506:
represents traditional couplings. The women are “playful”, “chaste”, “gentle” and “blooming”. When the ratio is 1:2-4, the female becomes a “helpmate” or “associate” to the males, who have separate bonds to their “brothers”. Once he reaches 1:5-6, however, Darwin presents women as “seductive or wanton” or, at the other extreme, “needing protection”. By 1:8+, he presents “unambiguous metaphors of power and command, being pictured as a saint, a reigning sovereign, a sorceress, a proto-industrialist . . . a priestess”. The images also present a largely positive view of the relationship between the sexes; there is no rape or sexual violence of any kind, elements central to much of Ovid and
Linnaeus. There is also no representation of the marriage market, divorce or adultery (with one exception); the poem is largely
116:
603:
383:. Darwin's personifications were often based on the classical allusions embedded with Linnaeus's own naming system. However, they were not meant to conjure up images of gods or heroes; rather, the anthropomorphized images of the plants depict more ordinary images. They also stimulate the readers' imaginations to assist them in learning the material and allow Darwin to argue that the plants he is discussing are animate, living things—just like humans. Darwin's use of personification suggests that plants are more akin to humans than the reader might at first assume; his emphasis on the continuities between mankind and plantkind contributes to the evolutionary theme that runs throughout the poem.
199:. Linnaeus had proposed that, like humans, plants are male and female and reproduce sexually; he also described his system using highly sexualized language. Therefore, as scholar Janet Browne writes, “to be a Linnaean taxonomist was to believe in the sex life of flowers.” In his poem, Darwin not only embraced Linnaeus's classification scheme but also his metaphors. At the same time that he was defending Linnaeus's system, however, Darwin was also refining it. Linnaeus classified plants solely on the number of reproductive organs they had, but Darwin's poem also emphasized “proportion, length, and arrangement of the organs”.
208:
420:
510:. There are also no representations of intelligent women or women writers, although Darwin knew quite a few. The exception is the “Botanic Muse”, who has the botanical knowledge that the poem imparts; however, as Browne argues, few readers in the eighteenth century would have seen this as a liberating image for women since they would have been skeptical that a woman could have written the poem and inhabited the voice of the muse (they would have assumed that the anonymous writer was a man).
29:
552:, forecasting that the British Empire will have giant steam-powered airships ("The flying-chariot through the fields of air. Fair crews triumphant, leaning from above") and far-ranging submarines ("Britain's sons shall guide | Huge sea-balloons beneath the tossing tide; The diving castles, roof'd with spheric glass, Ribb'd with strong oak, and barr'd with bolts of brass, Buoy'd with pure air shall endless tracks pursue").
1579:
107:, which contends that scientific progress is part of evolution and urges its readers to celebrate inventors and scientific discoveries in a language usually reserved for heroes or artistic geniuses. Darwin's attempt to popularize science and to convey the wonders of scientific discovery and technological innovation through poetry helped initiate a tradition of popular science writing that continues to the present day.
851:
337:. A preface to the poem outlines the basics of the Linnaean classification system. Guiding the reader through the garden is a “Botanic Muse” who is described as Linnaeus's inspiration. Interspersed between the cantos are dialogues on poetic theory between the poet and his bookseller. The poem is not a narrative; instead, reminiscent of the
148:
believed that women readers should be protected from any mention of sexuality. In his preface he writes: "from an apprehension that botany in an
English dress would become a favourite amusement with the ladies, . . . it was thought proper to drop the sexual distinctions in the titles to the Classes and Orders."
502:, however, while opening up the world of botany to the non-specialist and to women in particular, reinforced conventional gender stereotypes. Darwin's images “remained deeply polarized between the chaste, blushing virgin and the seductive predatory woman, the modest shepherdess and the powerful queen.”
