20:
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234:. Furthermore, Radama decreed that those who had died from the tangena ordeal would no longer be considered guilty of sorcery, and their bodies could once again be buried in family tombs. This decree was hailed with joy and prompted mass re-interments, as nearly every family in mid-19th century Imerina had lost at least one family member in a tangena ordeal. Despite this royal decree, the practice continued secretly in Imerina and openly in other parts of the island. One of the key conditions that Radama's widow,
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certain group of "witch doctors" were allowed to carry out the trial. Cardiac glycosides from the
Cerbera manghas plant are known to be able to induce nausea and vomiting, although these symptoms can take over an hour manifest. As such, people undertaking the trial were often found guilty and killed before the poison could fully take effect.
278:
Although all parts of the
Cerbera manghas plant are poisonous, the most toxic parts of the plant, the nuts, were used during the tangena ordeals. It was widely believed among the Malagasy that the various foods and drinks consumed during the ritual could alter the toxicity of the nuts, and so only a
160:
In the early 19th century, tangena constituted one of the chief measures by which Queen
Ranavalona maintained order within her realm. A poison was extracted from the nut of the native tangena shrub and ingested, with the outcome determining innocence or guilt. Although many versions of the ordeal
105:
The belief in the genuineness and accuracy of the tangena ordeal was so strongly held among all that innocent people suspected of an offence did not hesitate to subject themselves to it; some even showed eagerness to be tested. The use of ritual poison in
Madagascar was abolished in 1863 by King
202:
ordeal was believed to represent a sort of celestial justice in which the public placed their unquestioning faith, even to the point of accepting a verdict of guilt in a case of innocence as a just but unknowable divine mystery. The nut of the tangena plant was reportedly believed to contain a
156:
to determine their innocence by the creature's survival, the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself. By
Andrianjaka's time, the ordeal was already a well-established and respected form of traditional justice, suggesting the practice must have originated no later than the 16th
186:), the ordeal required them to immediately ingest the poison themselves. According to custom, the families of the dead were not permitted to bury them within the family tomb, but rather had to inter them in the ground at a remote, inhospitable location, with the head of the corpse
193:
It has been reported that the chicken skin was a symbolic representation of human flesh, which was believed to be consumed by those controlled by evil spirits, thus the retention of chicken skin would indicate that one must
98:. It has been estimated that the poison may have been responsible for the deaths of as much as 2% of the population of the central province of Madagascar each year on average. Mortality peaked during the reign of Queen
182:) were compelled to undergo the ordeal, the poison was typically administered to the accused only after dog and rooster stand-ins had already died from the poison's effects, while among members of the slave class (
222:
ordeal caused about 1,000 deaths annually. This average rose to around 3,000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in
Imerina died as a result of the
484:"The principal toxic glycosidic steroids in Cerbera manghas L. seeds: Identification of cerberin, neriifolin, tanghinin and deacetyltanghinin by UHPLC–HRMS/MS, quantification by UHPLC–PDA-MS"
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If all three pieces of skin were vomited up then innocence was declared, but death or a failure to regurgitate all three pieces of skin indicated guilt. If nobles (
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were practiced, the basic procedure involved feeding the accused three pieces of chicken skin, followed by a mixture of the poison and leaves or juice from
507:
Babula P, Masarik M, Adam V, Provaznik I, Kizek R (September 2013). "From Na+/K+-ATPase and cardiac glycosides to cytotoxicity and cancer treatment".
238:, was obliged to accept by her ministers before they would agree to her succession, was continued adherence to the abolishment of the tangena ordeal.
256:
88:
122:- designating both the plant and the ordeal in which it was used - is derived from a word in the official (highland) dialect of the
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was routinely obligatory. On average, an estimated 20 to 50 percent of those who underwent the ordeal died. In the 1820s, the
694:
389:
Campbell, Gwyn (October 1991). "The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century
Madagascar".
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has been determined to contain various cardiac glycosides, which principally consisted of deactyltanghinin, neriifolin,
152:(1612–1630), describing a change in its practice: rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person's
704:
210:
Residents of
Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially
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The precise dates and origins of the tangena ordeal on
Madagascar are unknown. The 19th century transcription of
35:
49:
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to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused party. The trial utilized seeds of the tree species
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306:(in French). Vol. III. Editions Alzieu – via Malagasy Dictionary and Malagasy Encyclopedia.
