Polyploidy - Knowledge

321: 38: 1385: 715:. This trait is often used as a diagnostic criterion to distinguish autopolyploids from allopolyploids, which commonly display disomic inheritance after they progress past the neopolyploid stage. While most polyploid species are unambiguously characterized as either autopolyploid or allopolyploid, these categories represent the ends of a spectrum of divergence between parental subgenomes. Polyploids that fall between these two extremes, which are often referred to as segmental allopolyploids, may display intermediate levels of polysomic inheritance that vary by locus. 298:. Each of these species experienced independent autopolyploidy events (within-species polyploidy, described below), which then enabled subsequent interspecies gene flow of adaptive alleles, in this case stabilising each young polyploid lineage. Such polyploidy-enabled adaptive introgression may allow polyploids at act as 'allelic sponges', whereby they accumulate cryptic genomic variation that may be recruited upon encountering later environmental challenges. 8874: 2039: 987: 8898: 1597: 8910: 8886: 1133:, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are highly variable between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization despite being constructed out of the same macromolecules. In some cases, there is even significant variation within species. This variation provides the basis for a range of studies in what might be called evolutionary cytology. 772:

meiotic pairing by providing each homoeologous chromosome with its own homologue. If divergence between homoeologous chromosomes is even across the two subgenomes, this can theoretically result in rapid restoration of bivalent pairing and disomic inheritance following allopolyploidization. However

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gametes. Natural or artificial selection for fertility can quickly stabilize meiosis in autopolyploids by restoring bivalent pairing during meiosis. Rapid adaptive evolution of the meiotic machinery, resulting in reduced levels of multivalents (and therefore stable autopolyploid meiosis) has been

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is quite commonly observed in human preimplantation embryos and includes haploid/diploid as well as diploid/tetraploid mixed cell populations. It is unknown whether these embryos fail to implant and are therefore rarely detected in ongoing pregnancies or if there is simply a selective process

1354:(1956) using a cold-shock treatment of the eggs close to the time of fertilization, which produced triploid embryos that successfully matured. Cold or heat shock has also been shown to result in unreduced amphibian gametes, though this occurs more commonly in eggs than in sperm. 289:

On the other hand, polyploidization can also be a mechanism for a kind of 'reverse speciation', whereby gene flow is enabled following the polyploidy event, even between lineages that previously experienced no gene flow as diploids. This has been detailed at the genomic level in

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and eco-niche exploitation. The mechanisms leading to novel variation in newly formed allopolyploids may include gene dosage effects (resulting from more numerous copies of genome content), the reunion of divergent gene regulatory hierarchies, chromosomal rearrangements, and

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That has become polyploid in more recent history; it is not as new as a neopolyploid and not as old as a paleopolyploid. It is a middle aged polyploid. Often this refers to whole genome duplication followed by intermediate levels of diploidization.

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and a triploid cell population present. There has been one report of a child surviving to the age of seven months with complete triploidy syndrome. He failed to exhibit normal mental or physical neonatal development, and died from a

76:, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each of two parents; each set contains the same number of chromosomes, and the chromosomes are joined in pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, some organisms are 6713:

Minato T, Yoshida S, Ishiguro T, Shimada E, Mizutani S, Kobayashi O, Yoshimoto H (March 2009). "Expression profiling of the bottom fermenting yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus orthologous genes using oligonucleotide microarrays".

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As for plants and animals, fungal hybrids and polyploids display structural and functional modifications compared to their progenitors and diploid counterparts. In particular, the structural and functional outcomes of polyploid

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In some situations, polyploid crops are preferred because they are sterile. For example, many seedless fruit varieties are seedless as a result of polyploidy. Such crops are propagated using asexual techniques, such as

905:(from the Greek words meaning "not", "good", and "fold"). Aneuploidy refers to a numerical change in part of the chromosome set, whereas polyploidy refers to a numerical change in the whole set of chromosomes. 150:, either during mitosis, or more commonly from the failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or from the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. In addition, it can be induced in plants and 1020:

and gene translations gradually make one copy of each chromosome unlike the other copy. Over time, it is also common for duplicated copies of genes to accumulate mutations and become inactive pseudogenes.