309:
size, and this was another best-seller. There were three early Irish editions, and a second
American edition had appeared by 1807. Despite the huge demand in 1799 and into the early 1800s, and cheaper pirated American and Irish imports, there was room in the market for another edition in Britain 1824
466:
that sexual reproduction was at the heart of evolutionary change and progress, in humans as well as plants. Browne writes that the poem may be seen as "an early study in what was to be Darwin's lifelong commitment to the idea of transmutation.” Darwin illustrated not only organic change, but social
293:
for it, a hefty price at the time. Seward wrote that "the immense price which the bookseller gave for this work, was doubtless owing to considerations which inspired his trust in its popularity. Botany was, at that time, and still continues a very fashionable study." However, the high price would
505:
Although Darwin gives plant-women the central role in each vignette (a reversal of
Linnaeus's classification scheme, which focuses on the male), few of the representations stray from stereotypical images of women. When the female and male reproductive organs are in a 1:1 ratio in a plant, Darwin
147:
One of the effects of
Withering's book was that it provoked a debate over the translation of Linnaeus's works. Withering aimed for an Anglicized translation of Linnaeus's Latin that also stripped the nomenclature of its sexualized language. Although he wanted to make botany widely available, he
1582:
745:
Interest in
Erasmus Darwin has increased in the late-twentieth and early-twenty-first centuries, and the first scholarly edition, with a critical introduction and scholarly apparatus, was produced by Adam Komisaruk and Allison Dushane, in 2017 and published with Routledge.
154:
held the opposite position; he maintained that
Linnaeus's works should be translated as literally as possible and that the sexual references in the nomenclature should be retained. In 1783 and 1787, A Botanical Society, at Lichfield - almost always incorrectly called the
238:.) According to Seward, Darwin said that “the Linnean System is unexplored poetic ground, and an happy subject for the muse. It affords fine scope for poetic landscape; it suggests metamorphoses of the Ovidian kind, though reversed.” Darwin may have also thought of
737:
from 1799, the critic noted, "It is not by pomp of words, but by energy of thought, that sublimity is most successfully achieved; and we infinitely prefer the simplicity, even of the most unadorned tale in this volume, to all the meretricious frippery of the
294:
also have discouraged government prosecution for a book that contained radical political views. Any subversive ideas that the poem contained were therefore initially limited to an audience of educated people who could afford to purchase the book.
144:(1776), which used Linnaeus's system for classifying plants. Withering's book went through multiple editions and became the standard text on British plants for a generation. The book delighted and intrigued experts, amateurs, and children alike.
555:
Although the two poems seem separated, they both endorse an evolutionary view of the world. Darwin did not see a distinction between nature and culture; industrialization and technological progress were part of a single evolutionary process.
513:
Despite its traditional gender associations, some scholars have argued that the poem provides “both a language and models for critiquing sexual mores and social institutions” and encourages women to engage in scientific pursuits.
242:“as a kind of love song” to Elizabeth Pole, a woman with whom he was in love and would eventually marry. Concerned about his scientific reputation and curious to see if there would be an audience for his more demanding poem
352:
ideals, he wanted not only to participate in scientific discovery but also to disseminate its new knowledge in an accessible format. As Darwin scholar
Michael Page has written, “Darwin sought to do for Linnaeus . . . what
94:
interesting and relevant to the readers of his time. Darwin emphasizes the connections between humanity and plants, arguing that they are all part of the same natural world and that sexual reproduction is at the heart of
598:
Darwin also connected scientific progress to political progress; “for Darwin the spread of revolution meant that reason and equity vanquished political tyranny and religious superstition.” Criticizing slavery, he writes:
683:, who were opposed to the French revolution, denounced the sexual freedom gaining ground in France and linked it to the scientific projects of men like Darwin. George Canning and John Frere published a parody of
407:. In describing plants through the language of love and sex, Darwin hoped to convey the idea that humans and human sexuality are simply another part of the natural world. Darwin writes that his poem will reverse
230:
poem “Verses
Written in Dr. Darwin's Botanic Garden” (1778), Darwin decided to compose a poem that would embody Linnaeus's ideas. (Darwin would later include an edited version of Seward's poem in
379:, the voice of the Poet, which would seem to be Darwin's voice as well, argues that poetry is meant to appeal to the senses, particularly vision. Darwin's primary tool for accomplishing this was
411:
who “did, by art poetic, transmute Men, Women, and even Gods and
Goddesses, into trees and Flowers; I have undertaken, by similar art, to restore some of them to their original animality”
86:, one of the first popular science books, is to pique readers' interest in science while educating them at the same time. By embracing Linnaeus's sexualized language, which
675:
in 1798, Darwin was considered one of England's preeminent poets. His poems, with their “dynamic vision of change and transformation”, resonated with the ideals of the
679:. However, when the revolution entered its more radical and bloody phase, scientific progress became associated with what many started to see as a failed revolution.
