anthem 10907:George Floyd protests 10872:Post–civil rights era 10548:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer 10391:Richardson v. Ramirez 10359:Boddie v. Connecticut 9947:Kirchberg v. Feenstra 9776:Johnson v. California 9496:McLaughlin v. Florida 8884:O'Connor v. Donaldson 8444:Allgeyer v. Louisiana 8336:Slaughter-House Cases 8085:Civil Rights Memorial 7973:Bethel Baptist Church 7622:Charles Kenzie Steele 7067:Audrey Faye Hendricks 6972:Myrlie Evers-Williams 6952:Patricia Stephens Due 6922:Abraham Lincoln Davis 6857:Colia Lafayette Clark 6611:Operation Breadbasket 6606:National Urban League 6353:Katzenbach v. McClung 6221:Atlanta's Berlin Wall 5874:Civil rights movement 5439:, 2016). xiv, 225 pp. 5213:on September 10, 2005 4883:100 (1987):1938–1948. 4693:McConnell, Michael W. 4589:McConnell, Michael W. 4315:Rehnquist: I thought 4115:on September 24, 2006 3178:Warren, Earl (1977). 3167:on November 17, 2014. 3151:(November 15, 2014). 2904:, 98 F. Supp. at 798. 2480:(February 18, 2010). 2439:on October 11, 2007. 2291:Schuck, P.H. (2006). 2144:Ole Miss riot of 1962 2077: 1923:In a 2016 article in 1889: 1887:decision as follows: 1786:congressional history 1720: 1621:(from left to right) 1617: 1529: 1370:University of Alabama 1253:In Virginia, Senator 1246: 1193: 1163: 1144: 1112: 1091: 1047:Mendez v. Westminster 1014:cultural assimilation 1012:discussed incomplete 963: 925:Truman administration 602:and activists at the 555: 444:civil rights movement 12115:Afro-Seminole Creole 11641:Azusa Street Revival 11513:Booker T. Washington 11037:Underground Railroad 10902:Free people of color 10756:Atlantic slave trade 10540:Katzenbach v. Morgan 10287:Breedlove v. Suttles 10137:Graham v. Richardson 10030:Obergefell v. Hodges 9835:Breedlove v. Suttles 9768:Grutter v. Bollinger 9608:Jefferson v. Hackney 9277:Obergefell v. Hodges 9213:Edwards v. Aguillard 9093:Epperson v. Arkansas 8930:Harlow v. Fitzgerald 8865:Jenkins v. McKeithen 8758:Mazurek v. Armstrong 8718:Hodgson v. Minnesota 8678:Bellotti v. Baird II 8670:Colautti v. Franklin 8425:Economic substantive 8130:other King memorials 8105:Freedom Rides Museum 8042:1960s counterculture 7993:Edmund Pettus Bridge 7672:Walter Francis White 7577:Alexander D. Shimkin 6091:New Year's Day March 6060:Ministers' Manifesto 5907:Executive Order 9981 5773:60th Anniversary of 5752:May 2, 2019, at the 5495:William W. Freehling 5415:All Deliberate Speed 5319:McCloskey, Robert G. 5122:892 F.2d 851 4745:(November 9, 2009). 4689:Response to Klarman: 4372:of a great justice." 4313:on August 29, 2008. 4041:Topeka Daily Capital 4017:Topeka Daily Capital 3896:Back, Adina (2003). 3251:Master of the Senate 3066:. pp. 152–187. 2523:on December 7, 2014. 2073:Linda Brown Thompson 1764:Michael W. McConnell 1742:Some Constitutional 1700:Some aspects of the 1635:Fourteenth Amendment 1484:de facto segregation 1355:Byron De La Beckwith 1347:Jackson, Mississippi 1306:Dwight D. Eisenhower 1038:Dwight D. Eisenhower 904:University of Kansas 711:Filing and arguments 696:Dwight D. Eisenhower 592:Fourteenth Amendment 495:Fourteenth Amendment 256:Fourteenth Amendment 163:Judgment on relief, 61:Decided May 17, 1954 12510:Trinidad and Tobago 12125:Black American Sign 11952:By African descent 11946:Ethnic subdivisions 11933:Southwestern (SWAC) 11848:Baseball color line 11763:Black Panther Party 11667:Political movements 11584:in computer science 11243:Carol Moseley Braun 11032:Tulsa race massacre 11025:Treatment of slaves 10857:March on Washington 10852:Birmingham movement 10471:Gregory v. Ashcroft 10439:Mills v. Habluetzel 10423:Zablocki v. Redhail 10367:Eisenstadt v. Baird 10303:Oyama v. California 10295:Skinner v. Oklahoma 10228:Shapiro v. Thompson 10145:Sugarman v. Dougall 10089:Porterfield v. Webb 10081:Terrace v. Thompson 9744:Missouri v. Jenkins 9688:Hunter v. Underwood 9632:Milliken v. Bradley 9624:Norwood v. Harrison 9576:McDaniel v. Barresi 9261:Troxel v. Granville 9141:Mathews v. Eldridge 9125:Taylor v. Louisiana 9002:Connick v. Thompson 8782:Gonzales v. Carhart 8766:Stenberg v. Carhart 8750:Lambert v. Wicklund 8662:Bellotti v. Baird I 8460:Lochner v. New York 8344:Minor v. Happersett 7868:Mary McLeod Bethune 7829:Sermon on the Mount 7796:"We Shall Overcome" 7377:William Lewis Moore 7157:Frank Minis Johnson 7132:Richie Jean Jackson 7087:Donald L. Hollowell 6892:Charles E. Cobb Jr. 6697:Gwendolyn Armstrong 6692:William G. Anderson 6672:Victoria Gray Adams 6636:The Freedom Singers 6490:Black Panther Party 6275:March on Washington 6188:Garner v. Louisiana 6149:Boynton v. Virginia 5691:Library of Congress 5629:Library of Congress 5559:Whitman, Mark, ed. 5512:(Bloomsbury, 1998) 5491:Patterson, James T. 5452:. New York: Knopf. 5097:Smith, Bob (1965). 4980:(October 4, 2016). 4702:Virginia Law Review 4657:Virginia Law Review 4644:Klarman, Michael J. 4598:Virginia Law Review 4564:Missouri v. Jenkins 4278:William Rehnquist, 4065:The Capital-Journal 3816:. August 26, 2020. 3814:Revisionist History 3351:, § 18.8(d)(ii)(2). 3210:Patterson, James T. 3023:"Did Brown Matter?" 2609:on October 28, 2009 1964:The Hound of Heaven 1927:, an outlet of the 1844:Nevada U.S. Senator 1711:Missouri v. Jenkins 1619:U.S. circuit judges 1284:In September 1957, 1242:Robert G. McCloskey 1216:, described below. 896:United Auto Workers 706:District court case 12608:US representatives 12603:US cabinet members 12495:Dominican Republic 12082:Metropolitan areas 11923:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 11748:Civic and economic 11726:Self-determination 11547:Education, science 11468:Fred Shuttlesworth 11448:A. Philip Randolph 11353:Coretta Scott King 11278:Frederick Douglass 11105:Harlem Renaissance 11010:Separate but equal 11000:Reconstruction era 10988:Plessy v. Ferguson 10879:Cornerstone Speech 10793:Civil Rights Acts 10776:Black Lives Matter 10751:American Civil War 10532:Civil Rights Cases 10520:Enforcement Clause 10351:Oregon v. Mitchell 10343:Williams v. Rhodes 10169:Nyquist v. Mauclet 10129:Hernandez v. Texas 10014:Bowers v. Hardwick 10006:Sexual orientation 9883:Stanton v. Stanton 9875:Geduldig v. Aiello 9843:Goesaert v. Cleary 9760:Gratz v. Bollinger 9584:Palmer v. Thompson 9536:Hunter v. Erickson 9512:Loving v. Virginia 9480:Anderson v. Martin 9401:Shelley v. Kraemer 9345:Plessy v. Ferguson 9337:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 9189:Kolender v. Lawson 9085:Loving v. Virginia 8900:Imbler v. Pachtman 8877:Wood v. Strickland 8742:Leavitt v. Jane L. 8569:Bowers v. Hardwick 8484:Buchanan v. Warley 8413:Due Process Clause 8324:Citizenship Clause 8185:Michael Eric Dyson 8070:In popular culture 7953:Fifth Circuit Four 7937:Loving v. Virginia 7930:Hernandez v. Texas 7909:Buchanan v. Warley 7901:Separate but equal 7895:Plessy v. Ferguson 7858:Frederick Douglass 7692:Robert F. Williams 7602:Kelly Miller Smith 7582:Fred Shuttlesworth 7507:Frederick D. Reese 7487:George Raymond Jr. 7477:A. Philip Randolph 7457:Fay Bellamy Powell 7372:Queen Mother Moore 7257:Z. Alexander Looby 7202:Coretta Scott King 7147:Barbara Rose Johns 7127:Jimmie Lee Jackson 7052:William E. Harbour 6832:Stokely Carmichael 6747:Randolph Blackwell 6417:King assassination 6406:Loving v. Virginia 6390:March Against Fear 6370:How Long, Not Long 6248:Children's Crusade 6199:Cambridge movement 6136:Ax Handle Saturday 6101:Greensboro sit-ins 6028:Give Us the Ballot 5363:Law and Philosophy 5278:Chemerinsky, Erwin 5146:from the original. 5037:Cardozo Law Review 4881:Harvard Law Review 4868:Harvard Law Review 4840:Ackerman, Bruce A. 4836:Days, III, Drew S. 4752:The New York Times 4405:The New York Times 4367:Likewise, Justice 4361:William O. Douglas 4298:Peter S. Canellos, 4154:Plessy v. Ferguson 3948:"The Class of '51" 3909:Palgrave Macmillan 3590:at 352–354 (2004). 3409:Chemerinsky (2019) 3407:Quoted in part in 3393:Chemerinsky (2019) 3374:Chemerinsky (2019) 3361:Chemerinsky (2019) 3333:Chemerinsky (2019) 3323:, 347 U.S. at 493. 3311:, 347 U.S. at 490. 3297:Chemerinsky (2019) 3284:Chemerinsky (2019) 3158:The New York Times 3149:Beschloss, Michael 2803:(August 3, 1951). 2790:from the original. 2700:The New York Times 2548:on August 28, 2008 2177:Plessy v. Ferguson 2129:Loving v. Virginia 2117:Rubey Mosley Hulen 2061:A PBS film called 1941:Dunbar High School 1902:judicial restraint 1838:Constitutional Law 1794:state legislatures 1662:Plessy v. Ferguson 1646: 1623:Robert A. Katzmann 1571:separate but equal 1567:racial segregation 1562:Plessy v. Ferguson 1532: 1449:Massive Resistance 1259:Massive Resistance 1204:, 397 U.S. at 495. 1174:, 347 U.S. at 494. 1155:, 397 U.S. at 493. 1123:, 347 U.S. at 489. 1097: 1065:recess appointment 1060:judicial restraint 994:Harold Hitz Burton 986:William O. Douglas 966: 956:Consensus building 935:Secretary of State 930:James P. McGranery 911:Justice Department 865:Barbara Rose Johns 788:Plessy v. Ferguson 683:William O. Douglas 646:was influenced by 587:Plessy v. Ferguson 578:racial segregation 566: 528:massive resistance 514:, the reaction to 432:separate but equal 423:Plessy v. Ferguson 414:racial segregation 412:laws establishing 406:U.S. Supreme Court 372:Plessy v. Ferguson 306:William O. Douglas 282:Associate Justices 178:); on remand, 139 97:74 S. Ct. 686; 98 12778:Thurgood Marshall 12728:1954 in education 12715: 12714: 12543:African Americans 12415:Dallas–Fort Worth 12010:Black Southerners 11941: 11940: 11393:Thurgood Marshall 11363:Bernard Lafayette 10958:Million Man March 10715:African Americans 10681: 10680: 10677: 10676: 10667:Trump v. Anderson 10659:Gold Clause Cases 10638: 10637: 10612:Tennessee v. Lane 10509: 10508: 10505: 10504: 10415:Trimble v. Gordon 10335:Levy v. Louisiana 10327:Rinaldi v. Yeager 10209:Bernal v. Fainter 10185:Ambach v. Norwick 10177:Foley v. Connelie 10073:Crane v. New York 9971:Lehr v. Robertson 9923:Caban v. Mohammed 9680:Palmore v. Sidoti 9520:Lee v. Washington 9504:Reitman v. Mulkey 9455:Gebhart v. Belton 9441:Briggs v. Elliott 9417:Sweatt v. Painter 9299: 9298: 9295: 9294: 9173:Parratt v. Taylor 9157:Duren v. Missouri 9117:Arnett v. Kennedy 9045:Powell v. Alabama 8986:Ashcroft v. Iqbal 8871:Scheuer v. Rhodes 8686:H. L. v. Matheson 8593:Lawrence v. Texas 8529:Meyer v. Nebraska 8476:Coppage v. Kansas 8402: 8401: 8368:Perez v. Brownell 8276: 8275: 8053:Eyes on the Prize 7968:A.G. Gaston Motel 7963:Kelly Ingram Park 7923:Sweatt v. Painter 7607:Mary Louise Smith 7567:Cleveland Sellers 7552:Michael Schwerner 7517:Gloria Richardson 7297:Thurgood Marshall 7217:Bernard Lafayette 6947:John Wesley Dobbs 6461: 6460: 6180:Birmingham attack 6160:Rock Hill sit-ins 6111:Sibley Commission 6106:Nashville sit-ins 5978:Gebhart v. Belton 5964:Briggs v. Elliott 5957:Bolling v. Sharpe 5918:Sweatt v. Painter 5729:(US Park Service) 5508:Raffel, Jeffrey. 5426: 5425: 5336:978-0-226-55686-4 5310:978-0-19-505684-6 5291:978-1-4548-9574-9 5066:Hartford, Bruce. 4893:A Justice for All 4695:(October 1995). " 4646:(October 1995). " 4383:on April 2, 2019. 