1749:). It combines sought-after characteristics of the parents, but the initial hybrids are sterile. After polyploidization, the hybrid becomes fertile and can thus be further propagated to become triticale. 748:. In the former case, unreduced gametes from each diploid taxon – or reduced gametes from two autotetraploid taxa – combine to form allopolyploid offspring. In the latter case, one or more diploid 2204:

double-strand breaks. Although chromosomes are shattered into many fragments, complete chromosomes can be regenerated by making use of overlapping fragments. The mechanism employs single-stranded

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Devier B, Aguileta G, Hood ME, Giraud T (2009). "Using phylogenies of pheromone receptor genes in the Microbotryum violaceum species complex to investigate possible speciation by hybridization".

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effects, either in terms of fitness in natural contexts or desirable traits in agricultural contexts. This could partially explain the prevalence of allopolyploidy among crop species. Both bread

6067:"Diploid/polyploid syntenic shuttle mapping and haplotype-specific chromosome walking toward a rust resistance gene (Bru1) in highly polyploid sugarcane (2n approximately 12x approximately 115)" 1376:

showed how mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent, extending the possibilities to non-stem cells. Gurdon and Yamanaka were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 for this work.

7253: 1481:(the extra haploid set is from the father). Diandry is mostly caused by reduplication of the paternal haploid set from a single sperm, but may also be the consequence of dispermic (two sperm) 3706:

Marburger, Sarah; Monnahan, Patrick; Seear, Paul J.; Martin, Simon H.; Koch, Jordan; Paajanen, Pirita; Bohutínská, Magdalena; Higgins, James D.; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (2019-11-18).

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Marburger, Sarah; Monnahan, Patrick; Seear, Paul J.; Martin, Simon H.; Koch, Jordan; Paajanen, Pirita; Bohutínská, Magdalena; Higgins, James D.; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (2019-11-18).

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Marburger, Sarah; Monnahan, Patrick; Seear, Paul J.; Martin, Simon H.; Koch, Jordan; Paajanen, Pirita; Bohutínská, Magdalena; Higgins, James D.; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi (2019-11-18).

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remodeling, all of which affect gene content and/or expression levels. Many of these rapid changes may contribute to reproductive isolation and speciation. However, seed generated from

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Complete tetraploidy is more rarely diagnosed than triploidy, but is observed in 1–2% of early miscarriages. However, some tetraploid cells are commonly found in chromosome analysis at

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This image shows haploid (single), diploid (double), triploid (triple), and tetraploid (quadruple) sets of chromosomes. Triploid and tetraploid chromosomes are examples of polyploidy.

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division, which results in the production of polyploid cells. This process can be useful in plant breeding, especially when attempting to introgress germplasm across ploidal levels.

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species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern

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can contain up to 80 chromosome copies per cell. However this is only observed in fast growing cultures, whereas cultures grown in synthetic minimal media are not polyploid.

1501:, while digyny predominates among triploid zygotes that survive into the fetal period. However, among early miscarriages, digyny is also more common in those cases less than 952:

A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. The more general term for such organisms is

8785: 8585: 629:), but in some cases they may produce high proportions of unreduced gametes and thus aid the formation of tetraploids. This pathway to tetraploidy is referred to as the 760:

hybrids between taxa often have relatively high rates of unreduced gamete formation – divergence between the genomes of the two taxa result in abnormal pairing between

6344:"Insights into the Dekkera bruxellensis genomic landscape: comparative genomics reveals variations in ploidy and nutrient utilisation potential amongst wine isolates" 1623:

Polyploidy is frequent in plants, some estimates suggesting that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (

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multivalent pairing is common in many recently formed allopolyploids, so it is likely that the majority of meiotic stabilization occurs gradually through selection.