183:
into the English language, for example. By 1796 their translation had prevailed and Withering was forced to adopt their vocabulary in later editions of his work.
234:
without her permission and without acknowledgement. Seward was rankled by this treatment and complained of Darwin's inattention to her authorial rights in her
487:
suggests that social and scientific progress are part of a single evolutionary process. Humanity was improving, moving towards perfection, as evidenced by
548:, responsible for this progress as the heroes of a new age; he “mythologizes” them. The poem at some points goes further, into what would now be called
700:
Darwin's poems were not published during the first two decades of the nineteenth century as conservative reaction solidified in Britain, although
462:(1800), Darwin wrote “from the sexual, or amatorial generation of plants new varieties, or improvements, are frequently obtained”. He insisted in
937:
Teute, Fredrika J (2000). "The Loves of the Plants; or, the Cross-Fertilization of Science and Desire at the End of the Eighteenth Century".
341:
tradition, it consists of discrete descriptions of eighty-three separate species which are accompanied by extensive explanatory footnotes.
64:
celebrates technological innovation and scientific discovery and offers theories concerning contemporary scientific questions, such as the
528:
celebrates the natural world and advances several scientific hypotheses regarding the formation of the cosmos, the moon and the earth,
708:
poems imitating Darwin's became increasingly popular. The analogy between plants and humans lasted well into the nineteenth century;
159:, founded by Darwin and several of his friends specifically to translate Linnaeus's works, issued their own English translation,
1625:
563:
deals with mining and the use of minerals. For example, Darwin describes the great mining capability of the steam engine:
721:
impressed a young Wordsworth, who called it “dazzling", but Coleridge quipped, "I absolutely nauseate Darwin's poem",
1510:
1495:
1480:
1457:
1442:
1407:
1392:
920:
861:
20:
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was reissued repeatedly in Britain, Ireland and the United States throughout the 1790s. Until the publication of
767:
871:
Packham, Catherine (2004). "The Science and Poetry of Animation: Personification, Analogy, and Erasmus Darwin's
602:
156:
115:
191:
The reliability and usefulness of the Linnaean system was a subject of much debate when Darwin was composing
896:
Page, Michael (2005). "The Darwin Before Darwin: Erasmus Darwin, Visionary Science, and Romantic Poetry".
1610:
389:
argues that human emotion is rooted in physiology rather than Christian theology. Darwin would take his
1486:
Schiebinger, Londa. "The Private Life of Plants: Sexual Politics in Carl Linnaeus and Erasmus Darwin."
271:
1620:
762:
195:, leading scholars to conclude that one of his intentions in publishing the poem was to defend the
103:, would later turn into a full-fledged theory of evolution). This evolutionary theme continues in
667:
912:
Cultivating women, cultivating science : Flora's daughters and botany in England, 1760-1860
297:
Because amateur botany was popular in Britain during the second half of the eighteenth century,
1605:
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756:
123:
87:
65:
1553:
584:
399:
349:
821:
Coffey, Donna (2002). "Protecting the Botanic Garden: Seward, Darwin, and Coalbrookdale".