4369:Felix Frankfurter 4354:978-0-19-511800-1 4222:Mankind Quarterly 4181:978-0-19-505684-6 4147:978-0-19-510622-0 3626:Hartford, Bruce. 3528:Hartford, Bruce. 3452:Hartford, Bruce. 3119:"Digital History" 3073:978-1-84542-541-8 3019:Sunstein, Cass R. 2949:on July 16, 2014. 2927:978-1-5017-1327-9 2868:Hartford, Bruce. 2429:Harald E.L. Prins 2308:978-0-7425-3961-7 2260:Hartford, Bruce. 2179:in its entirety, 2150:Runyon v. McCrary 1991:Court overturned 1929:Salem Media Group 1851:James A. Garfield 1653:Robert H. Jackson 1649:William Rehnquist 1639:Thurgood Marshall 1599:Mankind Quarterly 1575:scientific racism 1552:was designated a 1550:Monroe Elementary 1465:J. Lindsay Almond 1426:Moberly, Missouri 1388:, whom President 1374:Foster Auditorium 1279:John Ben Shepperd 1034:judicial activism 1030:Robert H. Jackson 1026:Felix Frankfurter 974:Felix Frankfurter 900:Thurgood Marshall 869:Moton High School 849:Bolling v. Sharpe 839:Gebhart v. Belton 819:Briggs v. Elliott 764:Sumner Elementary 760:Monroe Elementary 756:Linda Carol Brown 752:Santa Fe Railroad 653:The Race Question 639:racial separation 613:Sweatt v. Painter 600:Howard University 499:U.S. Constitution 483:Thurgood Marshall 448:impact litigation 428:U.S. Constitution 393: 392: 310:Robert H. Jackson 298:Felix Frankfurter 16:(Redirected from 12830: 12823:Trials in Kansas 12705: 12704: 12703: 12667:Lynching victims 12166:Louisiana Creole 12137:American English 12025:Louisiana Creole 11998:Choctaw freedmen 11836: 11835: 11373:Huddie Ledbetter 11313:Fannie Lou Hamer 11283:W. E. B. Du Bois 11273:Claudette Colvin 11268:Shirley Chisholm 11085:Family structure 10953:Military history 10835:Browder v. Gayle 10708: 10701: 10694: 10685: 10684: 10644: 10643: 10556:Dellmuth v. Muth 10515: 10514: 9915:Parham v. Hughes 9891:Edwards v. Healy 9720:Freeman v. Pitts 9475:(M.D. Ala. 1956) 9472:Browder v. Gayle 9318: 9317: 9305: 9304: 9221:Turner v. Safley 9197:Hudson v. Palmer 9061:NAACP v. Alabama 8520:Right to privacy 8468:Muller v. Oregon 8436:Mugler v. Kansas 8421: 8420: 8408: 8407: 8384:Rogers v. Bellei 8319: 8318: 8303: 8296: 8289: 8280: 8279: 8267: 8266: 8230:Charles M. Payne 8215:Steven F. Lawson 8205:David Halberstam 8175:Clayborne Carson 7916:Hocutt v. Wilson 7863:W. E. B. Du Bois 7712:Sammy Younge Jr. 7697:Q. V. Williamson 7662:Wyatt Tee Walker 7527:Bernice Robinson 7472:Lincoln Ragsdale 7462:Rodney N. Powell 7357:Douglas E. Moore 7232:Sanford R. Leigh 7167:J. Charles Jones 7042:Fannie Lou Hamer 6957:Joseph Ellwanger 6917:Jonathan Daniels 6907:Claudette Colvin 6897:Annie Lee Cooper 6882:Kathleen Cleaver 6877:Eldridge Cleaver 6852:Shirley Chisholm 6742:Gloria Blackwell 6333:workers' murders 6280:"I Have a Dream" 6175:Anniston bombing 6126:Greenville Eight 6041:Little Rock Nine 6004:Browder v. Gayle 5892: 5891: 5867: 5860: 5853: 5844: 5843: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5704: 5698: 5695: 5689: 5686: 5680: 5677: 5671: 5668: 5662: 5659: 5653: 5633: 5627: 5624: 5618: 5615: 5609: 5606: 5600: 5597: 5591: 5549: 5537: 5520:Tushnet, Mark V. 5487: 5463: 5408: 5407: 5396: 5395: 5386: 5357: 5340: 5327:Sanford Levinson 5314: 5295: 5264: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5230: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5199: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5173: 5167: 5153: 5147: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5063: 5057: 5056: 5054: 5052: 5033:"Poetic Justice" 5031:(May 3, 2012) . 5029:Chen, James Ming 5025: 5019: 5000: 4994: 4993: 4992:on May 24, 2019. 4988:. Archived from 4974: 4968: 4967: 4965: 4963: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4913: 4907: 4897:Kim Isaac Eisler 4890: 4884: 4877: 4871: 4865: 4859: 4858: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4794: 4779: 4778: 4772: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4739: 4733: 4726: 4709:(7): 1937–1955. 4681: 4664:(7): 1881–1936. 4634: 4632: 4630: 4585: 4579: 4560: 4554: 4526: 4520: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4486: 4474:Atlantic Monthly 4461: 4455: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4425: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4392: 4386: 4384: 4379:. Archived from 4365: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4306:The Boston Globe 4296: 4290: 4276: 4270: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4217: 4211: 4198: 4189: 4188: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4152:What lay behind 4131: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4105: 4099: 4080: 4074: 4073: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3999: 3997: 3992:on July 22, 2012 3976: 3970: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3960:on July 30, 2012 3944: 3938: 3936: 3930: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3906: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3866: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3806: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3776: 3770: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3760:on April 2, 2015 3756:. Archived from 3750: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3730:. Archived from 3728:library.uncg.edu 3720: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3689: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3658:"Wallace Quotes" 3654: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3597: 3591: 3586:citing Klarman, 3581: 3575: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3480: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3418: 3412: 3405: 3396: 3390: 3377: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3340: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3270: 3269: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3219: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3161:. Archived from 3145: 3139: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3035:on July 13, 2015 3034: 3029:. Archived from 3015: 3000: 2984: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2969:. Archived from 2968: 2960: 2951: 2950: 2945:. Archived from 2938: 2932: 2931: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2865: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2801:Walter A. Huxman 2797: 2791: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2768: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2743:on May 24, 2008. 2733: 2727: 2726: 2720: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2693:(May 22, 2008). 2687: 2681: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2671:on March 7, 2021 2657: 2651: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2641:on June 15, 2010 2625: 2619: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2605:. Archived from 2594: 2588: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2578:on June 10, 2004 2564: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2544:. Archived from 2531: 2525: 2524: 2519:. Archived from 2508: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2478:Dudziak, Mary L. 2474: 2468: 2467: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2444: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2395: 2389: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2334: 2328: 2325:McCloskey (2010) 2322: 2313: 2312: 2288: 2282: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2222: 2201: 2198: 2192: 2173: 1960:Francis Thompson 1863:Drew S. Days III 1829:Thomas M. Cooley 1691:Herbert Wechsler 1544:McKinley Burnett 1508: 1329:Florida Governor 1298:Little Rock Nine 1205: 1175: 1156: 1124: 854:Washington, D.C. 737:McKinley Burnett 404:decision of the 375:(1896) (in part) 318:Harold H. Burton 267:Court membership 207:1989); vacated, 47: 46: 35: 34: 21: 12838: 12837: 12833: 12832: 12831: 12829: 12828: 12827: 12718: 12717: 12716: 12711: 12701: 12699: 12686: 12652:Historic places 12645:US state firsts 12531: 12446: 12170: 12103: 12075:2010 majorities 12070:2000 majorities 12041: 11988:Black Seminoles 11937: 11928:Southern (SIAC) 11911: 11910:and conferences 11909: 11902: 11898:Serena Williams 11893:Jackie Robinson 11827: 11751: 11749: 11742: 11662: 11629:Nation of Islam 11600: 11548: 11542: 11483:Sojourner Truth 11473:Clarence Thomas 11438:Gabriel Prosser 11338:Michael Jackson 11213:Crispus Attucks 11203:Ralph Abernathy 11191: 11147:Musical theater 11046: 10912:Great Migration 10884:COVID-19 impact 10842:Sit-in movement 10717: 10712: 10682: 10673: 10649: 10634: 10522: 10501: 10250: 10215: 10153:In re Griffiths 10097:Webb v. O'Brien 10036: 10001: 9822: 9752:Texas v. Lesage 9544:Hadnott v. Amos 9329:Pace v. Alabama 9312: 9291: 9069:Hoyt v. Florida 9008: 8938:Felder v. Casey 8834: 8828: 8615: 8514: 8492:Adams v. Tanner 8452:Holden v. Hardy 8426: 8415: 8398: 8376:Afroyim v. Rusk 8326: 8313: 8307: 8277: 8272: 8261: 8254: 8235:Thomas E. Ricks 8225:Diane McWhorter 8210:Vincent Harding 8195:Adam Fairclough 8162: 8156: 8058: 8013:Freedom Schools 7872: 7805: 7753: 7747: 7738:Omaha, Nebraska 7726: 7642:Hartman Turnbow 7632:Dorothy Tillman 7592:Glenn E. Smiley 7572:Charles Sherrod 7532:Jo Ann Robinson 7407:Charles Neblett 7397:Elijah Muhammad 7362:Harriette Moore 7322:Floyd McKissick 7307:Franklin McCain 7242:Stanley Levison 7107:T. R. M. Howard 7057:Vincent Harding 6987:Walter Fauntroy 6872:Xernona Clayton 6822:John H. Calhoun 6807:Aurelia Browder 6797:Stanley Branche 6792:Raylawni Branch 6772:Joseph E. Boone 6757:Ezell Blair Jr. 6752:Unita Blackwell 6727:Harry Belafonte 6667:Ralph Abernathy 6655: 6591:Nation of Islam 6467: 6457: 6296: 6253:Birmingham riot 6194:Albany Movement 6116:Atlanta sit-ins 6096:Sit-in movement 6079: 6075:Biloxi wade-ins 6047:Cooper v. Aaron 5937: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5833: 5831: 5754:Wayback Machine 5710:Case Brief for 5702: 5696: 5693: 5687: 5684: 5678: 5675: 5669: 5666: 5660: 5657: 5651: 5631: 5625: 5622: 5616: 5613: 5607: 5604: 5598: 5595: 5589: 5573: 5556: 5554:Primary sources 5546: 5484: 5460: 5444:Kluger, Richard 5405: 5399:External videos 5394: 5392:Further reading 5389: 5375:10.2307/3504874 5337: 5311: 5292: 5272: 5267: 5257: 5255: 5244: 5240: 5224: 5223: 5216: 5214: 5207:KTWU Channel 11 5201: 5200: 5196: 5186: 5184: 5175: 5174: 5170: 5165:Wayback Machine 5154: 5150: 5133: 5132: 5128: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5095: 5091: 5081: 5079: 5064: 5060: 5050: 5048: 5026: 5022: 5001: 4997: 4975: 4971: 4961: 4959: 4944: 4940: 4930: 4928: 4915: 4914: 4910: 4891: 4887: 4878: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4856: 4833: 4829: 4819: 4817: 4795: 4782: 4766: 4765: 4758: 4756: 4740: 4736: 4715:10.2307/1073644 4670:10.2307/1073643 4628: 4626: 4611:10.2307/1073539 4605:(4): 947–1140. 