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produce unreduced gametes that fuse to form allopolyploid progeny. Hybridization followed by genome duplication may be a more common path to allopolyploidy because F

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Seear, Paul J.; France, Martin G.; Gregory, Catherine L.; Heavens, Darren; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi; Higgins, James D. (2020-07-15). Grelon, Mathilde (ed.).

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Zahradka K, Slade D, Bailone A, Sommer S, Averbeck D, Petranovic M, et al. (October 2006). "Reassembly of shattered chromosomes in Deinococcus radiodurans".

8832: 8532: 1301:) has been reported as an exception to this 'rule'. However, careful analysis using chromosome paints shows that there are only two copies of each chromosome in 1241:

contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes (dodecaploid). Polyploid lizards are also quite common. Most are sterile and reproduce by

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Manimekalai R, Suresh G, Govinda Kurup H, Athiappan S, Kandalam M (September 2020). "Role of NGS and SNP genotyping methods in sugarcane improvement programs".

1642:) gametes. Both autopolyploids (e.g. potato) and allopolyploids (such as canola, wheat and cotton) can be found among both wild and domesticated plant species. 8837: 7722: 8822: 7700:, Schemske DW, Hancock JF, Thompson JN, Husband BC, Judd WS (2007). "Autopolyploidy in Angiosperms: Have We Grossly Underestimated the Number of Species?". 4747: 8827: 6652:

Scannell DR, Byrne KP, Gordon JL, Wong S, Wolfe KH (March 2006). "Multiple rounds of speciation associated with reciprocal gene loss in polyploid yeasts".

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Ancient genome duplications probably occurred in the evolutionary history of all life. Duplication events that occurred long ago in the history of various

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Osborn TC, Pires JC, Birchler JA, Auger DL, Chen ZJ, Lee HS, et al. (March 2003). "Understanding mechanisms of novel gene expression in polyploids".

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Bogart JP, Bi K, Fu J, Noble DW, Niedzwiecki J (February 2007). "Unisexual salamanders (genus Ambystoma) present a new reproductive mode for eukaryotes".

169:, a high frequency of polyploid cells is found in organs such as the brain, liver, heart, and bone marrow. It also occurs in the somatic cells of other 1658:, such as between polyploids and their parent species, usually have aberrant endosperm development which impairs their viability, thus contributing to 2982:

Aïnouche ML, Fortune PM, Salmon A, Parisod C, Grandbastien MA, Fukunaga K, et al. (2008). "Hybridization, polyploidy and invasion: Lessons from

2431:"Analysis of Three Sugarcane Homo/Homeologous Regions Suggests Independent Polyploidization Events of Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum" 320: 1956:

is dotted by past and recent whole-genome duplication events (see Albertin and Marullo 2012 for review). Several examples of polyploids are known:

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Winkelmann M, Pfitzer P, Schneider W (December 1987). "Significance of polyploidy in megakaryocytes and other cells in health and tumor disease".

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Yant, Levi; Hollister, Jesse D.; Wright, Kevin M.; Arnold, Brian J.; Higgins, James D.; Franklin, F. Chris H.; Bomblies, Kirsten (November 2013).

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is disturbed, these plants are sterile, with all plants having the same genetic constitution: Among them, the exclusively vegetatively propagated

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chromosomes have been described, as well as more punctual genetic modifications such as gene loss. The homoealleles of the allotetraploid yeast

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Schematic phylogeny of the Chromalveolata. Red circles indicate polyploidy, blue squares indicate hybridization. From Albertin and Marullo, 2012

1170:. Both diploid ancestors had two sets of 7 chromosomes, which were similar in terms of size and genes contained on them. Durum wheat contains a 691:(particularly in recently formed autopolyploids, also known as neopolyploids) and an associated decrease in fertility due to the production of 8033: 3029: 1447:, with 69 chromosomes (sometimes called 69, XXX), and tetraploidy with 92 chromosomes (sometimes called 92, XXXX). Triploidy, usually due to 2482:"Speciation by genome duplication: Repeated origins and genomic composition of the recently formed allopolyploid species Mimulus peregrinus" 5986:

Les DH, Philbrick CT (1993). "Studies of hybridization and chromosome number variation in aquatic angiosperms: Evolutionary implications".