134:
8:
1615:
710:
689:
472:
301:, despite its initial high cost, was a bestseller. In 1799 it was in a fourth edition as
1468:
1372:
954:
838:
809:
801:
663:
606:
Medallion of the British Anti-Slavery Society, designed by Darwin's friend and fellow
167:, they coined over fifty new botanical words; it is this work, along with the group's
1572:
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1476:
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1403:
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962:
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857:
842:
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676:
545:
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196:
138:
76:
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celebrates scientific progress and technological innovation, such as the forging of
1560:
1364:
974:
946:
884:
830:
813:
793:
722:
348:, Darwin claims "to Inlist Imagination under the banner of Science". A believer in
223:
1565:
731:, however, did critique Darwin's style; in a review of Wordsworth and Coleridge's
910:
733:
671:
611:
549:
507:
380:
1527:
1355:
Bewell, Alan (1989). "'Jacobin Plants': Botany as Social Theory in the 1790s".
983:
727:
718:
705:
694:
354:
334:
279:
267:
251:
164:
151:
119:
100:
57:
888:
330:
142:
Botanical Arrangement of all the Vegetables Naturally Growing in Great Britain
1599:
607:
423:
73:
1421:
Logan, James Venable (1936). "The Poetry and Aesthetics of Erasmus Darwin".
966:
834:
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537:
488:
363:
358:
216:
207:
28:
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701:
592:
390:
227:
1368:
419:
958:
338:
130:
54:
1463:
McNeil, Maureen. "The Scientific Muse: The Poetry of Erasmus Darwin."
805:
591:, with its focus on an integrated natural world, is more of an early
541:
428:
404:
290:
133:
became increasingly popular in Britain because of the translation of
96:
950:
782:"Botany for Gentlemen: Erasmus Darwin and "The Loves of the Plants""
697:
titled “Loves of the Triangles”, suggesting just these connections.
649:
Their innocent cries!--Earth! cover not their blood! (I.ii.414-430)
1588:
797:
1488:
Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780–1945
853:
The Botanic Garden (1792), ed. Adam Komisaruk and Allison Dushane
480:
179:
173:
137:
into English. One of the most prominent books about botany was
91:
1465:
Languages of Nature: Critical Essays on Science and Literature
447:
Calm all her fears, and charm her cares to rest." (I.151-156)
254:). He was stunned at its success and therefore published both
533:
1385:
Doctor of Revolution: The Life and Genius of Erasmus Darwin
408:
1435:
The Poetics of Sensibility: A Revolution in Literary Style
1128:
Browne, pp. 604—606; 616; Page, p. 149; Shteir, pp. 22—28.
1450:
Under the Banner of Science: Erasmus Darwin and His Age
1155:
Quoted in Teute, p. 325; Browne, p. 614; Teute, p. 323.
1503:
Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science
274:, his publisher, eventually bought the copyright for
285:
When Johnson published the combined and illustrated
621:
Sail'd to the West, and slaughter'd half the globe:
434:"When heaven's high vault condensing clouds deform,
641:Spreads his wide arms, and lifts his eyes to Thee;
1452:. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987.
643:With hunger pale, with wounds and toil oppress'd,
625:Mock'd the loud groan, and lap'd the bloody tide;
574:Drags her dark Coals, and digs her shining ores.
163:, that categorized over 1400 plants. Assisted by
1597:
1490:. Ed. Marina Benjamin. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.
627:For sacred truths announced her frenzied dreams,
1146:Browne, pp. 606—607; 615; Packham, pp. 197—198.
714:was one of the many books to employ the image.
570:Lifts with strong arm her dark reluctant waves;
544:. It depicts scientists and inventors, such as
483:. His celebration of technological progress in
1200:Browne, p. 618; Shteir, p. 27; Coffey, p. 149.
645:'Are we not Brethren?' sorrow choaks the rest;
629:And turn'd to night the sun's meridian beams.—
440:And turns her blushing beauties from the gale.
915:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
568:The Giant-Power forms earth's remotest caves
320:
717:Darwin's high poetic style in the manner of
639:—The Slave, in chains, on supplicating knee,
637:And Theft and Murder take the garb of Trade!
635:Now Afric's coasts thy craftier sons invade,
572:Each cavern'd rock, and hidden den explores,
517:
438:Seeks with unsteady step the shelter'd vale,
1417:. Chatham: Evans, Adams & Mackay, 1968.