4586: 4582: 4561: 4557: 4547:Wayback Machine 4527: 4523: 4517:Wayback Machine 4503:Michael Klarman 4501: 4497: 4484: 4482: 4462: 4458: 4452:Wayback Machine 4439: 4435: 4419: 4418: 4411: 4409: 4393: 4389: 4373: 4355: 4339: 4335: 4299: 4297: 4293: 4287:Wayback Machine 4277: 4273: 4257: 4253: 4218: 4214: 4199: 4192: 4182: 4171:The Plessy Case 4166: 4162: 4148: 4132: 4128: 4118: 4116: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092:Wayback Machine 4082:Erin Adamson, " 4081: 4077: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4010: 4009: 4005: 3995: 3993: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3963: 3961: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3924: 3923: 3914: 3912: 3904: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3867: 3863: 3853: 3851: 3838: 3837: 3833: 3823: 3821: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3791: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3763: 3761: 3752: 3751: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3734:on May 15, 2014 3722: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3690: 3681: 3671: 3669: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3641: 3639: 3624: 3620: 3610: 3608: 3599: 3598: 3594: 3582: 3578: 3573:Wayback Machine 3559:Michael Klarman 3557: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3512: 3481: 3477: 3467: 3465: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3431:. p. 201. 3419: 3415: 3406: 3399: 3391: 3380: 3371: 3367: 3359: 3355: 3347: 3343: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3294: 3290: 3282: 3273: 3266: 3258:. p. 696. 3246:Caro, Robert A. 3243: 3239: 3232: 3207: 3203: 3196: 3176: 3172: 3146: 3142: 3132: 3130: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3102: 3100: 3085: 3081: 3074: 3052: 3048: 3038: 3036: 3021:(May 3, 2004). 3016: 3003: 2998:Wayback Machine 2985: 2981: 2976:on May 1, 2015. 2973: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2954: 2939: 2935: 2928: 2912: 2908: 2900: 2893: 2883: 2881: 2866: 2862: 2852: 2850: 2835: 2834: 2830: 2820: 2818: 2798: 2794: 2777: 2776: 2772: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2714: 2713: 2706: 2704: 2688: 2684: 2674: 2672: 2665:brownvboard.org 2659: 2658: 2654: 2644: 2642: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2612: 2610: 2595: 2591: 2581: 2579: 2566: 2565: 2561: 2551: 2549: 2532: 2528: 2509: 2505: 2495: 2493: 2475: 2471: 2455: 2451: 2445: 2426: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2397: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2352: 2350: 2335: 2331: 2323: 2316: 2309: 2301:. p. 104. 2289: 2285: 2275: 2273: 2258: 2254: 2246: 2242: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2195: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2089: 2059: 2009: 1952: 1706:Clarence Thomas 1631:Sonia Sotomayor 1612: 1590:hereditarianism 1524: 1511:Freedom Schools 1506: 1480: 1457:Gray Commission 1406: 1390:John F. Kennedy 1382:Henry V. Graham 1292:called out the 1275: 1222: 1206: 1200: 1176: 1170: 1157: 1151: 1125: 1119: 1086: 1010:Stanley F. Reed 958: 806: 784: 776:Zelma Henderson 713: 708: 608:graduate school 550: 537:Cooper v. Aaron 383: 376: 365: 320: 308: 296: 294:Stanley F. Reed 110: 60: 58: 52: 33: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12836: 12826: 12825: 12820: 12815: 12810: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12790: 12785: 12780: 12775: 12770: 12765: 12760: 12755: 12750: 12745: 12740: 12735: 12733:1954 in Kansas 12730: 12713: 12712: 12710: 12709: 12697: 12691: 12688: 12687: 12685: 12684: 12679: 12674: 12669: 12664: 12659: 12654: 12649: 12648: 12647: 12642: 12637: 12627: 12626: 12625: 12620: 12618:Visual artists 12615: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12595: 12590: 12585: 12580: 12578:Mathematicians 12575: 12570: 12565: 12560: 12555: 12550: 12539: 12537: 12533: 12532: 12530: 12529: 12528: 12527: 12519: 12514: 12513: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12484: 12483: 12482: 12477: 12472: 12467: 12456: 12454: 12448: 12447: 12445: 12444: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12428: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12402: 12397: 12395:South Carolina 12392: 12387: 12386: 12385: 12377: 12372: 12367: 12365:North Carolina 12362: 12361: 12360: 12350: 12345: 12344: 12343: 12333: 12328: 12327: 12326: 12318: 12317: 12316: 12310:Massachusetts 12308: 12307: 12306: 12296: 12291: 12290: 12289: 12279: 12274: 12273: 12272: 12262: 12257: 12256: 12255: 12245: 12240: 12239: 12238: 12228: 12227: 12226: 12221: 12211: 12206: 12205: 12204: 12199: 12189: 12184: 12178: 12176: 12172: 12171: 12169: 12168: 12163: 12158: 12157: 12156: 12155: 12154: 12152:social context 12149: 12139: 12129: 12128: 12127: 12117: 12111: 12109: 12105: 12104: 12102: 12101: 12100: 12099: 12094: 12084: 12079: 12078: 12077: 12072: 12062: 12061: 12060: 12049: 12047: 12043: 12042: 12040: 12039: 12034: 12033: 12032: 12022: 12017: 12012: 12007: 12006: 12005: 12003:Creek Freedmen 12000: 11995: 11990: 11980: 11978:Alabama Creole 11975: 11974: 11973: 11968: 11963: 11958: 11949: 11947: 11943: 11942: 11939: 11938: 11936: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11918:Central (CIAA) 11914: 11912: 11907: 11904: 11903: 11901: 11900: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11880: 11875: 11870: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11839: 11833: 11829: 11828: 11826: 11825: 11820: 11815: 11810: 11805: 11800: 11795: 11790: 11785: 11780: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11760: 11754: 11752: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11741: 11740: 11735: 11734: 11733: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11711:Pan-Africanism 11708: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11692: 11691: 11681: 11676: 11670: 11668: 11664: 11663: 11661: 11660: 11655: 11653:Black theology 11650: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11633: 11632: 11631: 11626: 11616: 11610: 11608: 11602: 11601: 11599: 11598: 11597: 11596: 11594:in STEM fields 11591: 11586: 11578: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11552: 11550: 11549:and technology 11544: 11543: 11541: 11540: 11535: 11530: 11525: 11520: 11515: 11510: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11490: 11488:Harriet Tubman 11485: 11480: 11475: 11470: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11435: 11430: 11425: 11420: 11418:Michelle Obama 11415: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11385: 11380: 11375: 11370: 11365: 11360: 11355: 11350: 11348:Barbara Jordan 11345: 11343:Harriet Jacobs 11340: 11335: 11330: 11325: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11305: 11300: 11295: 11290: 11285: 11280: 11275: 11270: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11250: 11245: 11240: 11235: 11233:Amelia Boynton 11230: 11225: 11220: 11215: 11210: 11205: 11199: 11197: 11196:Notable people 11193: 11192: 11190: 11189: 11184: 11179: 11174: 11169: 11164: 11159: 11154: 11149: 11144: 11139: 11134: 11132:LGBT community 11129: 11124: 11119: 11114: 11113: 11112: 11102: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11056: 11054: 11048: 11047: 11045: 11044: 11039: 11034: 11029: 11028: 11027: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11002: 10997: 10992: 10984: 10979: 10972: 10965: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10945: 10940: 10931: 10926: 10925: 10924: 10919: 10909: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10875: 10874: 10869: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10847:Freedom Riders 10844: 10839: 10831: 10821: 10816: 10811: 10810: 10809: 10804: 10799: 10791: 10786: 10778: 10773: 10771:Black genocide 10768: 10763: 10758: 10753: 10748: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10727: 10725: 10719: 10718: 10711: 10710: 10703: 10696: 10688: 10679: 10678: 10675: 10674: 10672: 10671: 10663: 10654: 10651: 10650: 10640: 10639: 10636: 10635: 10633: 10632: 10624: 10616: 10608: 10600: 10592: 10584: 10576: 10568: 10560: 10552: 10544: 10536: 10527: 10524: 10523: 10511: 10510: 10507: 10506: 10503: 10502: 10500: 10499: 10491: 10483: 10479:Vacco v. Quill 10475: 10467: 10459: 10455:Clark v. Jeter 10451: 10443: 10435: 10427: 10419: 10411: 10403: 10395: 10387: 10379: 10371: 10363: 10355: 10347: 10339: 10331: 10323: 10315: 10311:Oyler v. Boles 10307: 10299: 10291: 10283: 10275: 10267: 10258: 10256: 10252: 10251: 10249: 10248: 10240: 10232: 10223: 10221: 10217: 10216: 10214: 10213: 10205: 10197: 10189: 10181: 10173: 10165: 10157: 10149: 10141: 10133: 10125: 10117: 10109: 10101: 10093: 10085: 10077: 10069: 10065:Heim v. McCall 10061: 10057:Truax v. Raich 10053: 10044: 10042: 10038: 10037: 10035: 10034: 10026: 10022:Romer v. Evans 10018: 10009: 10007: 10003: 10002: 10000: 9999: 9991: 9983: 9975: 9967: 9959: 9951: 9943: 9935: 9927: 9919: 9911: 9903: 9899:Craig v. Boren 9895: 9887: 9879: 9871: 9867:Kahn v. Shevin 9863: 9855: 9847: 9839: 9830: 9828: 9824: 9823: 9821: 9820: 9812: 9804: 9796: 9788: 9780: 9772: 9764: 9756: 9748: 9740: 9732: 9724: 9716: 9708: 9700: 9692: 9684: 9676: 9668: 9660: 9652: 9644: 9636: 9628: 9620: 9612: 9604: 9596: 9588: 9580: 9572: 9564: 9556: 9548: 9540: 9532: 9524: 9516: 9508: 9500: 9492: 9484: 9476: 9468: 9460: 9459: 9458: 9451: 9444: 9429: 9421: 9413: 9409:Perez v. Sharp 9405: 9397: 9389: 9381: 9373: 9369:Smith v. Texas 9365: 9357: 9349: 9341: 9333: 9324: 9322: 9314: 9313: 9301: 9300: 9297: 9296: 9293: 9292: 9290: 9289: 9281: 9273: 9265: 9257: 9249: 9241: 9233: 9225: 9217: 9209: 9201: 9193: 9185: 9177: 9169: 9165:Parham v. J.R. 9161: 9153: 9145: 9137: 9129: 9121: 9113: 9105: 9097: 9089: 9081: 9077:Oyler v. Boles 9073: 9065: 9057: 9049: 9041: 9033: 9025: 9016: 9014: 9010: 9009: 9007: 9006: 8998: 8990: 8982: 8974: 8966: 8958: 8950: 8942: 8934: 8926: 8918: 8912: 8904: 8896: 8888: 8880: 8874: 8868: 8862: 8859:Pierson v. Ray 8856: 8850: 8846:Monroe v. Pape 8841: 8839: 8830: 8829: 8827: 8826: 8818: 8810: 8802: 8794: 8786: 8778: 8770: 8762: 8754: 8746: 8738: 8730: 8722: 8714: 8706: 8698: 8690: 8682: 8674: 8666: 8658: 8650: 8642: 8634: 8625: 8623: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8613: 8605: 8597: 8589: 8581: 8573: 8565: 8557: 8549: 8541: 8533: 8524: 8522: 8516: 8515: 8513: 8512: 8504: 8496: 8488: 8480: 8472: 8464: 8456: 8448: 8440: 8431: 8429: 8417: 8416: 8404: 8403: 8400: 8399: 8397: 8396: 8388: 8380: 8372: 8364: 8356: 8352:Elk v. Wilkins 8348: 8340: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8315: 8314: 8306: 8305: 8298: 8291: 8283: 8274: 8273: 8259: 8256: 8255: 8253: 8252: 8247: 8245:Akinyele Umoja 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8166: 8164: 8158: 8157: 8155: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8133: 8132: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8066: 8064: 8060: 8059: 8057: 8056: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8033: 8032: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7933: 7926: 7919: 7912: 7905: 7904: 7903: 7891: 7886: 7880: 7878: 7874: 7873: 7871: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7848: 7847: 7846: 7841: 7834:Mahatma Gandhi 7831: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7813: 