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Seear, Paul J.; France, Martin G.; Gregory, Catherine L.; Heavens, Darren; Schmickl, Roswitha; Yant, Levi; Higgins, James D. (2020-07-15).

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Ohno S, Muramoto J, Christian L, Atkin NB (1967). "Diploid-tetraploid relationship among old-world members of the fish family Cyprinidae".

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Polyploid plants can arise spontaneously in nature by several mechanisms, including meiotic or mitotic failures, and fusion of unreduced (2

1235:). Some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians; for example the biomedically important genus 718:

About half of all polyploids are thought to be the result of autopolyploidy, although many factors make this proportion hard to estimate.

7304:"Extremely radiation-resistant mutants of a halophilic archaeon with increased single-stranded DNA-binding protein (RPA) gene expression" 3391:

Cotter D, O'Donovan V, O'Maoiléidigh N, Rogan G, Roche N, Wilkins NP (June 2000). "An evaluation of the use of triploid Atlantic salmon (

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Raes J, Vandepoele K, Simillion C, Saeys Y, Van de Peer Y (2003). "Investigating ancient duplication events in the Arabidopsis genome".

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von Wangenheim KH, Peterson HP (June 2004). "Aberrant endosperm development in interploidy crosses reveals a timer of differentiation".

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have experienced one or more polyploidization events during their evolutionary history (see Albertin and Marullo, 2012 for review). The

8914: 6759:"Adaptive response to DNA-damaging agents in natural Saccharomyces cerevisiae populations from "Evolution Canyon", Mt. Carmel, Israel" 6205:"Evidence for autotetraploidy associated with reproductive isolation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: towards a new domesticated species" 3868:

Le Comber SC, Ainouche ML, Kovarik A, Leitch AR (April 2010). "Making a functional diploid: from polysomic to disomic inheritance".

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The induction of polyploidy is a common technique to overcome the sterility of a hybrid species during plant breeding. For example,

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Most polyploids display novel variation or morphologies relative to their parental species, that may contribute to the processes of

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Chepurnov VA, Mann DG, Vyverman W, Sabbe K, Danielidis DB (2002). "Sexual Reproduction, Mating System, and Protoplast Dynamics of

6818:"Genetic characterization of the natural hybrid species Phytophthora alni as inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses" 2120:

underwent three successive rounds of whole-genome duplication and established itself as a major model for paleopolyploid studies.

1455:; those that do survive to term typically die shortly after birth. In some cases, survival past birth may be extended if there is 8485: 8480: 2934:"The second highest chromosome count among vertebrates is observed in cultured sturgeon and is associated with genome plasticity" 1368:

hailed the work for its potential medical applications and, in describing the results, became one of the first to use the word "

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has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. Males of

2091:, which are non-true fungi members, contain several examples of paleopolyploid and polyploid species, such as within the genus 5003:"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 Awarded for Discovery That Mature Cells Can Be Reprogrammed to Become Pluripotent" 3348:

Varoquaux F, Blanvillain R, Delseny M, Gallois P (June 2000). "Less is better: new approaches for seedless fruit production".

2530: 8522: 8163: 7376: 5151: 4247: 3274:"Gametes with the somatic chromosome number: mechanisms of their formation and role in the evolution of autopolyploid plants" 3087: 2823: 1451:, occurs in about 2–3% of all human pregnancies and ~15% of miscarriages. The vast majority of triploid conceptions end as a 8670: 6025: 1364:(an extension of the work of Briggs and King in 1952) that were able to develop to the tadpole stage. The British scientist 8595: 8565: 8527: 3071: 1485:

of the egg. Digyny is most commonly caused by either failure of one meiotic division during oogenesis leading to a diploid

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and these are generally considered 'harmless'. It is not clear whether these tetraploid cells simply tend to arise during

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from diploid males of related species to trigger egg development but not incorporating the males' DNA into the offspring.