633:On whom fair Art, and meek Religion smiles,
1218:Browne, pp. 607; 611; 617; Coffey, p. 149.
779:
631:Hear, Oh Britannia! potent Queen of isles,
619:When Avarice, shrouded in Religion's robe,
445:rival youths, with soft concern impress'd,
313:
202:
1437:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
647:—Air! bear to heaven upon thy azure flood
623:While Superstition, stalking by his side,
467:and political change as well. Throughout
436:Fair Amaryllis flies the incumbent storm,
1003:
1001:
973:
601:
491:and the broadening of political rights.
418:
325:Suggesting the passing of a single day,
206:
114:
110:
27:
1526:
1245:Coffey, pp. 142; 145—147; Page, p. 163.
1025:Shteir, pp. 18—28; Browne, pp. 600—602.
979:Lyrical Ballads, with a few other Poems
870:
654:
303:The Botanic Garden; A Poem in Two Parts
1598:
1354:
1079:Browne, p. 608; Shteir, p. 242, n. 25.
908:
849:
820:
1420:
1400:Erasmus Darwin and the Romantic Poets
1351:(16 April, 23 April, and 7 May 1798).
1347:Anonymous. "Loves of the Triangles."
998:
936:
222:Inspired by his enjoyment of his own
1117:Joseph Johnson, publisher, 1738-1809
895:
471:, Darwin endorses the ideals of the
1523:. Philadelphia: Wm. Poyntell, 1804.
1299:Teute, pp. 337—338; Coffey, p. 162.
278:from him for the staggering sum of
13:
1341:
725:, in the (staunchly conservative)
370:
186:
72:promotes, revises and illustrates
14:
1637:
1547:
1521:Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin
1415:Art and the Industrial Revolution
1387:. London: Faber and Faber, 1977.
1349:Anti-Jacobin; or, Weekly Examiner
1106:Shteir, pp. 18—28; Teute, p. 330.
1052:Browne, pp. 599—601; Coffey, 143.
898:Papers on Language and Literature
305:at a smaller and more affordable
21:Botanical garden (disambiguation)
1577:
1164:Quoted in Browne, p. 603, n. 35.
939:The Huntington Library Quarterly
90:plants, Darwin intended to make
1329:
1320:
1311:
1302:
1293:
1284:
1275:
1266:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1230:
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1194:
1185:
1176:
1167:
1158:
1149:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1109:
1100:
1091:
1088:Coffey, p. 144; Browne, p. 595.
1082:
768:History of evolutionary thought
361:and celestial mechanics in the
289:in 1791, he charged twenty-one
16:1791 poem set by Erasmus Darwin
1530:(1814). "Review of Chalmers's
1505:. Boston: Beacon Press, 1993.
1073:
1064:
1055:
1046:
1037:
1028:
1019:
1010:
773:
579:As such examples demonstrate,
403:, works that have been called
197:Linnaean classification scheme
157:Botanical Society of Lichfield
45:(1791) is a set of two poems,
1:
1173:Browne, p. 603; Page, p. 151.
1626:Works subject to expurgation
1423:Princeton Studies in English
453:
375:In one of the interludes of
7:
1587:public domain audiobook at
1402:. London: Macmillan, 1986.
977:(October 1798). "Review of
749:
587:paradigm of progress while
310:with a reprinting in 1825.
10:
1642:
321:Structure and poetic style
171:that introduced the words
99:(ideas that his grandson,
53:, by the British poet and
18:
1326:Quoted in Browne, p. 604.
1290:Page, p. 151; Teute, 332.
1070:Quoted in Browne, p. 601.
1043:Browne, pp. 594; 596—602.
889:10.3366/rom.2004.10.2.191
668:Samuel Taylor Coleridge's
581:The Economy of Vegetation
561:The Economy of Vegetation
530:The Economy of Vegetation
519:The Economy of Vegetation
494:
485:The Economy of Vegetation
414:
395:The Economy of Vegetation
250:anonymously in 1789 (see
244:The Economy of Vegetation
236:Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin
105:The Economy of Vegetation
62:The Economy of Vegetation
47:The Economy of Vegetation
1097:Quoted in Shteir, p. 26.