7811: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7757: 7755: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7745: 7743:South Carolina 7740: 7734: 7732: 7728: 7727: 7725: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7682:Hosea Williams 7679: 7674: 7669: 7667:Hollis Watkins 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7597:A. Maceo Smith 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7547:Bernie Sanders 7544: 7539: 7537:Angela Russell 7534: 7529: 7524: 7522:David Richmond 7519: 7514: 7512:Walter Reuther 7509: 7504: 7499: 7497:Cordell Reagon 7494: 7489: 7484: 7482:George Raymond 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7442:Charles Person 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7412:Huey P. Newton 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7367:Harry T. Moore 7364: 7359: 7354: 7352:Cecil B. Moore 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7332:James Meredith 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7162:Clarence Jones 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7102:Zilphia Horton 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7072:Lola Hendricks 7069: 7064: 7062:Dorothy Height 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7032:Lawrence Guyot 7029: 7024: 7022:Jack Greenberg 7019: 7014: 7009: 7007:Andrew Goodman 7004: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6932:Joseph DeLaine 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6902:Dorothy Cotton 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6847:J. L. Chestnut 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6782:Amelia Boynton 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6702:Arnold Aronson 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6520: 6519: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6471: 6469: 6463: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6448: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6430: 6429: 6424: 6414: 6409: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6380: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6361: 6356: 6349: 6342: 6337: 6336: 6335: 6328:Freedom Summer 6325: 6320: 6318:Bloody Tuesday 6315: 6310: 6304: 6302: 6298: 6297: 6295: 6294: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6184: 6183: 6182: 6177: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6145: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6087: 6085: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6051: 6050: 6038: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6008: 6007: 5995: 5990: 5983: 5982: 5981: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5945: 5943: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5922: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5898: 5896: 5889: 5879: 5878: 5870: 5869: 5862: 5855: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5815: 5796: 5788: 5779: 5770: 5765: 5756: 5740: 5730: 5721: 5716: 5706: 5705: 5673:Google Scholar 5635: 5634: 5611:Google Scholar 5572: 5571:External links 5569: 5568: 5567: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5550: 5544: 5522:, ed. (2008). 5516: 5506: 5488: 5482: 5464: 5458: 5440: 5424: 5423: 5401: 5400: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5369:(3): 279–297. 5358: 5341: 5335: 5315: 5309: 5296: 5290: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5265: 5238: 5194: 5183:on May 9, 2014 5168: 5148: 5126: 5108: 5089: 5058: 5020: 4995: 4978:Sowell, Thomas 4969: 4938: 4908: 4885: 4872: 4860: 4854: 4827: 4780: 4734: 4732: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4728: 4727: 4683: 4682: 4580: 4555: 4521: 4495: 4467:(April 2005). 4465:Rosen, Jeffery 4456: 4433: 4387: 4353: 4333: 4291: 4271: 4251: 4232:(2): 253–278. 4212: 4190: 4180: 4160: 4146: 4126: 4100: 4098:(May 11, 2003) 4075: 4051: 4027: 4003: 3971: 3939: 3888: 3881: 3861: 3831: 3801: 3771: 3745: 3715: 3698:People's World 3679: 3649: 3618: 3592: 3576: 3551: 3520: 3510: 3475: 3444: 3437: 3413: 3397: 3378: 3365: 3353: 3341: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3288: 3271: 3264: 3237: 3230: 3201: 3194: 3170: 3140: 3110: 3079: 3072: 3046: 3027:The New Yorker 3001: 2979: 2952: 2933: 2926: 2906: 2891: 2860: 2828: 2792: 2770: 2746: 2728: 2682: 2652: 2620: 2589: 2559: 2526: 2503: 2469: 2458:Myrdal, Gunnar 2449: 2420: 2390: 2360: 2329: 2327:, p. 144. 2314: 2307: 2283: 2252: 2250:, p. 280. 2248:Schauer (1997) 2240: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2202: 2193: 2167: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2146: 2141: 2133: 2125: 2120: 2114: 2109: 2101: 2096: 2088: 2085: 2063:Simple Justice 2058: 2057:Other comments 2055: 2047:magnet schools 2008: 2003: 1951: 1946: 1907:George W. Bush 1896:In June 1987, 1756:14th Amendment 1627:Damon J. Keith 1611: 1608: 1523: 1520: 1479: 1476: 1453:Thomas Stanley 1405: 1402: 1366:George Wallace 1360:In June 1963, 1274: 1271: 1257:organized the 1221: 1218: 1198: 1168: 1149: 1147:opportunities? 1117: 1085: 1082: 1018:states' rights 1006:Fred M. Vinson 998:Sherman Minton 957: 954: 946:Anthony Lester 921:foreign-policy 892:Walter Reuther 824:South Carolina 805: 802: 783: 780: 721:Topeka, Kansas 712: 709: 707: 704: 574:race relations 549: 546: 481:chief counsel 455:Topeka, Kansas 418:public schools 391: 390: 367: 366: 363: 360: 359: 353: 352: 348: 347: 344: 340: 339: 335: 334: 333: 332: 330:Sherman Minton 283: 280: 275: 269: 268: 264: 263: 248:public schools 243: 242: 238: 237: 236:(D. Kan. 1999) 161: 157: 156: 131: 127: 126: 122: 121: 116: 112: 111: 96: 80: 76: 75: 67: 66:Full case name 63: 62: 54: 53: 48: 40: 39: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12835: 12824: 12821: 12819: 12816: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12779: 12776: 12774: 12771: 12769: 12766: 12764: 12761: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12751: 12749: 12746: 12744: 12741: 12739: 12736: 12734: 12731: 12729: 12726: 12725: 12723: 12708: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12692: 12689: 12683: 12680: 12678: 12677:Neighborhoods 12675: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12663: 12660: 12658: 12655: 12653: 12650: 12646: 12643: 12641: 12640:Sports firsts 12638: 12636: 12633: 12632: 12631: 12628: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12594: 12591: 12589: 12586: 12584: 12581: 12579: 12576: 12574: 12571: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12561: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12549: 12546: 12545: 12544: 12541: 12540: 12538: 12534: 12526: 12523: 12522: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12487: 12485: 12481: 12478: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12462: 12461: 12458: 12457: 12455: 12453: 12449: 12443: 12442:West Virginia 12440: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12407: 12406: 12403: 12401: 12398: 12396: 12393: 12391: 12388: 12384: 12381: 12380: 12379:Pennsylvania 12378: 12376: 12373: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12363: 12359: 12358:New York City 12356: 12355: 12354: 12351: 12349: 12346: 12342: 12339: 12338: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12325: 12322: 12321: 12319: 12315: 12312: 12311: 12309: 12305: 12302: 12301: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12288: 12285: 12284: 12283: 12280: 12278: 12275: 12271: 12268: 12267: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12254: 12251: 12250: 12249: 12246: 12244: 12241: 12237: 12234: 12233: 12232: 12229: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12216: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12203: 12202:San Francisco 12200: 12198: 12195: 12194: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12179: 12177: 12175:By state/city 12173: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12134: 12133: 12130: 12126: 12123: 12122: 12121: 12120:American Sign 12118: 12116: 12113: 12112: 12110: 12106: 12098: 12095: 12093: 12090: 12089: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12076: 12073: 12071: 12068: 12067: 12066: 12063: 12059: 12056: 12055: 12054: 12053:Neighborhoods 12051: 12050: 12048: 12044: 12038: 12035: 12031: 12028: 12027: 12026: 12023: 12021: 12018: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11985: 11984: 11983:Black Indians 11981: 11979: 11976: 11972: 11969: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11953: 11951: 11950: 11948: 11944: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11915: 11913: 11905: 11899: 11896: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11866: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11840: 11837: 11834: 11830: 11824: 11821: 11819: 11816: 11814: 11811: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11786: 11784: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11755: 11753: 11745: 11739: 11736: 11732: 11729: 11728: 11727: 11724: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11690: 11687: 11686: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11671: 11669: 11665: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11642: 11639: 11638: 11637: 11634: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11621: 11620: 11617: 11615: 11612: 11611: 11609: 11607: 11603: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11581: 11579: 11577: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11561:Black schools 11559: 11557: 11556:Black studies 11554: 11553: 11551: 11545: 11539: 11538:Whitney Young 11536: 11534: 11531: 11529: 11528:Oprah Winfrey 11526: 11524: 11521: 11519: 11516: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11506: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11498:Denmark Vesey 11496: 11494: 11491: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11443:Joseph Rainey 11441: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11398:Toni Morrison 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11384: 11383:Joseph Lowery 11381: 11379: 11376: 11374: 11371: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11354: 11351: 11349: 11346: 11344: 11341: 11339: 11336: 11334: 11331: 11329: 11328:Jesse Jackson 11326: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11318:Kamala Harris 11316: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11303:Marcus Garvey 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11266: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11253:Blanche Bruce 11251: 11249: 11248:Edward Brooke 11246: 11244: 11241: 11239: 11238:James Bradley 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11218:James Baldwin 11216: 11214: 11211: 11209: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11200: 11198: 11194: 11188: 11185: 11183: 11180: 11178: 11175: 11173: 11170: 11168: 11165: 11163: 11162:Neighborhoods 11160: 11158: 11155: 11153: 11150: 11148: 11145: 11143: 11140: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11130: 11128: 11125: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11115: 11111: 11108: 