2907: 8285: 7254:"Physiological responses of the halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. strain NRC1 to desiccation and gamma irradiation" 5875:"Co-occurrence of related asexual, but not sexual, lineages suggests that reproductive interference limits coexistence" 2279: 2161:

is highly resistant to such exposures. The mechanism by which the genome is accurately restored involves RecA-mediated

846:) derived from hybridization among the diploid species. A similar relationship exists between three diploid species of 2051:

genomes strikingly reflect the evolutionary fate of plant polyploid ones. Large chromosomal rearrangements leading to

8026: 5742:"Numerous and rapid nonstochastic modifications of gene products in newly synthesized Brassica napus allotetraploids" 4798:"Molecular cytogenetics and allotetraploidy in the red vizcacha rat, Tympanoctomys barrerae (Rodentia, Octodontidae)" 3920: 3522: 2889: 8674: 3959:

Ramsey J, Schemske DW (January 1998). "Pathways, Mechanisms, and Rates of Polyploid Formation in Flowering Plants".

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Because pairing between homoeologous chromosomes is rare in established allopolyploids, they may benefit from fixed

8302: 1662:. Polyploids may also interbreed with diploids and produce polyploid seeds, as observed in the agamic complexes of 146:

Polyploidy is the result of whole-genome duplication during the evolution of species. It may occur due to abnormal

4417:"Little evidence for enhanced phenotypic evolution in early teleosts relative to their living fossil sister group" 2067:

diversification is also observed following polyploidization and/or hybridization in fungi, producing the fuel for

227:(six sets of chromosomes) with the common name of bread wheat. Many agriculturally important plants of the genus 3025:"Phytopharmacological potential of different species of Morus alba and their bioactive phytochemicals: A review" 1347:= 112) offspring that were, by virtue of their doubled chromosomes, reproductively isolated from their parents. 901:

Organisms in which a particular chromosome, or chromosome segment, is under- or over-represented are said to be

248: because polyploids are usually unable to interbreed with their diploid ancestors. An example is the plant 3500:

Dwivedi SL, Upadhyaya HD, Stalker HT, Blair MW, Bertioli DJ, Nielen S, Ortiz R (January 2007). Janick J (ed.).

8148: 1569:. There are, at any rate, very few clinical reports of fetuses/infants diagnosed with tetraploidy mosaicism. 7522:"Genome duplication in the teleost fish Tetraodon nigroviridis reveals the early vertebrate proto-karyotype" 6817: 158:, which can result in chromosome doubling, though its use may have other less obvious consequences as well. 8019: 6168:

Emerson R, Wilson CM (1954). "Interspecific Hybrids and the Cytogenetics and Cytotaxonomy of Euallomyces".

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Phillips N, Kapraun DF, Gómez Garreta A, Ribera Siguan MA, Rull JL, Salvador Soler N, et al. (2011).

3773:"A novel allele of ASY3 is associated with greater meiotic stability in autotetraploid Arabidopsis lyrata" 2933: 2671:"A novel allele of ASY3 is associated with greater meiotic stability in autotetraploid Arabidopsis lyrata" 652:

Rarely, autopolyploids arise from spontaneous, somatic genome doubling, which has been observed in apple (

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Dermen H (May 1951). "Tetraploid and Diploid Adventitious Shoots: From a Giant Sport of McIntosh Apple".

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a community-editable project with information, research, education, and a bibliography about polyploidy.

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Van de Peer Y, Meyer A (2005). "Large-scale gene and ancient genome duplications". In Gregory TR (ed.).

6556:"Reconstruction of the genome origins and evolution of the hybrid lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus" 6393:

Ma LJ, Ibrahim AS, Skory C, Grabherr MG, Burger G, Butler M, et al. (July 2009). Madhani HD (ed.).

881:). Complex patterns of allopolyploid evolution have also been observed in animals, as in the frog genus 8791: 5464:

De Bodt S, Maere S, Van de Peer Y (November 2005). "Genome duplication and the origin of angiosperms".