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Madagascar: An historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies. Volume 2
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Madagascar: An
Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and its Former Dependencies, Volume 1
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198:. According to 19th-century Malagasy historian Raombana, in the eyes of the greater populace, the
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Carlier, Jérémy; Guitton, Jérôme; Bévalot, Fabien; Fanton, Laurent; Gaillard, Yvan (1 July 2014).
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48:), showing plum-like fruit, halved to reveal toxic seed - as depicted in a coloured plate from
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31:(the victim is lying at the feet of group under right-hand trunk of immense tree)
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576:"Cardiac glycoside poisoning following suicidal ingestion of Cerbera manghas"
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Tsai, Yi-Cheng; Chen, Chun-Yu; Yang, Ning-I; Yang, Chen-Chang (2008-10-07).
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The tradition of the tangena ordeal, dates to at least the 16th century in
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De Maleissye, J., 1991. In: Bourin, F. (Ed.), Histoire du poison. Paris.
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Madagascar of to-day: A sketch of the island, with chapters on its past.
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that could contribute to determine the guilt or innocence of a person.
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Madagascan tree species whose toxic nuts were used for trials by ordeal
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102:(1828–1861), when the tangena ordeal was used extensively.
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551:"CV Pharmacology | Cardiac Glycosides (Digitalis Compounds)"
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ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.
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618:
Tantara ny andriana eto Madagasikara (histoire des rois)
263:. These molecules can cause bradycardia and eventually
148:, references the use of tangena by the Merina king
79:), which produces seeds that contain highly toxic
620:(in French). Antananarivo: Imprimerie catholique.
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430:"Witch-Hunting in Central Madagascar 1828-1861"
27:ordeal being undergone in a Madagascan forest
646:Early Kingdoms in Madagascar: 1500–1700
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348:Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University
344:"The Ordeal Poisons of Madagascar and Africa"
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304:Dictionnaire des noms malgaches de végétaux
230:The tangena ordeal was outlawed in 1863 by
629:(in French). Paris: Editions Diloutremer.
627:Un homme d'etat malgache: Rainilaiarivony
509:Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry
23:A 19th-century artist's depiction of the
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681:(The history of Madagascar by Region).
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190:to the south (a mark of dishonor).
145:Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara
472:Randriamamony (), pp. 529–534
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637:The Religious Tract Society, 1895.
625:Chapus, G.S.; Mondain, G. (1953).
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489:Journal of Chromatography B
50:Köhler's Medizinal Pflanzen
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616:Callet, François (1972) .
391:Journal of African History
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214:, for which the ordeal of
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705:Ceremonial food and drink
633:Cousins, William Edward.
592:10.1080/15563650701291766
403:10.1017/S0021853700031534
342:Robb, George L. (1957).
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653:Oliver, Samuel (1886).
454:De Maleissye (1991), p.
428:Ellis, Stephen (2002).
659:. New York: Macmillan.
644:Kent, Raymond (1970).
269:sodium-potassium pumps
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61:ordeal was a form of
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418:Chapus (1953), p. 32
273:cardiac muscle cells
580:Clinical Toxicology
196:consume human flesh
44:(known formerly as
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463:Cousins (1895), p.
434:Past & Present
81:cardiac glycosides
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248:Cardiac glycoside
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560:2017-06-08
242:Toxicology
236:Rasoherina
212:witchcraft
83:including
67:Madagascar
600:1556-3650
442:0031-2746
360:0006-8098
300:"tangena"
257:tanghinin
232:Radama II
205:Manamango
169:plant.
157:century.
118:The name
114:Etymology
108:Radama II
89:tanghinin
667:(1886).
529:23537048
298:(1999).
261:cerberin
175:andriana
167:cardamom
128:tangaina
85:cerberin
75:(family
537:1537056
225:tangena
220:tangena
216:tangena
200:tangena
165:or the
154:rooster
134:History
120:Tangena
96:Imerina
58:tangena
25:tangena
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496:: 1–8.
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358:
259:, and
188:turned
184:andevo
163:banana
140:Merina
533:S2CID
283:Notes
29:glade
596:ISSN
525:PMID
438:ISSN
356:ISSN
275:.
180:hova
87:and
55:The
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