1016:Quoted in Shteir, p. 23.
992:
850:Darwin, Erasmus (2017).
763:Transmutation of species
540:and the improvements to
129:In the 1760s and 1770s,
1413:Kilngender, Francis D.
909:Shteir, Ann B. (1996).
685:The Loves of the Plants
589:The Loves of the Plants
536:, the invention of the
526:The Loves of the Plants
464:The Loves of the Plants
387:The Loves of the Plants
377:The Loves of the Plants
346:The Loves of the Plants
327:The Loves of the Plants
315:The Loves of the Plants
248:The Loves of the Plants
232:The Loves of the Plants
203:Writing and publication
193:The Loves of the Plants
51:The Loves of the Plants
1473:Free Association Books
1263:Quoted in Coffey, 160.
835:10.1080/00497870212956
652:
614:
577:
500:The Love of the Plants
450:
240:The Love of the Plants
219:
169:The Families of Plants
161:A System of Vegetables
126:
124:Joseph Wright of Derby
37:
856:. London: Routledge.
616:
605:
565:
422:
329:is divided into four
260:Economy of Vegetation
210:
118:
111:Historical background
77:classification scheme
66:history of the cosmos
31:
1501:Schiebinger, Londa.
1398:King-Hele, Desmond.
1383:King-Hele, Desmond.
1209:Browne, pp. 611—612.
655:Reception and legacy
400:The Temple of Nature
211:The frontispiece to
19:For other uses, see
1369:10.1086/twc24042381
873:Loves of the Plants
780:Browne, J. (1989).
757:The Unsex'd Females
711:Alice in Wonderland
690:Anti-Jacobin Review
473:American Revolution
256:Loves of the Plants
139:William Withering's
70:Loves of the Plants
68:. The more popular
1611:18th-century books
1584:The Botanic Garden
1568:The Botanic Garden
1556:The Botanic Garden
1007:Shteir, pp. 18—28.
664:William Wordsworth
660:The Botanic Garden
615:
477:French Revolutions
469:The Botanic Garden
451:
299:The Botanic Garden
287:The Botanic Garden
276:The Botanic Garden
264:The Botanic Garden
220:
213:The Botanic Garden
127:
84:The Botanic Garden
42:The Botanic Garden
38:
34:The Botanic Garden
1573:Project Gutenberg
1448:McNeil, Maureen.
1357:Wordsworth Circle
1335:Wrangham, p. 364.
975:Wrangham, Francis
677:French Revolution
546:Benjamin Franklin
333:, all written in
226:but primarily by
88:anthropomorphizes
1633:
1581:
1580:
1561:Internet Archive
1543:
1536:Quarterly Review
1433:McGann, Jerome.
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933:
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892:
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817:
723:Francis Wrangham
393:even further in
224:botanical garden
135:Linnaeus's works
32:Title page from
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1640:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1621:1791 in science
1596:
1595:
1578:
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1528:Southey, Robert
1469:L. J. Jordanova
1344:
1342:Further reading
1339:
1334:
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1325:
1321:
1317:Browne, p. 620.
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1298:
1294:
1289:
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1276:
1272:Coffey, p. 146.
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1254:Coffey, p. 159.
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1217:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:Coffey, p. 162.
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1186:
1182:Browne, p. 604.
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1177:
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1168:
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1159:
1154:
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1132:
1127:
1123:
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774:Works cited
702:bowdlerized
391:materialism
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1600:Categories
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460:Phytologia
339:picaresque
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542:gunpowder
454:Evolution
429:Amaryllis
405:atheistic
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1542:: 60–90.
1475:, 1986.
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359:Newton
331:cantos
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180:pistil
174:stamen
152:Darwin
131:botany
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1373:S2CID
993:Notes
955:JSTOR
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810:S2CID
802:JSTOR
534:steel
282:800.
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1492:ISBN
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