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Ramsey J (January 1998). "Pathways, Mechanisms, and Rates of Polyploid Formation in Flowering Plants".

3218:"Neutral markers confirm the octoploid origin and reveal spontaneous autopolyploidy in white sturgeon, 120: 17: 4837:

Svartman M, Stone G, Stanyon R (April 2005). "Molecular cytogenetics discards polyploidy in mammals".

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Havelka, Miloš; Bytyutskyy, Dmytro; Symonová, Radka; Ráb, Petr; Flajšhans, Martin (11 February 2016).

8295: 1985: 1655: 5693:"Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms for gene expression and phenotypic variation in plant polyploids" 4522: 2429:

Vilela MM, Del Bem LE, Van Sluys MA, de Setta N, Kitajima JP, Cruz GM, et al. (February 2017).

8745: 8558: 8349: 8133: 7470:"Genomic changes in resynthesized Brassica napus and their effect on gene expression and phenotype" 3830:

Parisod C, Holderegger R, Brochmann C (April 2010). "Evolutionary consequences of autopolyploidy".

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Le Cunff L, Garsmeur O, Raboin LM, Pauquet J, Telismart H, Selvi A, et al. (September 2008).

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Jaillon O, Aury JM, Brunet F, Petit JL, Stange-Thomann N, Mauceli E, et al. (October 2004).

7013:"Multiplicity of genome equivalents in the radiation-resistant bacterium Micrococcus radiodurans" 6395:"Genomic analysis of the basal lineage fungus Rhizopus oryzae reveals a whole-genome duplication" 6283:

Libkind D, Hittinger CT, Valério E, Gonçalves C, Dover J, Johnston M, et al. (August 2011).

5002: 2226: 2196: 2130: 1171: 1147: 930: 660:. This is also the most common pathway of artificially induced polyploidy, where methods such as 8850: 8806: 8739: 8708: 8626: 8600: 8255: 8228: 6285:"Microbe domestication and the identification of the wild genetic stock of lager-brewing yeast" 4517: 2173: 2031: 1321:) number is 102 and so its cells are roughly twice normal size. Its closest living relation is 865: 704:, with specific adaptive alleles of these species shared between only the evolved polyploids. 544: 195: 5020:

Velicky P, Meinhardt G, Plessl K, Vondra S, Weiss T, Haslinger P, et al. (October 2018).

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Albertin W, Marullo P, Aigle M, Bourgais A, Bely M, Dillmann C, et al. (November 2009).

5708: 4373:"Gene and genome duplications: the impact of dosage-sensitivity on the fate of nuclear genes" 3554: 2813: 1551: 1401: 712: 684: 266:

both of which have been introduced and naturalised in the United Kingdom. New populations of

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and reticulate evolution that appear to be highly prevalent in several fungal taxa. Indeed,

37: 8698: 8510: 8435: 8420: 8250: 8198: 8173: 8113: 7918: 7648: 7533: 7403: 7315: 7069: 6975: 6964:"Global trends of whole-genome duplications revealed by the ciliate Paramecium tetraurelia" 6940: 6928: 6770: 6661: 6457: 6296: 5995: 5740:

Albertin W, Balliau T, Brabant P, Chèvre AM, Eber F, Malosse C, Thiellement H (June 2006).

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Emshwiller E (2006). "Origins of polyploid crops: The example of the octaploid tuber crop

5022:"Genome amplification and cellular senescence are hallmarks of human placenta development" 4162:

Ownbey M (January 1950). "Natural Hybridization and Amphiploidy in the Genus Tragopogon".

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weeks gestational age or those in which an embryo is present. There are also two distinct

1358:(1958) transplanted intact nuclei from somatic cells to produce diploid eggs in the frog, 1092:

probably have experienced a polyploidy event at some point in their evolutionary history.

8: 8941: 8878: 8735: 8551: 8178: 6603:

Nakao Y, Kanamori T, Itoh T, Kodama Y, Rainieri S, Nakamura N, et al. (April 2009).