11107: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11057: 11055: 11053: 11049: 11043: 11040: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11026: 11023: 11022: 11021: 11018: 11016: 11015:Silent Parade 11013: 11011: 11008: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10996: 10993: 10990: 10989: 10985: 10983: 10980: 10978: 10977: 10973: 10971: 10970: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10943:Jim Crow laws 10941: 10939: 10935: 10932: 10930: 10927: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10914: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10892: 10891: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10873: 10870: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10837: 10836: 10832: 10830: 10827: 10826: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10795: 10794: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10784: 10783: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10766:Black cowboys 10764: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10728: 10726: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10709: 10704: 10702: 10697: 10695: 10690: 10689: 10686: 10669: 10668: 10664: 10661: 10660: 10656: 10655: 10652: 10645: 10641: 10630: 10629: 10625: 10622: 10621: 10617: 10614: 10613: 10609: 10606: 10605: 10601: 10598: 10597: 10593: 10590: 10589: 10585: 10582: 10581: 10577: 10574: 10573: 10569: 10566: 10565: 10561: 10558: 10557: 10553: 10550: 10549: 10545: 10542: 10541: 10537: 10534: 10533: 10529: 10528: 10525: 10521: 10516: 10512: 10497: 10496: 10492: 10489: 10488: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10476: 10473: 10472: 10468: 10465: 10464: 10460: 10457: 10456: 10452: 10449: 10448: 10444: 10441: 10440: 10436: 10433: 10432: 10428: 10425: 10424: 10420: 10417: 10416: 10412: 10409: 10408: 10404: 10401: 10400: 10396: 10393: 10392: 10388: 10385: 10384: 10380: 10377: 10376: 10372: 10369: 10368: 10364: 10361: 10360: 10356: 10353: 10352: 10348: 10345: 10344: 10340: 10337: 10336: 10332: 10329: 10328: 10324: 10321: 10320: 10316: 10313: 10312: 10308: 10305: 10304: 10300: 10297: 10296: 10292: 10289: 10288: 10284: 10281: 10280: 10276: 10273: 10272: 10268: 10265: 10264: 10260: 10259: 10257: 10253: 10246: 10245: 10241: 10238: 10237: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10218: 10211: 10210: 10206: 10203: 10202: 10201:Plyler v. Doe 10198: 10195: 10194: 10190: 10187: 10186: 10182: 10179: 10178: 10174: 10171: 10170: 10166: 10163: 10162: 10158: 10155: 10154: 10150: 10147: 10146: 10142: 10139: 10138: 10134: 10131: 10130: 10126: 10123: 10122: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10110: 10107: 10106: 10105:Frick v. Webb 10102: 10099: 10098: 10094: 10091: 10090: 10086: 10083: 10082: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10070: 10067: 10066: 10062: 10059: 10058: 10054: 10051: 10050: 10046: 10045: 10043: 10039: 10032: 10031: 10027: 10024: 10023: 10019: 10016: 10015: 10011: 10010: 10008: 10004: 9997: 9996: 9992: 9989: 9988: 9984: 9981: 9980: 9976: 9973: 9972: 9968: 9965: 9964: 9960: 9957: 9956: 9952: 9949: 9948: 9944: 9941: 9940: 9936: 9933: 9932: 9928: 9925: 9924: 9920: 9917: 9916: 9912: 9909: 9908: 9904: 9901: 9900: 9896: 9893: 9892: 9888: 9885: 9884: 9880: 9877: 9876: 9872: 9869: 9868: 9864: 9861: 9860: 9856: 9853: 9852: 9848: 9845: 9844: 9840: 9837: 9836: 9832: 9831: 9829: 9825: 9818: 9817: 9813: 9810: 9809: 9805: 9802: 9801: 9797: 9794: 9793: 9789: 9786: 9785: 9781: 9778: 9777: 9773: 9770: 9769: 9765: 9762: 9761: 9757: 9754: 9753: 9749: 9746: 9745: 9741: 9738: 9737: 9733: 9730: 9729: 9725: 9722: 9721: 9717: 9714: 9713: 9709: 9706: 9705: 9701: 9698: 9697: 9693: 9690: 9689: 9685: 9682: 9681: 9677: 9674: 9673: 9669: 9666: 9665: 9661: 9658: 9657: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9645: 9642: 9641: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9629: 9626: 9625: 9621: 9618: 9617: 9613: 9610: 9609: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9597: 9594: 9593: 9592:Coit v. Green 9589: 9586: 9585: 9581: 9578: 9577: 9573: 9570: 9569: 9565: 9562: 9561: 9557: 9554: 9553: 9549: 9546: 9545: 9541: 9538: 9537: 9533: 9530: 9529: 9525: 9522: 9521: 9517: 9514: 9513: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9501: 9498: 9497: 9493: 9490: 9489: 9485: 9482: 9481: 9477: 9474: 9473: 9469: 9466: 9465: 9464:Lucy v. Adams 9461: 9457: 9456: 9452: 9450: 9449: 9445: 9443: 9442: 9438: 9437: 9435: 9434: 9430: 9427: 9426: 9422: 9419: 9418: 9414: 9411: 9410: 9406: 9403: 9402: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9390: 9387: 9386: 9382: 9379: 9378: 9374: 9371: 9370: 9366: 9363: 9362: 9358: 9355: 9354: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9342: 9339: 9338: 9334: 9331: 9330: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9311: 9306: 9302: 9287: 9286: 9282: 9279: 9278: 9274: 9271: 9270: 9266: 9263: 9262: 9258: 9255: 9254: 9250: 9247: 9246: 9242: 9239: 9238: 9234: 9231: 9230: 9226: 9223: 9222: 9218: 9215: 9214: 9210: 9207: 9206: 9202: 9199: 9198: 9194: 9191: 9190: 9186: 9183: 9182: 9178: 9175: 9174: 9170: 9167: 9166: 9162: 9159: 9158: 9154: 9151: 9150: 9146: 9143: 9142: 9138: 9135: 9134: 9133:Goss v. Lopez 9130: 9127: 9126: 9122: 9119: 9118: 9114: 9111: 9110: 9106: 9103: 9102: 9101:In re Winship 9098: 9095: 9094: 9090: 9087: 9086: 9082: 9079: 9078: 9074: 9071: 9070: 9066: 9063: 9062: 9058: 9055: 9054: 9050: 9047: 9046: 9042: 9039: 9038: 9034: 9031: 9030: 9029:Zucht v. King 9026: 9023: 9022: 9018: 9017: 9015: 9011: 9004: 9003: 8999: 8996: 8995: 8991: 8988: 8987: 8983: 8980: 8979: 8975: 8972: 8971: 8967: 8964: 8963: 8959: 8956: 8955: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8943: 8940: 8939: 8935: 8932: 8931: 8927: 8924: 8923: 8919: 8916: 8913: 8910: 8909: 8905: 8902: 8901: 8897: 8894: 8893: 8892:Paul v. Davis 8889: 8886: 8885: 8881: 8878: 8875: 8872: 8869: 8866: 8863: 8860: 8857: 8854: 8851: 8848: 8847: 8843: 8842: 8840: 8838: 8831: 8824: 8823: 8819: 8816: 8815: 8811: 8808: 8807: 8803: 8800: 8799: 8798:Azar v. Garza 8795: 8792: 8791: 8787: 8784: 8783: 8779: 8776: 8775: 8771: 8768: 8767: 8763: 8760: 8759: 8755: 8752: 8751: 8747: 8744: 8743: 8739: 8736: 8735: 8731: 8728: 8727: 8723: 8720: 8719: 8715: 8712: 8711: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8699: 8696: 8695: 8691: 8688: 8687: 8683: 8680: 8679: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8667: 8664: 8663: 8659: 8656: 8655: 8651: 8648: 8647: 8646:Doe v. Bolton 8643: 8640: 8639: 8635: 8632: 8631: 8627: 8626: 8624: 8622: 8618: 8611: 8610: 8606: 8603: 8602: 8598: 8595: 8594: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8582: 8579: 8578: 8574: 8571: 8570: 8566: 8563: 8562: 8561:Doe v. Bolton 8558: 8555: 8554: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8542: 8539: 8538: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8526: 8525: 8523: 8521: 8517: 8510: 8509: 8505: 8502: 8501: 8497: 8494: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8485: 8481: 8478: 8477: 8473: 8470: 8469: 8465: 8462: 8461: 8457: 8454: 8453: 8449: 8446: 8445: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8433: 8432: 8430: 8428: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8409: 8405: 8394: 8393: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8381: 8378: 8377: 8373: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8362: 8361: 8357: 8354: 8353: 8349: 8346: 8345: 8341: 8338: 8337: 8333: 8332: 8329: 8325: 8320: 8316: 8311: 8304: 8299: 8297: 8292: 8290: 8285: 8284: 8281: 8271: 8270: 8265: 8257: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8240:Timothy Tyson 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8170:Taylor Branch 8168: 8167: 8165: 8159: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8131: 8128: 8127: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8061: 8055: 8054: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8030: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8018:Freedom songs 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7938: 7934: 7932: 7931: 7927: 7925: 7924: 7920: 7918: 7917: 7913: 7911: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7899: 7898: 7897: 7896: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7884:Jim Crow laws 7882: 7881: 7879: 7875: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7808: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7781:"Oh, Freedom" 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7750: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7729: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7707:Whitney Young 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7687:Kale Williams 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7647:Albert Turner 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7637:A. P. Tureaud 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7542:Bayard Rustin 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7392:William Moyer 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7327:Joseph McNeil 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7312:Charles McDew 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7302:Benjamin Mays 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7287:Vivian Malone 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7262:Joseph Lowery 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7187:Clyde Kennard 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7177:Vernon Jordan 7175: 7173: 7172:Matthew Jones 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7137:T. J. Jemison 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7122:Jesse Jackson 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7012:Robert Graetz 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7002:Golden Frinks 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6962:Charles Evers 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6912:Vernon Dahmer 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6867:Septima Clark 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6787:Bruce Boynton 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6712:James Baldwin 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6682:Mathew Ahmann 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6662: 6658: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6580: 6579:Youth Council 6577: 6576: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6513: 6512: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6472: 6470: 6464: 6454: 6453: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6407: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6371: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6354: 6350: 6348: 6347: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6334: 6331: 6330: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6299: 6293: 6290: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6240: 6239: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6228: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6211: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6171: 6170:Freedom Rides 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6150: 6146: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6082: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6049: 6048: 6044: 6043: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6029: 6025: 6024: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6005: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5979: 5975: 5973: 5972: 5968: 5966: 5965: 5961: 5959: 5958: 5954: 5953: 5952: 5951: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5923: 5920: 5919: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5895:Prior to 1954 5893: 5890: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5868: 5863: 5861: 5856: 5854: 5849: 5848: 5845: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5816: 5814: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5802: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5780: 5777: 5776: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5714:at Lawnix.com 5713: 5708: 5707: 5701: 5692: 5683: 5674: 5665: 5664:CourtListener 5656: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5636: 5630: 5621: 5612: 5603: 5602:CourtListener 5594: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5574: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5557: 5547: 5545:9780807000366 5541: 5536: 5535: 5529: 5527: 5521: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5485: 5483:9780393058970 5479: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5459:9780394472898 5455: 5451: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5438: 5434: 5433: 5429:Keppel, Ben. 5428: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5417:, May 9, 2004 5416: 5412: 5402: 5397: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5332: 5328: 5325:. Revised by 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5293: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5274: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5234: 5228: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5198: 5182: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5152: 5145: 5141: 5136: 5130: 5123: 5118: 5112: 5103: 5102: 5093: 5077: 5073: 5071: 5062: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5024: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5005: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4905:0-671-76787-9 4902: 4898: 4894: 4889: 4882: 4876: 4869: 4864: 4857: 4855:9780814798904 4851: 4847: 4846: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4798:Berger, Raoul 4793: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4754: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4738: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4685: 4684: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4565: 4559: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4534: 4533:Pamela Karlan 4530: 4525: 4518: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4492: 4480: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4466: 4460: 4453: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4437: 4429: 4423: 4407: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4382: 4378: 4370: 4364: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4337: 4330: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4295: 4288: 4284: 4281: 4275: 4268: 4267:0-8147-4271-8 4264: 4260: 4255: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4216: 4210: 4209:0-19-510622-9 4206: 4202: 4197: 4195: 4187: 4183: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4164: 4157: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4139: 4138: 4130: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4079: 4071: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4013: 4007: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3981: 3975: 3959: 3955: 3954: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3934: 3928: 3920: 3910: 3902: 3901: 3892: 3884: 3882:9780813547725 3878: 3874: 3873: 3865: 3854:September 26, 3849: 3845: 3841: 3835: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3775: 3759: 3755: 3749: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3719: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3653: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3622: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3589: 3585: 3580: 3574: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3514: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3479: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3440: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3425: 3417: 3410: 3404: 3402: 3394: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3375: 3369: 3362: 3357: 3350: 3345: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3310: 3305: 3298: 3292: 3285: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3267: 3265:9780394720951 3261: 3257: 3256:Vintage Books 3253: 3252: 3247: 3241: 3233: 3231:0-19-515632-3 3227: 3223: 3218: 3217: 3211: 3205: 3197: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3182: 3174: 3165: 3160: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3075: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2999: 2995: 2992: 2991: 2988:Smithsonian, 2983: 2972: 2965: 2959: 2957: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2929: 2923: 2919: 2918: 2910: 2903: 2898: 2896: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2848: 2844: 2843: 2838: 2832: 2816: 2812: 2811: 2810:Famous Trials 2806: 2802: 2796: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2761: 2756: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2732: 2724: 2718: 2702: 2701: 2696: 2692: 2691:Fox, Margalit 2686: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2630: 2624: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2593: 2577: 2573: 2572:PBS NewsHour' 2569: 2563: 2547: 2543: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2473: 2465: 2464: 2459: 2453: 2443: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2424: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2394: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2364: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2333: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2310: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2295: 2287: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2256: 2249: 2244: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2217: 2197: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2168: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2029:Tenth Circuit 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2007: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1988: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1973: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1950: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1933:Thomas Sowell 1930: 1926: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1883:endorsed the 1882: 1878: 1873: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1858: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1827: 1826:Chief Justice 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1712: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1671: 1669: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1607: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1563: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1528: 1519: 1517: 1512: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1475: 1473: 1472: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1445:Harry F. Byrd 1442: 1438: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1401: 1399: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1332:LeRoy Collins 1330: 1326: 1325:Interposition 1321: 1319: 1318:Fort Campbell 1316:stationed at 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1280: 1270: 1267: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1255:Harry F. Byrd 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1217: 1215: 1214: 1203: 1197: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1173: 1167: 1162: 1154: 1148: 1143: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1122: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1105: 1102: 1101:chief justice 1095: 1090: 1081: 1078: 1074: 1068: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1048: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 982: 979: 975: 970: 962: 953: 951: 947: 942: 939: 936: 931: 926: 922: 918: 917: 916:amicus curiae 912: 907: 905: 901: 897: 893: 888: 886: 880: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 857: 855: 851: 850: 845: 841: 840: 835: 831: 830: 825: 821: 820: 815: 811: 801: 798: 793: 792:Walter Huxman 789: 779: 777: 771: 767: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 744: 742: 738: 734: 728: 726: 722: 718: 703: 701: 697: 693: 688: 684: 680: 676: 671: 669: 668: 663: 662:Gunnar Myrdal 659: 655: 654: 649: 645: 640: 636: 632: 627: 625: 621: 620: 615: 614: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 588: 583: 579: 575: 571: 563: 559: 554: 545: 543: 539: 538: 533: 532:Harry F. Byrd 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 508: 506: 505: 500: 496: 492: 486: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 451: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 424: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 398: 388: 387: 381: 380: 374: 373: 368: 361: 358: 354: 349: 345: 341: 336: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274:Chief Justice 273: 272: 270: 265: 261: 257: 253: 250:violates the 249: 244: 239: 235: 232: 228: 225: 221: 218: (1992) ( 217: 214: 210: 206: 202: 199: 195: 192: 188: 184: 181: 177: 174: (1955) ( 173: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 151: 147: 143: 139: 136: 132: 128: 123: 120: 117: 113: 108: 104: 100: 94: 93: 88: 85: 81: 77: 74: 72: 68: 64: 55: 51: 41: 36: 30: 19: 12593:Sportspeople 12563:Billionaires 12480:Sierra Leone 12383:Philadelphia 12219:Jacksonville 12046:Demographics 11878:Jack Johnson 11868:Muhammad Ali 11701:Conservatism 11636:Black church 11533:Andrew Young 11518:Ida B. Wells 11508:David Walker 11503:C. T. Vivian 11458:Paul Robeson 11453:Hiram Revels 11433:Colin Powell 11413:Barack Obama 11368:James Lawson 11323:Jimi Hendrix 11293:James Farmer 11288:Medgar Evers 11258:Ralph Bunche 11208:Maya Angelou 11182:Middle class 11060:Afrofuturism 10986: 10974: 10967: 10888: 10833: 10781: 10780: 10746:Afrocentrism 10736:Abolitionism 10665: 10657: 10626: 10618: 10610: 10602: 10594: 10586: 10578: 10570: 10562: 10554: 10546: 10538: 10530: 10493: 10487:Bush v. Gore 10485: 10477: 10469: 10461: 10453: 10445: 10437: 10429: 10421: 10413: 10405: 10397: 10389: 10381: 10373: 10365: 10357: 10349: 10341: 10333: 10325: 10317: 10309: 10301: 10293: 10285: 10277: 10269: 10261: 10242: 10234: 10226: 10207: 10199: 10191: 10183: 10175: 10167: 10159: 10151: 10143: 10135: 10127: 10119: 10111: 10103: 10095: 10087: 10079: 10071: 10063: 10055: 10047: 10028: 10020: 10012: 9993: 9985: 9977: 9969: 9961: 9953: 9945: 9937: 9929: 9921: 9913: 9905: 9897: 9889: 9881: 9873: 9865: 9857: 9851:Reed v. Reed 9849: 9841: 9833: 9814: 9806: 9798: 9790: 9782: 9774: 9766: 9758: 9750: 9742: 9734: 9726: 9718: 9710: 9702: 9694: 9686: 9678: 9670: 9662: 9654: 9646: 9638: 9630: 9622: 9614: 9606: 9598: 9590: 9582: 9574: 9566: 9558: 9550: 9542: 9534: 9526: 9518: 9510: 9502: 9494: 9486: 9478: 9470: 9462: 9453: 9446: 9439: 9432: 9431: 9423: 9415: 9407: 9399: 9391: 9383: 9375: 9367: 9359: 9351: 9343: 9335: 9327: 9283: 9275: 9267: 9259: 9251: 9243: 9235: 9227: 9219: 9211: 9203: 9195: 9187: 9179: 9171: 9163: 9155: 9147: 9139: 9131: 9123: 9115: 9107: 9099: 9091: 9083: 9075: 9067: 9059: 9051: 9043: 9037:Buck v. Bell 9035: 9027: 9019: 9000: 8992: 8984: 8976: 8968: 8960: 8952: 8944: 8936: 8928: 8920: 8914: 8906: 8898: 8890: 8882: 8876: 8870: 8864: 8858: 8852: 8844: 8820: 8812: 8804: 8796: 8788: 8780: 8772: 8764: 8756: 8748: 8740: 8732: 8724: 8716: 8708: 8700: 8692: 8684: 8676: 8668: 8660: 8652: 8644: 8636: 8628: 8607: 8599: 8591: 8583: 8575: 8567: 8559: 8551: 8543: 8535: 8527: 8506: 8498: 8490: 8482: 8474: 8466: 8458: 8450: 8442: 8434: 8392:Saenz v. Roe 8390: 8382: 8374: 8366: 8358: 8350: 8342: 8334: 8260: 8200:David Garrow 8180:John Dittmer 8051: 7978:Brown Chapel 7935: 7928: 7921: 7914: 7907: 7893: 7850: 7702:Andrew Young 7657:A. T. Walden 7652:C. T. Vivian 7612:Maxine Smith 7447:Homer Plessy 7427:James Orange 7382:Irene Morgan 7337:William Ming 7317:Ralph McGill 7252:Viola Liuzzo 7237:Jim Letherer 7222:James Lawson 7152:Vernon Johns 7142:Esau Jenkins 7097:Myles Horton 7047:Fred Hampton 7037:Prathia Hall 7027:Dick Gregory 6997:Marie Foster 6992:James Forman 6982:James Farmer 6967:Medgar Evers 6927:Angela Davis 6862:Ramsey Clark 6842:James Chaney 6837:Johnnie Carr 6817:Ralph Bunche 6812:H. Rap Brown 6802:Ruby Bridges 6762:Joanne Bland 6737:Claude Black 6717:Marion Barry 6687:Muhammad Ali 6514: 6450: 6443: 6404: 6382: 6351: 6344: 6186: 6147: 6140: 6070:Kissing Case 6045: 6002: 5985: 5976: 5969: 5962: 5955: 5949: 5948: 5924: 5916: 5832:. Retrieved 5827: 5823: 5810: 5800: 5791: 5782: 5774: 5760: 5744: 5734: 5724: 5711: 5639: 5577: 5560: 5533: 5525: 5509: 5498: 5472: 5448: 5430: 5414: 5410: 5366: 5362: 5345: 5322: 5300: 5281: 5256:. Retrieved 5241: 5215:. Retrieved 5211:the original 5206: 5197: 5185:. Retrieved 5181:the original 5171: 5156: 5151: 5134: 5129: 5116: 5111: 5100: 5092: 5082:February 23, 5080:. Retrieved 5069: 5061: 5049:. Retrieved 5040: 5036: 5023: 5002: 4998: 4990:the original 4986:townhall.com 4985: 4972: 4962:February 23, 4960:. Retrieved 4951: 4941: 4929:. Retrieved 4921:pbs.org/wnet 4920: 4911: 4892: 4888: 4880: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4844: 4830: 4818:. Retrieved 4809: 4805: 4757:. Retrieved 4750: 4743:Liptak, Adam 4737: 4706: 4700: 4696: 4688: 4661: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4639: 4629:December 10, 4627:. Retrieved 4602: 4596: 4591:(May 1995). 4583: 4562: 4558: 4550: 4537: 4528: 4524: 4507: 4498: 4490: 4483:. Retrieved 4472: 4459: 4442: 4436: 4410:. Retrieved 4403: 4396:Liptak, Adam 4390: 4381:the original 4366: 4358: 4343: 4336: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4314: 4311:the original 4304: 4294: 4274: 4258: 4254: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4215: 4200: 4185: 4170: 4163: 4153: 4151: 4136: 4129: 4117:. Retrieved 4113:the original 4103: 4095: 4078: 4070:the original 4063: 4054: 4046:the original 4039: 4030: 4022:the original 4015: 4006: 3994:. Retrieved 3990:the original 3983: 3974: 3962:. Retrieved 3958:the original 3951: 3942: 3922: 3915:September 5, 3913:. Retrieved 3903: 3899: 3891: 3871: 3864: 3852:. Retrieved 3843: 3834: 3822:. Retrieved 3813: 3804: 3792:. Retrieved 3783: 3774: 3762:. Retrieved 3758:the original 3748: 3736:. Retrieved 3732:the original 3727: 3718: 3708:November 25, 3706:. Retrieved 3697: 3672:February 23, 3670:. Retrieved 3661: 3652: 3642:February 23, 3640:. Retrieved 3631: 3621: 3609:. Retrieved 3595: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3563: 3554: 3544:February 23, 3542:. Retrieved 3533: 3523: 3513: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3468:February 23, 3466:. Retrieved 3457: 3447: 3423: 3416: 3368: 3356: 3344: 3336: 3328: 3320: 3316: 3308: 3304: 3291: 3249: 3240: 3220:. New York: 3215: 3204: 3180: 3173: 3164:the original 3156: 3143: 3131:. Retrieved 3122: 3113: 3101:. Retrieved 3093:The Atlantic 3092: 3082: 3059: 3049: 3037:. Retrieved 3032:the original 3026: 2989: 2982: 2971:the original 2947:the original 2936: 2916: 2909: 2901: 2884:February 23, 2882:. Retrieved 2873: 2863: 2851:. Retrieved 2840: 2831: 2819:. Retrieved 2808: 2795: 2778: 2773: 2765:the original 2758: 2749: 2741:the original 2731: 2705:. Retrieved 2698: 2685: 2675:February 23, 2673:. Retrieved 2669:the original 2664: 2655: 2643:. Retrieved 2639:the original 2632: 2623: 2613:February 23, 2611:. Retrieved 2607:the original 2602: 2592: 2580:. Retrieved 2576:the original 2571: 2562: 2550:. Retrieved 2546:the original 2539: 2529: 2521:the original 2516: 2506: 2496:February 23, 2494:. Retrieved 2485: 2472: 2462: 2452: 2446:(in English) 2440: 2437:the original 2423: 2411:. Retrieved 2402: 2393: 2381:. Retrieved 2372: 2363: 2353:February 23, 2351:. Retrieved 2342: 2332: 2293: 2286: 2276:February 23, 2274:. Retrieved 2265: 2255: 2243: 2224: 2220: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2148: 2135: 2127: 2103: 2093:Ruby Bridges 2082: 2078: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2060: 2050: 2039: 2032: 2024: 2020: 2012: 2010: 2005: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1979: 1977: 1971: 1968: 1955: 1953: 1948: 1936: 1931:, economist 1925:Townhall.com 1922: 1917: 1911: 1898:Philip Elman 1895: 1890: 1884: 1876: 1875:In his book 1874: 1867: 1859: 1855:John Bingham 1835: 1831:in his 1880 1777: 1751: 1748:Raoul Berger 1744:originalists 1741: 1736: 1732: 1726: 1722: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1701: 1699: 1694: 1687:Learned Hand 1684: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1667: 1660: 1656: 1647: 1642: 1603: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1578: 1560: 1558: 1548: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1518:, however.) 1516:white flight 1503: 1495: 1481: 1469: 1461:Garland Gray 1440: 1436: 1434: 1429: 1423: 1417: 1409: 1407: 1394: 1359: 1343:Medgar Evers 1336: 1322: 1304:. President 1290:Orval Faubus 1283: 1276: 1265: 1263: 1252: 1247: 1238:Pearl Harbor 1234:Black Monday 1229: 1225: 1223: 1211: 1208: 1201: 1194: 1190: 1178: 1171: 1164: 1159: 1152: 1145: 1142:education. 1133: 1131: 1127: 1120: 1113: 1108: 1098: 1093: 1072: 1069: 1057: 1045: 1022:Tom C. Clark 1001: 983: 977: 971: 967: 949: 943: 938:Dean Acheson 914: 908: 889: 884: 881: 872: 860: 858: 847: 837: 827: 817: 813: 809: 808:The case of 807: 787: 785: 772: 768: 748:Oliver Brown 745: 741:Lucinda Todd 729: 717:class-action 714: 685:traveled to 675:Soviet Union 672: 665: 651: 643: 634: 628: 623: 617: 611: 585: 569: 567: 557: 541: 535: 520:white people 515: 509: 502: 487: 474: 467:class-action 463:Oliver Brown 452: 435: 421: 408:ruling that 396: 395: 394: 384: 377: 370: 351:Laws applied 338:Case opinion 325: 322:Tom C. Clark 313: 301: 289: 219: 175: 155: (1952). 125:Case history 90: 71:Oliver Brown 69: 29: 12613:US senators 12583:Republicans 12568:Journalists 12425:San Antonio 12390:Puerto Rico 12331:Mississippi 12224:Tallahassee 12197:Los Angeles 11888:Jesse Owens 11873:Arthur Ashe 11731:Nationalism 11721:Raised fist 11684:Black power 11589:in medicine 11523:Roy Wilkins 11478:Emmett Till 11463:Al Sharpton 11228:Julian Bond 11223:James Bevel 11187:Upper class 11177:Stereotypes 11070:Black mecca 10982:Plantations 10761:Black Codes 9412:(Cal. 1948) 9361:Lum v. Rice 8638:Roe v. Wade 8553:Roe v. Wade 8427:due process 8220:Doug McAdam 8190:Chuck Fager 7817:Nonviolence 7722:James Zwerg 7717:Bob Zellner 7677:Roy Wilkins 7627:Hank Thomas 7562:Pete Seeger 7557:Bobby Seale 7422:Jack O'Dell 7417:Edgar Nixon 7347:Amzie Moore 7342:Jack Minnis 7282:Mae Mallory 7267:Clara Luper 7227:Bernard Lee 7117:Cecil Ivory 7112:Ruby Hurley 7082:Oliver Hill 7077:Aaron Henry 6977:Chuck Fager 6937:Dave Dennis 6827:Guy Carawan 6767:Julian Bond 6732:James Bevel 6722:Daisy Bates 5993:Emmett Till 5876:(1954–1968) 5834:February 8, 5270:Works cited 5018: (1955) 4899:, page 11; 4119:November 5, 3996:October 15, 3964:October 15, 3840:"SOL Guide" 3764:December 4, 3738:December 4, 3662:www.pbs.org 3103:October 30, 3039:January 22, 2645:October 15, 2603:MSN Encarta 2238: (1954) 2137:Lum v. Rice 1881:Robert Bork 1879:(page 82), 1583:footnote 11 1500:Mae Mallory 1451:. Governor 1404:Upper South 1339:Mississippi 1244:described: 1104:Earl Warren 1052:White House 1042:Earl Warren 800:this case. 715:In 1951, a 692:Earl Warren 518:among most 440:integration 278:Earl Warren 231:F. Supp. 2d 12722:Categories 12558:Astronauts 12348:New Jersey 12192:California 11696:Capitalism 11493:Nat Turner 11423:Rosa Parks 11408:Diane Nash 11378:John Lewis 11167:Newspapers 11137:Literature 11122:Juneteenth 11075:Businesses 10929:Exodusters 10897:Free Negro 9907:Orr v. Orr 8163:historians 7844:Satyagraha 7810:Influences 7502:James Reeb 7437:James Peck 7432:Rosa Parks 7402:Diane Nash 7272:Danny Lyon 7247:John Lewis 7192:A. D. King 7092:James Hood 6707:Ella Baker 6677:Zev Aelony 4931:August 25, 4759:October 6, 4576:70, 120-22 4412:October 6, 3794:August 29, 3784:Justia Law 3438:082032051X 3372:Quoted in 3295:Quoted in 3195:0385128355 3133:January 9, 2853:January 9, 2821:January 9, 2707:October 6, 2582:August 25, 2552:October 7, 2486:SCOTUSblog 2208:References 2191:overruled. 2034:certiorari 1916:, calling 1811:California 1746:, notably 1606:decision. 1596:decision. 1273:Deep South 1040:appointed 990:Hugo Black 852:(filed in 842:(filed in 832:(filed in 822:(filed in 631:plaintiffs 584:ruling in 548:Background 524:Deep South 410:U.S. state 286:Hugo Black 160:Subsequent 103:U.S. LEXIS 101:873; 1954 12672:Monuments 12548:Activists 12400:Tennessee 12320:Michigan 12304:Baltimore 12294:Louisiana 12287:Lexington 12270:Davenport 12209:Cleveland 12108:Languages 12037:Melungeon 12015:Blaxicans 11883:Joe Louis 11738:Socialism 11674:Anarchism 11403:Bob Moses 11388:Malcolm X 11308:Fred Gray 11172:Soul food 11110:New Negro 11095:Folktales 11005:Redlining 10220:Residency 7822:Padayatra 7771:"Kumbaya" 7731:By region 7387:Bob Moses 7292:Bob Mants 7277:Malcolm X 7197:C.B. King 7017:Fred Gray 6660:Activists 6301:1964–1968 6084:1960–1963 5942:1954–1959 5785:Revisited 5437:LSU Press 5411:Booknotes 5354:798148265 5258:March 27, 5227:cite news 5217:April 15, 5187:April 15, 4769:cite news 4422:cite news 4246:145322934 3611:April 30, 3505:143127021 3491:(1): 14. 2717:cite news 2413:March 23, 2383:March 23, 2213:Citations 2006:Brown III 1962:'s poem " 1781:US states 1364:governor 1310:U.S. Army 1288:governor 913:filed an 723:, in the 461:resident 262:reversed. 220:Brown III 205:10th Cir. 79:Citations 12695:Category 12486:America 12452:Diaspora 12437:Virginia 12370:Oklahoma 12353:New York 12336:Nebraska 12299:Maryland 12282:Kentucky 12248:Illinois 12187:Arkansas 12092:Illinois 12030:of color 11716:Populism 11689:Movement 11606:Religion 10948:Lynching 10731:Timeline 10041:Alienage 8312:case law 7752:Movement 7182:Tom Kahn 6466:Activist 5886:timeline 5750:Archived 5638:Text of 5576:Text of 5505:, 2001). 5470:(2004). 5446:(1975). 5321:(2010). 5280:(2019). 5252:Archived 5161:Archived 5144:archived 5076:Archived 5070:Brown II 5051:July 23, 5045:Archived 4956:Archived 4925:Archived 4842:(eds.), 4820:April 6, 4814:Archived 4648:Response 4623:Archived 4543:Archived 4513:Archived 4485:March 5, 4479:Archived 4448:Archived 4359:Justice 4283:Archived 4269:Page 148 4088:Archived 3985:CJOnline 3953:CJOnline 3927:cite web 3848:Archived 3818:Archived 3788:Archived 3702:Archived 3666:Archived 3636:Archived 3605:Archived 3569:Archived 3538:Archived 3462:Archived 3248:(2002). 3212:(2001). 3127:Archived 3097:Archived 2994:Archived 2878:Archived 2847:Archived 2815:Archived 2788:archived 2634:CJOnline 2541:CJOnline 2490:Archived 2460:(1944). 2407:Archived 2377:Archived 2347:Archived 2270:Archived 2189:de facto 2087:See also 1993:Brown II 1980:Brown II 1972:Brown II 1956:Brown II 1949:Brown II 1833:treatise 1819:New York 1693:finding 1286:Arkansas 1213:Brown II 1199:— 1169:— 1150:— 1118:— 1077:Southern 844:Delaware 834:Virginia 816:itself, 790:. Judge 679:Cold War 504:Brown II 402:landmark 343:Majority 191:F. Supp. 180:F. Supp. 176:Brown II 135:F. Supp. 115:Decision 107:A.L.R.2d 12623:Writers 12588:Singers 12573:Jurists 12521:Europe 12475:Liberia 12420:Houston 12324:Detroit 12260:Indiana 12253:Chicago 12236:Atlanta 12231:Georgia 12214:Florida 12182:Alabama 12132:English 11706:Leftism 11576:Museums 11127:Kwanzaa 11052:Culture 11020:Slavery 10723:History 9436:(1954) 7877:Related 7467:Al Raby 6422:funeral 6285:Big Six 5655:Cornell 5593:Cornell 5563:(2004) 5383:3504874 5250:. NPR. 4723:1073644 4678:1073643 4619:1073539 3824:July 5, 1815:Indiana 1727:Brown I 1723:Brown I 1716:Brown I 1384:of the 1362:Alabama 1353:member 1166:undone. 885:Gebhart 873:Gebhart 846:), and 510:In the 497:of the 493:of the 450:cases. 254:of the 241:Holding 142:D. Kan. 119:Opinion 12635:Mayors 12553:Actors 12525:France 12517:Israel 12505:Mexico 12490:Canada 12465:Gambia 12460:Africa 12410:Austin 12375:Oregon 12314:Boston 12277:Kansas 12243:Hawaii 12161:Gullah 11971:Yoruba 11961:Gullah 11832:Sports 11750:groups 11580:Women 11117:Hoodoo 10991:(1896) 10917:Second 10893:(1857) 10838:(1956) 10785:(1954) 10670:(2024) 10662:(1935) 10631:(2013) 10623:(2006) 10615:(2004) 10607:(2003) 10599:(2001) 10591:(2000) 10583:(2000) 10575:(1999) 10567:(1997) 10559:(1989) 10551:(1976) 10543:(1966) 10535:(1883) 10498:(2012) 10490:(2000) 10482:(1997) 10474:(1991) 10466:(1988) 10458:(1988) 10450:(1985) 10442:(1982) 10434:(1979) 10426:(1978) 10418:(1977) 10410:(1976) 10402:(1974) 10394:(1974) 10386:(1973) 10378:(1973) 10370:(1972) 10362:(1971) 10354:(1970) 10346:(1968) 10338:(1968) 10330:(1966) 10322:(1966) 10314:(1962) 10306:(1948) 10298:(1942) 10290:(1937) 10282:(1928) 10274:(1886) 10266:(1876) 10247:(1985) 10239:(1977) 10231:(1969) 10212:(1984) 10204:(1982) 10196:(1982) 10188:(1979) 10180:(1978) 10172:(1977) 10164:(1976) 10156:(1973) 10148:(1973) 10140:(1971) 10132:(1954) 10124:(1948) 10116:(1927) 10108:(1923) 10100:(1923) 10092:(1923) 10084:(1923) 10076:(1915) 10068:(1915) 10060:(1915) 10052:(1914) 10033:(2015) 10025:(1996) 10017:(1986) 9998:(2024) 9990:(1996) 9982:(1994) 9974:(1983) 9966:(1982) 9958:(1981) 9950:(1981) 9942:(1980) 9934:(1979) 9926:(1979) 9918:(1979) 9910:(1979) 9902:(1976) 9894:(1975) 9886:(1975) 9878:(1974) 9870:(1974) 9862:(1972) 9854:(1971) 9846:(1948) 9838:(1937) 9819:(2023) 9811:(2016) 9803:(2014) 9795:(2013) 9787:(2007) 9779:(2005) 9771:(2003) 9763:(2003) 9755:(1999) 9747:(1995) 9739:(1993) 9731:(1992) 9723:(1992) 9715:(1991) 9707:(1989) 9699:(1986) 9691:(1985) 9683:(1984) 9675:(1982) 9667:(1982) 9659:(1978) 9651:(1977) 9643:(1977) 9635:(1974) 9627:(1973) 9619:(1973) 9611:(1972) 9603:(1971) 9595:(1971) 9587:(1971) 9579:(1971) 9571:(1971) 9563:(1969) 9555:(1969) 9547:(1969) 9539:(1969) 9531:(1968) 9523:(1968) 9515:(1967) 9507:(1967) 9499:(1964) 9491:(1964) 9483:(1964) 9467:(1955) 9428:(1950) 9420:(1950) 9404:(1948) 9396:(1948) 9388:(1944) 9380:(1943) 9372:(1940) 9364:(1927) 9356:(1899) 9348:(1896) 9340:(1886) 9332:(1883) 9288:(2016) 9280:(2015) 9272:(2009) 9264:(2000) 9256:(1997) 9248:(1990) 9240:(1989) 9232:(1989) 9224:(1987) 9216:(1987) 9208:(1985) 9200:(1984) 9192:(1983) 9184:(1982) 9176:(1981) 9168:(1979) 9160:(1979) 9152:(1977) 9144:(1976) 9136:(1975) 9128:(1975) 9120:(1974) 9112:(1974) 9104:(1971) 9096:(1968) 9088:(1967) 9080:(1962) 9072:(1961) 9064:(1958) 9056:(1950) 9048:(1932) 9040:(1927) 9032:(1922) 9024:(1905) 9005:(2011) 8997:(2010) 8989:(2009) 8981:(2009) 8973:(2005) 8965:(2003) 8957:(2002) 8949:(1989) 8941:(1988) 8933:(1982) 8925:(1980) 8917:(1978) 8911:(1978) 8903:(1976) 8895:(1976) 8887:(1975) 8879:(1975) 8873:(1974) 8867:(1969) 8861:(1967) 8855:(1963) 8849:(1961) 8835:under 8825:(2022) 8817:(2020) 8809:(2019) 8801:(2018) 8793:(2016) 8785:(2007) 8777:(2006) 8769:(2000) 8761:(1997) 8753:(1997) 8745:(1996) 8737:(1992) 8729:(1990) 8721:(1990) 8713:(1989) 8705:(1986) 8697:(1983) 8689:(1981) 8681:(1979) 8673:(1979) 8665:(1976) 8657:(1976) 8649:(1973) 8641:(1973) 8633:(1971) 8612:(2022) 8604:(2016) 8596:(2003) 8588:(1992) 8580:(1989) 8572:(1986) 8564:(1973) 8556:(1973) 8548:(1965) 8540:(1925) 8532:(1923) 8511:(1937) 8503:(1931) 8495:(1917) 8487:(1917) 8479:(1915) 8471:(1908) 8463:(1905) 8455:(1898) 8447:(1897) 8439:(1887) 8395:(1999) 8387:(1971) 8379:(1967) 8371:(1958) 8363:(1898) 8355:(1884) 8347:(1875) 8339:(1873) 8063:Legacy 7839:Ahimsa 6468:groups 5929:(1950) 5921:(1950) 5882:Events 5807:C-SPAN 5703: 5697: 5694: 5688: 5685: 5682:Justia 5679: 5676: 5670: 5667: 5661: 5658: 5652: 5632: 5626: 5623: 5620:Justia 5617: 5614: 5608: 5605: 5599: 5596: 5590: 5565:online 5542: 5514:online 5493:, and 5480: 5456: 5421:C-SPAN 5381: 5352: 5333: 5307: 5288: 5138:, 5120:, 4903: 4852: 4721: 4676: 4617: 4567:, 4351: 4321:Plessy 4317:Plessy 4265: 4244: 4207: 4178: 4144: 3879: 3503: 3435: 3262: 3228: 3192: 3070: 2924: 2782:, 2305: 2227:, 2185:Plessy 2140:(1927) 2132:(1967) 2108:(1857) 1807:Nevada 1668:Plessy 1641:, and 1629:, and 1522:Topeka 1507:'s 1488:Harlem 1073:Plessy 1002:Plessy 996:, and 894:, the 871:. The 648:UNESCO 596:states 572:case, 475:Plessy 389:(1908) 382:(1899) 328: 326:· 324: 316: 314:· 312: 304: 302:· 300: 292: 290:· 288: 187:F.R.D. 99:L. Ed. 12536:Lists 12500:Haiti 12470:Ghana 12405:Texas 12341:Omaha 11619:Islam 11152:Names 11142:Music 11080:Dance 10648:Other 10255:Other 9013:Other 8161:Noted 7754:songs 6574:NAACP 6427:riots 5805:from 5783:Brown 5735:Brown 5646: 5584: 5379:JSTOR 5068:"The 5011: 4895:, by 4719:JSTOR 4697:Reply 4674:JSTOR 4652:Brown 4615:JSTOR 4571: 4242:S2CID 3905:(PDF) 3518:2003. 3501:S2CID 3337:Brown 3321:Brown 3309:Brown 2974:(PDF) 2967:(PDF) 2902:Brown 2231: 2181:Brown 2163:Notes 2051:Brown 2025:Brown 2021:Brown 2013:Brown 1918:Brown 1885:Brown 1817:, or 1752:Brown 1702:Brown 1695:Brown 1680:Brown 1676:Brown 1604:Brown 1594:Brown 1504:Brown 1496:Brown 1478:North 1441:Brown 1437:Brown 1418:Brown 1410:Brown 1266:Brown 1230:Brown 1226:Brown 1202:Brown 1172:Brown 1153:Brown 1134:Brown 1121:Brown 1094:Brown 978:Brown 950:Brown 861:Davis 814:Brown 797:negro 733:NAACP 687:India 644:Brown 635:Brown 624:Brown 604:NAACP 570:Brown 558:Brown 542:Brown 516:Brown 479:NAACP 459:black 436:Brown 211: 167: 148: 130:Prior 12432:Utah 12265:Iowa 12097:Ohio 12058:list 11966:Igbo 11956:Fula 11100:Hair 11090:Film 10807:1968 10797:1964 9321:Race 5836:2021 5648:U.S. 5586:U.S. 5540:ISBN 5478:ISBN 5454:ISBN 5350:OCLC 5331:ISBN 5305:ISBN 5286:ISBN 5260:2018 5233:link 5219:2018 5189:2018 5084:2023 5053:2020 5013:U.S. 4964:2023 4933:2017 4901:ISBN 4850:ISBN 4822:2019 4775:link 4761:2022 4631:2019 4573:U.S. 4487:2017 4428:link 4414:2022 4349:ISBN 4263:ISBN 4205:ISBN 4176:ISBN 4142:ISBN 4121:2020 3998:2010 3966:2010 3933:link 3917:2022 3877:ISBN 3856:2019 3826:2017 3796:2022 3766:2014 3740:2014 3710:2018 3674:2023 3644:2023 3613:2015 3546:2023 3470:2023 3433:ISBN 3260:ISBN 3226:ISBN 3190:ISBN 3135:2015 3105:2020 3068:ISBN 3041:2010 2986:See 2922:ISBN 2886:2023 2855:2022 2823:2022 2723:link 2709:2022 2677:2023 2647:2010 2615:2023 2584:2017 2554:2018 2498:2023 2415:2020 2385:2020 2355:2023 2303:ISBN 2278:2023 2233:U.S. 1803:Ohio 1028:and 1016:and 629:The 234:1212 224:F.2d 213:U.S. 198:F.2d 194:1290 169:U.S. 150:U.S. 109:1180 92:more 84:U.S. 82:347 11065:Art 10922:New 9827:Sex 5830:(1) 5809:'s 5644:349 5582:347 5371:doi 5016:294 5009:349 4711:doi 4666:doi 4607:doi 4569:515 4529:Id. 4234:doi 3584:Id. 3493:doi 3186:291 2236:483 2229:347 1995:in 1966:". 1853:to 1424:In 1372:'s 1337:In 1312:'s 856:). 836:), 826:), 664:'s 633:in 416:in 227:585 216:978 209:503 201:851 183:468 172:294 165:349 146:344 138:797 87:483 12724:: 10936:/ 5828:29 5826:. 5822:. 5642:, 5580:, 5530:. 5497:. 5419:, 5377:. 5367:16 5365:. 5229:}} 5225:{{ 5205:. 5043:. 5041:29 5035:. 5007:, 4984:. 4954:. 4950:. 4919:. 4810:91 4808:. 4804:. 4800:. 4783:^ 4771:}} 4767:{{ 4749:. 4717:. 4707:81 4705:. 4672:. 4662:81 4660:. 4650:: 4621:. 4613:. 4603:81 4601:. 4595:. 4535:, 4531:, 4505:, 4489:. 4477:. 4471:. 4424:}} 4420:{{ 4402:. 4357:. 4303:. 4240:. 4230:41 4228:. 4193:^ 4184:. 4150:. 4094:, 4086:" 4062:. 4038:. 4014:. 3982:. 3950:. 3929:}} 3925:{{ 3907:. 3846:. 3842:. 3812:. 3786:. 3782:. 3726:. 3700:. 3696:. 3682:^ 3660:. 3630:. 3603:. 3561:, 3532:. 3499:. 3489:44 3487:. 3456:. 3427:. 3400:^ 3381:^ 3274:^ 3254:. 3224:. 3188:. 3155:. 3125:. 3121:. 3095:. 3091:. 3062:. 3025:. 3004:^ 2955:^ 2894:^ 2872:. 2845:. 2839:. 2813:. 2807:. 2757:. 2719:}} 2715:{{ 2697:. 2663:. 2631:. 2601:. 2570:. 2538:. 2515:. 2488:. 2484:. 2431:. 2405:. 2401:. 2375:. 2371:. 2345:. 2341:. 2317:^ 2264:. 1813:, 1809:, 1805:, 1637:, 1625:, 1474:. 1349:, 1188:. 1004:. 992:, 988:, 743:. 626:. 10707:e 10700:t 10693:v 8302:e 8295:t 8288:v 8031:" 8027:" 6372:" 6368:" 6212:" 6208:" 6030:" 6026:" 5888:) 5884:( 5866:e 5859:t 5852:v 5838:. 5803:" 5548:. 5501:( 5486:. 5462:. 5435:( 5385:. 5373:: 5356:. 5339:. 5313:. 5294:. 5262:. 5235:) 5221:. 5191:. 5086:. 5055:. 4966:. 4935:. 4824:. 4777:) 4763:. 4725:. 4713:: 4680:. 4668:: 4633:. 4609:: 4430:) 4416:. 4248:. 4236:: 4123:. 4000:. 3968:. 3935:) 3919:. 3885:. 3858:. 3828:. 3798:. 3768:. 3742:. 3712:. 3676:. 3646:. 3615:. 3548:. 3507:. 3495:: 3472:. 3441:. 3268:. 3234:. 3198:. 3137:. 3107:. 3076:. 3043:. 2930:. 2888:. 2857:. 2825:. 2725:) 2711:. 2679:. 2649:. 2617:. 2586:. 2556:. 2500:. 2417:. 2387:. 2357:. 2311:. 2280:. 203:( 153:1 140:( 95:) 89:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.