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Wood TE, Takebayashi N, Barker MS, Mayrose I, Greenspoon PB, Rieseberg LH (August 2009).

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Bertolani R (2001). "Evolution of the reproductive mechanisms in Tardigrades: a review".

2390: 2205: 1294: 1158:, and whose relationship was completely homologous in an ancestral species. For example, 1009: 769: 641:

mating systems. In agricultural systems, autotriploidy can result in seedlessness, as in

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Pennington PD, Costa LM, Gutierrez-Marcos JF, Greenland AJ, Dickinson HG (April 2008).

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Polyploidy in crop plants is most commonly induced by treating seeds with the chemical

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Polyploidy occurs in some tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid, such as human

708: 423: 7879: 7852: 7780: 7755: 7679: 7636: 7186: 7161: 7137: 7112: 7037: 7012: 6962:

Aury JM, Jaillon O, Duret L, Noel B, Jubin C, Porcel BM, et al. (November 2006).

6488: 6445: 5644:"Mechanisms of genomic rearrangements and gene expression changes in plant polyploids" 5620: 4723: 4689:"Cell size, nuclear content, and the development of polyploidy in the Mammalian liver" 4688: 3912: 3416: 3361: 8897: 8801: 8773: 8755: 8721: 8240: 8152: 7973: 7936: 7884: 7831: 7785: 7684: 7615: 7586: 7581: 7564: 7551: 7499: 7456: 7421: 7372: 7333: 7276: 7226: 7191: 7177: 7142: 7085: 7042: 6993: 6897: 6840: 6798: 6731: 6687: 6634: 6585: 6528: 6493: 6426: 6375: 6324: 6226: 6221: 6204: 6150: 6096: 6007: 5945: 5904: 5855: 5820: 5791:"When genomes collide: aberrant seed development following maize interploidy crosses" 5771: 5722: 5673: 5624: 5589: 5548: 5481: 5446: 5389: 5348: 5288: 5247: 5190: 5147: 5088: 5053: 4976: 4959: 4854: 4819: 4782: 4770: 4728: 4661: 4587: 4535: 4456: 4394: 4353: 4294: 4243: 4220: 4136: 4092: 4058: 4017: 3972: 3926: 3916: 3885: 3881: 3847: 3843: 3812: 3794: 3753: 3735: 3688: 3670: 3623: 3605: 3518: 3482: 3451: 3365: 3330: 3295: 3251: 3246: 3217: 3157: 3083: 3052: 2871: 2819: 2759: 2751: 2710: 2692: 2651: 2633: 2586: 2578: 2511: 2460: 2414: 2402: 2326: 2275: 2236: 2068: 2019: 1761: 1685: 1547: 1444: 1423: 991: 854: 842: 814: 673: 587: 474: 312: 7985: 7843: 7345: 7238: 7128: 6948: 6852: 6743: 5559: 5401: 5202: 5114: 5100: 4985: 4944: 4673: 4599: 4100: 3980: 3562: 3377: 3097: 3066:

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Simillion C, Vandepoele K, Van Montagu MC, Zabeau M, Van de Peer Y (October 2002).

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of homoeologous alleles. In certain cases, such heterozygosity can have beneficial

745: 538: 532: 208: 8000: 5140: 2398: 2312: 1428:

True polyploidy rarely occurs in humans, although polyploid cells occur in highly

311:"Triploid" redirects here. For the human chromosomal disorder (69 XXX, etc.), see 27:

Condition where cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of chromosomes

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Wolfe KH (May 2001). "Yesterday's polyploids and the mystery of diploidization".

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Donne R, Saroul-Aïnama M, Cordier P, Celton-Morizur S, Desdouets C (July 2020).

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Lincoln RF, Scott AP (1983). "Production of all-female triploid rainbow trout".

3047: 3024: 8854: 8678: 8213: 8137: 7853:"Tetraodon genome confirms Takifugu findings: most fish are ancient polyploids" 7641: