Taiping Rebellion - Knowledge

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inhabitants of captured enemy lands in order to drastically weaken the opposition's war effort. This war was total in the sense that civilians on both sides participated in the war effort to a significant extent and the armies on both sides waged war against both the civilian population and military forces. Contemporary accounts describe the amount of desolation which befell rural areas as a result of the conflict.

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discipline and fanaticism. They typically wore a uniform of red jackets with blue trousers, and grew their hair long so in China they were nicknamed "long hair". In the beginning of the rebellion, the large numbers of women serving in the Taiping army also distinguished it from other 19th-century armies. However, after 1853 there ceased being many women in the Taiping army.

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life." As for the actual practice of Christianity in the city, McCartee said "I saw no signs of anything resembling Christianity in or near ". Similarly to McCartee, Hong's director of foreign affairs I. J. Roberts wrote, "His religious toleration, and multiplicity of chapels turns out to be a farce, of no avail in the spread of Christianity—worse than useless."

1248:"heavenly capital"—in 1864. However, the last rebel forces were not defeated until August 1871. Estimates of the conflict's death toll range between 20 and 30 million people, representing 5–10% of China's population at that time. While the Qing ultimately defeated the rebellion, the victory came at a great cost to the state's economic and political viability. 2287:. Buddhist libraries were burned. Because Hong saw Confucianism was a shadow of its noble origin, being now a tool of the Qing to tyrannize Han people, libraries of the Confucian monasteries were destroyed—in the Yangtze delta, almost entirely—and the temples were often defaced or turned into temples of his new religion or hospitals and libraries. 2342:

manufacturers and military stores—were smuggled into China, mainly by English and Americans. An April 1862 shipment from an American dealer "well known for their dealings with rebels" included 2,783 (percussion cap) muskets, 66 carbines, 4 rifles, and 895 field artillery guns; the dealer carried passports signed by the Loyal King.

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open trade. According to Boardman the Christian nature of the Taiping opened up the possibility for a more cooperative trade partnership. Many Western officials visited the capital of Taiping between 1863 and 1864, and American commissioner Robert Milligan McLane considered granting official recognition of the Taiping government.

1981:, who was 15 years old. The younger Hong was inexperienced and powerless, so the kingdom was quickly destroyed when Nanjing fell in July 1864 to the imperial armies after protracted street-by-street fighting. Tianguifu and few others escaped but were soon caught and executed. Most of the Taiping princes were executed. 2752:, it is written that one million were executed because after the collapse of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing dynasty launched waves of massacres against the Hakkas, that at their height killed up to 30,000 each day. These policies of mass murder of civilians occurred elsewhere in China, including 2859:

was less affected by violence than trade in inland areas was. Streams of refugees who entered Shanghai contributed to the economic development of the city, which was previously less commercially relevant than other cities in the area were. Only a tenth of Taiping-published records survive to this day

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The Hakka settled throughout southern China and beyond, but as latecomers they generally had to establish their communities on rugged, less fertile land scattered on the fringes of the local majority group's settlements. As their name ("guest households") suggests, the Hakka were generally treated as

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The rebels also manufactured weapons, and imported manufacturing equipment. In the summer of 1862, a Western observer noted that rebel factories in Nanjing were producing superior guns—including heavy cannon—than the Qing. The rebels augmented their modern arsenal with captured equipment. Just before

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had accepted an imperial title. Instead, it erupted as a result of intersectional fighting between Muslim factions and Han Chinese. During the Dungan revolt, various groups fought against each other without any coherent goal. According to modern researchers, the Dungan rebellion began in 1862, not as

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With no reliable census at the time, estimates of the death toll of the Taiping Rebellion are speculative. The most widely cited sources estimate the total number of deaths during the almost 14 years of the rebellion to be approximately 20 to 30 million civilians and soldiers. Most of the deaths

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In modern China, the war is often referred to as the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, due to the fact that the Taiping espoused a doctrine which was both nationalist and communist, and the Taiping represented a popular ideology which was based on either Han nationalism or protocommunist values. The

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While some missionaries like Roberts were enthusiastic in the first few years about the Taiping rebellion, Western skepticism existed from the inception of the rebellion. According to historian Prescott Clarke, Westerners in China became separated into two different groups in regards to their views

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Socially and economically, the Taiping rebels came almost exclusively from the lowest classes. Many of the southern Taiping troops were former miners, especially those coming from the Zhuang. Very few Taiping rebels, even in the leadership caste, came from the imperial bureaucracy. Almost none were

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Although the fall of Nanjing in 1864 marked the destruction of the Taiping regime, the fight was not yet over. There were still several hundred thousand Taiping troops continuing the fight, with more than a quarter-million fighting in the border regions of Jiangxi and Fujian alone. It was not until

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With Hong withdrawn from view and Yang out of the picture, the remaining Taiping leaders tried to widen their popular support and forge alliances with European powers, but failed on both counts. The Europeans decided to stay officially neutral, though European military advisors served with the Qing

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Shi Dakai's objection to the bloodshed led to his family and retinue being killed by Wei and Qin with Wei ultimately planning to imprison Hong. Wei's plans were ultimately thwarted and he and Qin were executed by Hong. Shi Dakai was given control of five Taiping armies, which were consolidated into

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In addition to the zeal, vigor, and puritanical discipline so often found in new political movements, they shared certain traditional Chinese interests, such as propagating and maintaining doctrinal orthodoxy, recruiting an elite of talent, realizing a utopian social order, and developing military

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The defeat of the Taiping Rebellion by military forces from Hunan led to the dramatic increase of Hunanese representation in the government, who played a role in reform efforts. By 1865, five of the eight viceroys were Hunanese. The Hunanese gentry, based on their experience with the Taiping, were

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led an expedition to Nanjing in February 1861. This expedition was the largest party of Westerners to visit Taiping territories, with the inclusion of many British military personnel, entrepreneurs, missionaries, other unofficial observers and two French representatives. Upon visiting the capital,

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The government officials of the Western powers were optimistic about the Taiping government's chance of victory in the early stages. According to historian Eugene P. Boardman, the Qing dynasty's enforcement of the treaty of 1842–1844 was frustrating US and British officials, especially in terms of

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Although keeping accurate records was something imperial China traditionally did very well, the decentralized nature of the imperial war effort (relying on regional forces) and the fact that the war was a civil war and therefore very chaotic, meant that reliable figures are impossible to find. The

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of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (or Taiping Heavenly Kingdom), from which comes the term "Taipings" commonly used for them in English-language studies. The Taipings began marching north in September 1851 to escape Qing forces closing in on them. The Taiping army pressed north into Hunan following

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in the civil service and leading him to a nervous breakdown. While convalescing, Hong dreamed of visiting Heaven, where he discovered that he possessed a celestial family distinct from his earthly family. His heavenly father lamented that men were worshiping demons rather than himself and informed

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The terms which writers use for the conflict and its participants often represent their different opinions. During the 19th century, the Qing did not describe the conflict as either a civil war or a movement because doing so would have lent credibility to the Taiping. Instead, they referred to the

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As early as 1853, foreigners from various countries joined the rebels in combat and administrative roles, and were in a position to observe the Taiping in battle. The rebels were courageous under fire, erected defensive works quickly, and used mobile pontoon bridges. One tactic was to ring a Qing

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Estimates of the overall size of the Taiping army are around 2 million soldiers. The army's organization was allegedly inspired by that of the Qin dynasty. Each army corps consisted of roughly 13,000 men. These corps were placed into armies of varying sizes. In addition to the main Taiping forces

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Combat was always bloody and extremely brutal, with little artillery but huge forces equipped with small arms. Both armies would attempt to push each other off of the battlefield, and though casualties were high, few battles were decisively won. The Taiping army's main strategy of conquest was to

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According to Clarke the Western missionaries changed their opinions upon further inspections of the rebellion. That change was captured in a letter from the American missionary Divie Bethune McCartee. Upon visiting Nanjing, McCartee described the situation in the city as "Dreadful destruction of

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In late 1861, Hope made a brief visit to Nanjing to come to an agreement with the Taiping rebels not to attack the city of Shanghai, a proposal which was refused by the Taiping government. According to Clarke, this refusal of cooperation and Taiping's occupation of Ningbo in December led to the

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In May 1862, the Xiang Army besieged Nanjing; attempts to break the siege by the numerically superior Taiping Army failed. Hong Xiuquan declared that God would defend the city. The city's food supplies ran low. Hong contracted food poisoning from eating wild vegetables; the intent may have been

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being punished by his celestial father for leading the people astray. In 1843, Hong failed the imperial examinations for the fourth and final time. It was only then, prompted by a visit by his cousin, that Hong took time to carefully examine Christian pamphlets he had received from a Protestant

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which the Taiping forces committed against the Manchus wrote that the "pitiful Manchus"—men, women and children—were executed by the Taiping forces. The Taiping rebels were seen chanting while slaughtering the Manchus in Hefei. After capturing Nanjing, Taiping forces killed about 40,000 Manchu

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During this conflict, both sides tried to deprive each other of the resources which they needed in order to continue the war and it became standard practice for each to destroy the opposing side's agricultural areas, butcher the populations of cities and generally exact a brutal price from the

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The rebels were relatively well equipped with modern weapons. They were not supported by foreign governments, but they bought modern munitions—including firearms, artillery, and ammunition—from foreign suppliers. The rebels were buying weapons by 1853. Munitions—partially sourced from Western

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In 1853, Hong Xiuquan withdrew from active control of policies and administration to rule exclusively by written proclamations. He lived in luxury and had many women in his inner chamber, and often issued religious strictures. He clashed with Yang Xiuqing, who challenged his often impractical

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The rebels used brilliant unorthodox strategies that nearly toppled the dynasty but inspired it to adopt what one historian calls "the most significant military experimentation since the seventeenth century." The Taiping army was the rebellion's key strength. It was marked by a high level of

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who were active in China during this period. Due to the religious aspects of the rebellion, the Taiping government perceived Westerners as "brothers and sisters from overseas". The Taiping government proved especially welcoming to Western missionaries. In 1853, Hong Xiuquan invited American

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barely a month later. The 14-year civil war as a whole coincided with internal and external conflicts of the Opium Wars and the future Boxer Rebellion to further weaken the Qing dynasty’s grasp on central China. The Taiping rebellion gave incentive for an initially successful period of

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have argued that the term "Taiping Rebellion" is biased because it insinuates that the Qing government was a legitimate government which was fighting against the illegitimate Taiping rebels. Instead, they argue that the conflict should be called a "civil war". Other historians such as

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The Taiping Rebellion began in the southern province of Guangxi when local officials launched a campaign of religious persecution against the God Worshipping Society. In early January 1851, following a small-scale battle in late December 1850, a 10,000-strong rebel army organized by

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As a Han subgroup, the Hakka were frequently marginalised economically and politically, having migrated to the regions which their descendants presently inhabit only after other Han groups were already established there. For example, when the Hakka settled in Guangdong and parts of

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origin and China's largest non-Han ethnic minority group. Over the centuries, Zhuang communities had been adopting Han Chinese culture. This was possible because Han culture in the region accommodates a great deal of linguistic diversity, so the Zhuang could be absorbed as if the

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on the rebellion, with one side depicting the rebels as mere robbers whose intention was to gather wealth through revolting against the Qing, and the other side depicting the rebel army as religious fanatics provoked by skillful leaders to fight against the Qing to the death.

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who dominated China after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Diana Lary, however, in a review-of-the-field article, cited studies that were skeptical of these claims, since the armies created to put down the Taiping operated in a different context from later regional armies.

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were just another Han Chinese dialect (which it is not). Because Zhuang communities were integrating with the Han at different rates, a certain amount of friction between the Han and the Zhuang was inevitable, with Zhuang unrest leading to armed uprisings on occasion.

1282:. Thirty million people fled the conquered regions to foreign settlements or other parts of China. The war was characterized by extreme brutality on both sides. Taiping soldiers carried out widespread massacres of Manchus, the ethnic minority of the ruling Imperial 2689:

some members of the expedition wrote that "devastation marked our journey" in reference to the conditions in Taiping territories. Some reports suggested a great deal of indiscriminate slaughter of civilians conducted by the Taiping army in newly controlled areas.

1522:, natural disasters, economic problems and defeats at the hands of foreign powers. Farmers were heavily overtaxed, rents rose dramatically, and peasants started to desert their lands in droves. The Qing military had recently suffered a disastrous defeat in the 2713:. Almost every citizen who had not fled the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was given military training and conscripted into the army to fight against Qing imperial forces. Under the Taiping household registration system, one adult male from each household was to be 1842:

that had been besieging Nanjing since 1853, eliminating them from the region and opening the way for a successful invasion of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, the wealthiest region of the Qing Empire. The Taiping rebels were successful in taking

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organizations, which had many cells in South China and among government troops. Taiping titles echoed Triad usage, whether consciously or not, which made it more attractive for Triads to join the movement. In 1852, Qing government troops captured

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is among those who refer to the rebellion as the "Taiping Revolutionary Movement" on the grounds that it worked towards a complete change in the political and social system, rather than working towards the replacement of one dynasty with another.

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A small remainder of loyal Taiping forces had continued to fight in northern Zhejiang, rallying around Tianguifu. But after Tianguifu's capture on 25 October 1864, Taiping resistance was gradually pushed into the highlands of Jiangxi, Zhejiang,

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migrant newcomers, and often subjected to hostility and derision from the local majority Han populations. Consequently, the Hakka, to a greater extent than other Han Chinese, have been historically associated with popular unrest and rebellion.

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limited intervention against the rebellion by the British and French in the following years. Western assistance for the Qing was also driven by the fear that a successful rebellion would lead to a stronger China able to resist Western power.

2201:, was in contact with the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He was not waging his rebellion against Han Chinese, instead, he was anti-Qing and he wanted to destroy the Qing government. Du's forces led many non-Muslim forces, including Han Chinese, 2301:, which led to the seventh commandment also forbidding "licentiousness" as well as adultery. It was so severe that parents and children of the opposite sex could not interact, and even married couples were discouraged from having sex. 2294:, destroying idols wherever found with great prejudice. Though the destruction of idols was initially welcomed by foreign missionaries, missionaries eventually came to fear the zealotry of the Taiping that they had a hand in creating. 1974:. On 1 August, Zeng Guofan ordered Hong's body exhumed for verification, and desecrated as spiritual punishment. After exhumation, it was dismembered, cremated, and its ashes were fired from a cannon to scatter them irretrievably. 2772:

officials were more widely employed in high positions than they had previously been. The traditional Manchu banner forces upon which the Qing dynasty depended failed and were gradually replaced with gentry-organized local armies.

1966:. He bypassed the professional regular armies and recruited from local villages, paying and drilling them well. Zeng, Zuo and Li led personally loyal soldiers. By early 1864, Qing control in most areas had been reestablished. 4265: 1309:, Zeng's forces besieged Nanjing during May 1862. After two more years, on June 1, 1864, Hong Xiuquan died during the siege, caused from the consumption of weeds in the palace grounds as well as suspicions of poison. 1730:(King of Heavenly Virtue). Hong Daquan's confession claimed that Hong Xiuquan had made him co-sovereign of the Heavenly Kingdom and given him that title, but was more likely an echo of an earlier but unconnected 5845:

The Chinese and Their Rebellions, Viewed in Connection with Their National Philosophy, Ethics, Legislation, and Administration. To Which is Added, an Essay on Civilization and Its Present State in the East and

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province was another important Qing general who contributed in suppressing the Taiping Rebellion. Where the armies under the control of dynasty itself were unable to defeat the Taiping, these gentry-led

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Opposing the rebellion was an imperial army with over a million regulars and unknown thousands of regional militias and foreign mercenaries operating in support. Among the imperial forces was the elite

1835:, Hong Xiuquan's cousin, joined the Taiping forces in Nanjing and was given considerable power by Hong. Hong Rengan developed an ambitious plan to expand the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom's boundaries. 3955: 3953: 3970: 3968: 1594:, an American Baptist missionary. Roberts refused to baptize him and later stated that Hong's followers were "bent on making their burlesque religious pretensions serve their political purpose". 1634:, which Hong presented as a restoration of the ancient Chinese faith in Shangdi. The Taiping faith, says one historian, "developed into a dynamic new Chinese religion ... Taiping Christianity". 4101: 2665:

to come to Nanjing to aid in the administration of his government. After Roberts arrived in Nanjing in 1861 and met with Hong, he was commissioned by him as the director of foreign affairs.

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expeditions, in an effort to relieve pressure on Nanjing and achieve significant territorial gains. The former expedition was a complete failure but the latter achieved limited success.

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wrote several articles about the Taipings, he did not perceive a social program or agenda for change, only violence and destruction. Chinese Communist historians, following the lead of

1590:, and he had been directed to rid the world of demons, including the corrupt Qing government and Confucian teachings. In 1847 Hong went to Guangzhou, where he studied the Bible with 1578:

Christian missionary several years earlier. After reading these pamphlets, Hong came to believe that they had given him the key to interpreting his visions: his celestial father was

1457:), representing Hong's proclamation that they were fighting a holy war to rid the world of demons and establish paradise on earth. The Qing referred to the Taiping as "Yue Bandits" ( 1447:

Little is known about how the Taiping referred to the war, but the Taiping often referred to the Qing in general and the Manchus in particular as some variant of demons or monsters (

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destruction of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom also meant that the majority of any records it possessed were destroyed, the percentage of records said to have survived is around 10%.

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to be demons, they first killed all the Manchu men, then forced the Manchu women outside the city and burned them to death. Shortly thereafter, the Taiping launched concurrent

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Beyond staggering human and economic devastation, the Taiping Rebellion left changes within the late Qing dynasty. Power was, to a limited extent, decentralized, and ethnic

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policies, and became suspicious of Yang's ambitions, his extensive network of spies and his claims of authority when "speaking as God". This tension culminated in the 1856

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Separation of the sexes was strictly enforced in the first few years, although it tapered off in later years. Part of the extremeness came from a mistranslation of the

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The movement at first grew by suppressing groups of bandits and pirates in southern China in the late 1840s, then suppression by Qing authorities led it to evolve into

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power based on farmer-soldiers. Furthermore, both made use of foreign ideologies which required translation into Chinese with inevitable modifications in the process.

2805:, however, characterized the rebellion as a proto-communist uprising. Both Communist and Nationalist commanders studied Taiping organization and strategy during the 2357:

There was also a small Taiping Navy, composed of captured boats, that operated along the Yangtze and its tributaries. Among the Navy's commanders was the Hang king

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take major cities, consolidate their hold on the cities, then march out into the surrounding countryside to recruit local farmers and battle government forces.

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is a 2007 historical film set in the 1860s showing Gen. Pang Qinyun, leader of the Shan Regiment, as responsible for the capture of Suzhou and Nanjing.

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Yu, Maochun (2002). "The Taiping Rebellion: A Military Assessment of Revolution and Counterrevolution". In Graff, David A.; Higham, Robin (eds.).

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Yu, Maochun (2002). "The Taiping Rebellion: A Military Assessment of Revolution and Counterrevolution". In Graff, David A.; Higham, Robin (eds.).

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had increased rapidly, nearly doubling between 1766 and 1833, while the amount of cultivated land was stable. The government, commanded by ethnic

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Religion and Rural Revolt: Papers Presented to the Fourth Interdisciplinary Workshop on Peasant Studies, University of British Columbia, 1982

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a planned uprising but as a coalescence of local brawls and riots triggered by trivial causes, among these causes were false rumors that the

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The war has also been depicted in a few television shows and films. In 1988, a 45-episode drama series about the Taiping Rebellion called

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advised the Qing to buy, and to learn how to replicate, the best foreign cannon and gun carriages to prepare for war with foreign powers.

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speakers were already the dominant regional Han group there and they had been so for some time, just as speakers of various dialects of

2039:) in the Sino-Vietnamese border regions. Dingling was destroyed during a Qing campaign in 1868. His son Wu Yazhong, also called Wu Kun ( 8119: 5741:(Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press, 1970). Influential analysis of the rise of rebellion and the organization of its suppression. 6537: 1710:

in December 1852 after reaching the Yangtze River. At this point the Taiping leadership decided to move east along the Yangtze River.

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became less prominent because the rebellion disrupted trade in much of the country. However, trade in coastal regions, especially in

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was besieged and finally captured on 31 December. Taiping troops surrounded Shanghai in January 1862, but were unable to capture it.

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Chappell, Jonathan (2018). "Some Corner of a Chinese Field: The politics of remembering foreign veterans of the Taiping civil war".

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in human history, the bloodiest civil war, and the largest conflict of the 19th century. In terms of deaths, it is comparable to

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although shadowed by social and religious unrest within the country exacerbating ethnic disputes and accelerating the rise of

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Traditionalist works like those of Confucius were burned and their sellers executed. The Taiping were especially opposed to

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Zheng, Xiaowei (2018). "The Literary Turn: An Introduction of the Special Issue on Ways of Writing the Taiping Civil War".

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were aiding the Taiping rebels. The Hui Ma Xiaoshi claimed that the Shaanxi Muslim rebellion was connected to the Taiping.

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organised along the above lines, there were also thousands of pro-Taiping groups fielding their own forces of irregulars.

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In every area which they captured, the Taiping immediately exterminated the entire Manchu population. In the province of

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Many Western historians refer to the conflict in general as the "Taiping Rebellion". Recently, however, scholars such as

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claims that a key reason for the Taiping's defeat was its inability to coordinate its rebellion with other rebellions.

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The Ever-Victorious Army repulsed another attack on Shanghai in 1862 and helped to defend other treaty ports such as

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on June 2 to the east. While Taiping forces were preoccupied in Jiangsu, Zeng's forces moved down the Yangtze River.

1645:. Eventually, two other God Worshipers claimed to possess the ability to speak as members of the "Celestial Family", 1327: 1286:. Meanwhile, the Qing government also engaged in massacres, most notably against the civilian population of Nanjing. 62: 3813:

The Celestial Empire Turns Left, the World Turns Right: The Crossroads of Sino-Western Confrontation in Modern Times

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were attributed to plague and famine. Some analysts have claimed that the death toll may have reached 100 million.

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Other "Flag Gangs" armed with the latest weapons, disintegrated into bandit groups that plundered remnants of the

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The Taiping example of insurgent organization and its mix of Christianity and radical social equality influenced

2685: 1405:), referring to the two most prominent leaders. It was also dismissively referred to as the Red Sheep Rebellion ( 8109: 8059: 8049: 6885: 6751: 6519: 6266: 6205: 6175: 6165: 5931: 5869:. China research monograph. Vol. 25. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California. 5615: 3143: 2999: 2933: 2915: 2406: 2374: 2183:

and Lan Chaoding rebellion in Sichuan, remnants combined with Taiping forces in Shaanxi. Remnant forces of the

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Four months before the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Hong Xiuquan abdicated in favor of his eldest son

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Foreign Devils and God-Worshipers: Western Mercenaries and Cross-Cultural Realism During the Taiping Rebellion

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the title character is married to a man who lives in Jintian and the characters get caught up in the action.

2225: 2154: 934: 5616:"The Limits of the Shanghai Bridgehead: Understanding British Intervention in the Taiping Rebellion 1860–62" 3565: 1754:

and Hong renamed it "Tianjing", or the 'heavenly capital' of his kingdom. Since the Taipings considered the

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Kuhn, Philip A. (1977). "Origins of the Taiping Vision: Cross-Cultural Dimensions of a Chinese Rebellion".

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Occasionally, the Nian rebels collaborated with Taiping forces, for instance, they collaborated during the

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Inside China, the rebellion faced resistance from the traditionalist rural classes because of hostility to

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Asian Millenarianism: An Interdisciplinary Study of the Taiping and Tonghak Rebellions in a Global Context

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Famine, disease, massacres, and social disruption led to a sharp decline in population, especially in the

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Wu Kun's troops broke up and became marauding armies such as the Yellow Flag Army led by Huang Chongying (

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term the conflict "Taiping Revolution" because of the rebels' radical transformational objectives and the

6995: 6978: 6488: 6463: 6426: 6336: 6296: 6048: 5493: 1315: 1000: 2179:, their soldiers retreated north into Jiangxi and joined forces with Shi Dakai. After the defeat of the 1573:", the moniker ultimately adopted by Hong. In later embellishments, Hong would declare that he also saw 8074: 7969: 7534: 7427: 7378: 6824: 4740: 2603:

Over the course of the conflict, around 90% of recruits to the Taiping side would be killed or defect.

2370: 1275: 1068: 869: 4721: 3890: 1970:

suicide. He died in June 1864 after a 20-day illness. A few days later, the Qing took the city in the

8064: 7529: 7514: 7499: 7469: 7388: 7107: 7036: 6829: 6361: 6286: 6155: 6073: 5788:(1962). "Confucian and Taiping "Heaven": The Political Implications of Clashing Religious Concepts". 3265:"Did the Hakka Save China? Ethnicity, Identity, and Minority Status in China's Modern Transformation" 3014: 2927: 2860:

because they were mostly destroyed by the Qing in an attempt to rewrite the history of the conflict.

2024:), was completely wiped out by government forces in the border region of Hunan, Guizhou and Guangxi. 1875: 1839: 1699: 1089: 864: 849: 834: 804: 7883: 2867:

compares the Taiping rebels with the communists under Mao Zedong who came to power a century later:

1537:, had become increasingly corrupt. It was weak in the southern regions where local clans dominated. 496: 8079: 7479: 7309: 7129: 6863: 6834: 6584: 5719:

Huan, J. I. N. (2017). "In Search of a Chinese Utopia: The Taiping Rebellion as a Literary Event".

2955: 2891: 2814: 2250: 1519: 1271: 1240:. The conflict lasted for 14 years, from its outbreak in 1850 until the fall of Taiping-controlled 1237: 814: 240: 4157: 7863: 7549: 6905: 6371: 6356: 6190: 6088: 2897: 2748:, Qing forces allowed no rebels speaking its dialect to surrender. Reportedly in the province of 2561: 2395: 1971: 1883: 1718: 1619: 1487: 1310: 1260: 884: 531: 476: 5826: 5739:

Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China; Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864

4987:

Strand, David; Chan, Ming K. (1981). "Militarism and Militarization in Modern Chinese History".

4673: 4655: 4591: 4077:

The Chinese sultanate: Islam, ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in southwest China, 1856–1873

8069: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8019: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7286: 7174: 7055: 6880: 6098: 2825: 2662: 1703: 1591: 1477:) in official sources, a reference to their origins in the southeastern province of Guangdong. 1319: 110: 86: 5526: 4783: 4769: 4612:

Boardman, Eugene P. (1951). "Christian Influence Upon the Ideology of the Taiping Rebellion".

4320: 3838:

The roots and consequences of civil wars and revolutions: conflicts that changed world history

3629: 3181: 2544: 7360: 7219: 7179: 6846: 6808: 6696: 6676: 6594: 6393: 6376: 6241: 6210: 6145: 5174:

Suddard, Adrienne (1975). "The Jen Yu-wen Collection on the Taiping Revolutionary Movement".

4290: 3264: 3166: 2989: 2565: 2276: 1891: 1731: 1538: 1270:

valley, ultimately devolving into total civil war. It was the largest war in China since the

1266:

For more than a decade, Taiping armies occupied and fought across much of the mid- and lower

516: 5426:

Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War

5400: 4130: 2263:

The rebels announced social reforms, including strict separation of the sexes, abolition of

1437: 7878: 7776: 7519: 7291: 7258: 7224: 7169: 7049: 7031: 6741: 6671: 6478: 6261: 4414: 2946: 2902: 2790: 2644: 2557: 2184: 2027:

Taiping wars also spilled over into Vietnam with devastating effects. In 1860, Wu Lingyun (

1993:, where one of the last Taiping loyalists, Wang Haiyang, was defeated on January 29, 1866. 1943:. Some of his followers escaped or were released and continued the fight against the Qing. 1887: 1561: 1283: 854: 312: 265: 213: 44: 4946: 1782:

one. But fearing for his life, he departed from Tianjing and headed west towards Sichuan.

8: 7544: 7344: 7194: 7134: 7066: 6746: 6599: 6554: 6301: 6180: 6160: 6068: 2616: 2083: 1679: 1530: 879: 5975: 5849: 5272:

The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History

2437: 99: 7494: 7484: 7229: 6940: 6935: 6761: 6701: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6505: 6351: 6170: 5813: 5805: 5785: 5773: 5765: 5742: 5638: 5550: 5471: 5466: 5183: 4969: 4637: 4563: 4555: 4455:

China's Political Economy in Modern Times: Changes and Economic Consequences, 1800–2000

4156:. Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University. p. 98. Archived from 2937:

by Katherine Paterson is a young adult novel set during the Taiping Rebellion. Li Bo's

2864: 2729: 2075: 1763: 1678:, Guangxi). Taiping forces successfully repulsed an attempted imperial reprisal by the 1146: 1138: 829: 819: 2283:, which held that Hong Xiuquan was the younger brother of Jesus and the second son of 2255: 2228:, was the reverse: it was not aiming to overthrow the Qing dynasty because its leader 1165: 7504: 7474: 7239: 7234: 7209: 7154: 7149: 7072: 7020: 6925: 6756: 6661: 6559: 6458: 6421: 6346: 6276: 6200: 5927: 5908: 5889: 5870: 5832: 5817: 5777: 5705: 5684: 5655: 5642: 5562: 5499: 5478: 5452: 5431: 5424: 5408: 5386: 5367: 5346: 5324: 5305: 5275: 5240: 5154: 5129: 5101: 4816: 4789: 4696: 4629: 4567: 4547: 4392: 4294: 4216: 4189: 4081: 4047: 4020: 3937: 3910: 3866: 3841: 3816: 3515: 3475: 3187: 3153: 2882: 2806: 2448:

Ethnically, the Taiping army was at the outset formed largely from these groups: the

2194: 2150: 1771: 1707: 1638: 1441: 1290: 1189: 1052: 1044: 839: 809: 3885: 1913:

on the city. Near the end of 1861 the Taipings launched a final Eastern Expedition.

7921: 7887: 7867: 7854: 7841: 7828: 7810: 7771: 7750: 7731: 7696: 7639: 7626: 7613: 7600: 7559: 7524: 7464: 7393: 7276: 7199: 7139: 6945: 6666: 6527: 6473: 6316: 6281: 6185: 6110: 6078: 5797: 5757: 5699: 5683:. The Short Oxford history of the modern world. New York: Oxford University Press. 5630: 5585: 5538: 5513: 5023: 4996: 4961: 4621: 4539: 4423: 2906: 2774: 2681: 2457: 2354:

emplacement in fire and kill the fleeing Qing troops as they emerged individually.

2298: 2046: 1906: 1898: 1794: 1683: 1565: 965: 894: 859: 799: 701: 681: 597: 584: 571: 558: 500: 480: 460: 440: 420: 388: 300: 123: 5634: 4812:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures

2895:

depicts the time from the point of view of a Jewish family living in Shanghai. In

1297:, the Taiping rebels were defeated by decentralised provincial armies such as the 7554: 7509: 7408: 7354: 7204: 7189: 7013: 6468: 6431: 6381: 6341: 6291: 6236: 6105: 5554: 5446: 5361: 5299: 5093: 4947:"Military Organization and Power Structure of China During the Taiping Rebellion" 4810: 4284: 4183: 3509: 3469: 3039: 2979: 2810: 2738: 2517: 2280: 2238: 2098: 2079: 2063: 1902: 1790: 1523: 1322:. Historians debate whether these developments played a role in the start of the 1030: 889: 844: 275: 5542: 2330:

are examples of women who became leaders of the Taiping army's female soldiers.

7824: 7786: 7580: 7539: 7271: 7144: 6910: 6873: 6321: 6311: 6251: 5734: 5673: 5520:. Vol. I: History. Seattle: University of Washington Publications on Asia. 5027: 3764:

Mercenaries and Mandarins: The Ever-Victorious Army in Nineteenth Century China

3494:

Teng, Yuah Chung. "Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts and the Taiping Rebellion".

3009: 2886: 2844: 2657: 2569: 2549: 2142: 1978: 1631: 1579: 1338: 1186: 1014: 874: 538: 416: 336: 250: 5801: 5761: 4427: 2129: 1480:

More colloquially, the Chinese called the Taiping some variant of Long-Hairs (

7963: 7801: 7710: 7686: 7675: 7664: 7653: 7591: 7585: 7383: 7349: 7314: 6930: 6920: 6736: 6127: 5886:

The Last stand of Chinese conservatism: the T'ung-chih restoration, 1862-1874

5867:

Reenacting the heavenly vision: the role of religion in the Taiping Rebellion

5053: 4700: 4633: 4551: 2821: 2610: 2508: 2465: 2358: 2319: 2218: 1690: 1432: 1082: 666: 644: 633: 622: 611: 549: 543: 372: 5990: 3806:

Tiān cháoxiàng zuǒ, shìjiè xiàng yòu: Jìndài zhōngxī jiāofēng de shízìlù kǒu

2082:

in the 1880s. He later became the second and last leader of the short-lived

1863: 1597: 1569:

Hong that his given name violated taboos and had to be changed, suggesting "

1305:. After moving down the Yangtze River and recapturing the strategic city of 7907: 7819: 7796: 7727: 7681: 7635: 7622: 7609: 7596: 7575: 7403: 7100: 7042: 6731: 6713: 6569: 6039: 6002: 5998: 5854: 5836: 5405:

The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century

2966: 2734: 2584: 2309: 2268: 2264: 2165: 2157:, 1862–1877) continued to pose considerable problems for the Qing dynasty. 1955: 1951: 1671: 1667: 1654: 1650: 1627: 1615: 1602: 1587: 1570: 1553: 1515: 1507: 1256: 1252: 1229: 1155: 972: 677: 654: 639: 593: 580: 567: 554: 527: 404: 360: 194: 5203:

East Asia: The modern transformation: A History of East Asian Civilization

5149:

Shaffer, Lynda (2017). "Chapter 2 The Setting: Hunan, its Elite and Mao".

5000: 1486:), because they did not shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a 7917: 7781: 7741: 7670: 7648: 7339: 7060: 6781: 6776: 5994: 5338: 3244: 2786: 2769: 2714: 2576: 2512: 2481: 2477: 2453: 2347: 2323: 2234: 2214: 2210: 2033:), an ethnic Zhuang Taiping leader, proclaimed himself King of Dingling ( 1947: 1832: 1809: 1723: 1695: 1546: 1420: 1323: 1302: 1279: 1179: 691: 628: 606: 324: 5187: 2701: 1742: 7850: 7705: 7692: 7007: 6851: 6801: 6771: 6614: 5121: 4973: 4641: 4559: 4527: 2836:

more guarded against the influence of Westerners than other provinces.

2802: 2778: 2626: 2580: 2409: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2229: 2206: 2146: 2067: 2050: 1963: 1910: 1817: 1805: 1775: 1298: 1061: 711: 661: 650: 456: 6008: 5809: 5769: 5731:

Vol Ten Pt One (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970): 264–317.

5151:

Mao Zedong and Workers: The Labour Movement in Hunan Province, 1920–23

4286:

The Cultural Practices of Modern Chinese Buddhism: Attuning the Dharma

4150:

From Yunnan to Xinjiang: Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals

3128:

C. A. Curwen, Taiping Rebel: The Deposition of Li Hsiu-ch'eng 1 (1977)

2656:

The Taiping government maintained an ambivalent relationship with the

7912: 7806: 7746: 7659: 6796: 6786: 5594:. 3 vols. Volumes two and three select and translate basic documents. 3863:

Imperial Bandits: Outlaws and Rebels in the China-Vietnam Borderlands

2852: 2798: 2749: 2710: 2632: 2593: 2560:, consisting of Chinese soldiers led by a Western officer corps (see 2530:

landlords and in occupied territories landlords were often executed.

2461: 2327: 2202: 2190: 2180: 2176: 2015: 1990: 1932: 1848: 1642: 1614:

Soon after Hong began preaching across Guangxi in 1844, his follower

1586:

from Chinese tradition), the elder brother that he had also seen was

1574: 1557: 1103: 697: 617: 384: 259: 7419: 5905:

The Autobiography of the Chung-Wang (Confession of the Loyal Prince)

5555:"Taipings and Triads: The Role of Religion in Inter-rebel Relations" 5363:

Taiping Theology: The Localization of Christianity in China, 1843–64

5201:

Fairbank, John King; Reischauer, Edwin O.; Craig, Albert M. (1965).

4965: 4625: 4543: 2495: 2384: 753: 7281: 7026: 6973: 6915: 6791: 6766: 5727:

Philip A. Kuhn, "The Taiping Rebellion", in John K. Fairbank, ed.,

5448:

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire

2910: 2789:

and other future revolutionaries. Some Taiping veterans joined the

2638: 2291: 2272: 2094: 2090: 1918: 1844: 1821: 1774:, wherein Yang and his followers were slaughtered by Wei Changhui, 1124: 986: 5383:

What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in 19th Century China

3227:

What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in 19th Century China

2606:

Aside from local militias, the organisation of the Qing army was:

1255:, an ethnic Hakka who had proclaimed himself to be the brother of 7837: 7791: 7266: 3815:] (in Chinese). Beijing: Huawen chubanshe. pp. 108–109. 2922: 2757: 2745: 2500: 2473: 2284: 1940: 1936: 1894:, and would be instrumental in the defeat of the Taiping rebels. 1825: 1813: 1755: 1751: 1675: 1646: 1583: 1534: 1267: 1241: 1162: 436: 348: 132: 2112:) until 1890, when the last of the groups eventually disbanded. 1890:", a seasoned and well-trained Qing military force commanded by 1737: 1259:. Hong sought the religious conversion of the Han people to his 5473:

God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan

5407:. Translated by Camiller, Patrick. Princeton University Press. 4910:. Translated by Kieffer, Martin. New York: Putnam. p. 109. 4358: 4356: 4343: 4341: 3019: 2856: 2840: 2507:

The other significant ethnic group in the Taiping army was the

2485: 2442: 2198: 2102: 2071: 2006: 1986: 1925: 1914: 1868: 1852: 1711: 1623: 1502: 1306: 1225: 4596:. Canberra: Australian National University Press. p. 118. 4593:

Western reports on the Taiping : a selection of documents

3696: 3232: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3203: 2931:

takes place in part during the time of the Taiping Rebellion.

1878:

begun in June 1861 was repulsed after 15 months by an army of

1194: 6990: 6549: 5681:

Rebellions and revolutions: China from the 1800s to the 1980s

4743:

reuses information from other sources but does not name them.

4043:

China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects

3671: 3669: 2848: 2753: 2725: 2588: 2449: 1801: 1542: 1233: 1170: 5527:"New Chinese Military History, 1839–1951: What's the Story?" 4747: 4368: 4353: 4338: 3514:. Youngstown, NY: Cambria. pp. 163, 172, 186–187, 191. 3474:. Vol. 2. Columbia University Press. pp. 213–215. 3275:. College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University: 13. 1274:, involving most of Central and Southern China. It ranks as 36:

may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge's

7160:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet

6649: 4528:"Reverend Issachar Jacox Roberts and the Taiping Rebellion" 4185:

Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China

3865:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 38–41. 3785: 3200: 2001: 1959: 1882:

troops supported by European officers under the command of

1879: 1622:, a movement which followed Hong's fusion of Christianity, 5861:(Shanghai: Printed at the "Celestial Empire" Office 1884). 5859:

Personal Recollections of the T'ai-P'ing Rebellion 1861–63

4326: 3906:

China Imagined: From European Fantasy to Spectacular Power

3666: 3407: 3397: 3395: 3279: 2005:

A historic monument to the Taiping Rebellion in Mengshan,

3501: 2951: 1660: 1564:

for the third time, frustrating his ambition to become a

1549:

subgroup. Meanwhile, Christian missionaries were active.

1395:). They often referred to it as the Hong-Yang Rebellion ( 1326:, the loss of central control after the establishment of 1143: 1129: 1115: 5828:

Ti-Ping Tien-Kwoh: The History of the Ti-Ping Revolution

4887: 4675:

Western reports on the Taiping: A selection of documents

4657:

Western reports on the Taiping: a selection of documents

3720: 3684: 3370: 3368: 3327: 3315: 3303: 3291: 3097: 3095: 2259:

A miniature of the Palace of Heavenly Kingdom in Nanjing

1073: 5848:. (London: Smith, Elder; Bombay: Smith, Taylor, 1856). 5652:

The devil soldier: the story of Frederick Townsend Ward

5200: 5128:. Harvard University Press. pp. 221–222, 236–237. 5071: 4840:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 237. 4785:

Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History

3595: 3571: 3528: 3451: 3449: 3392: 2651: 2070:. The latter would become a prominent warlord in Upper 4492: 4490: 4488: 4473: 2187:

uprising in Shanghai regrouped with the Taiping army.

5888:. History (2nd ed.). Stanford University Press. 5293:. Translated by Curwen, C. A. New York: W. W. Norton. 4391:. Princeton University Press. pp. 167, 232–236. 4312: 4310: 4236: 3773: 3744: 3732: 3708: 3654: 3640: 3638: 3583: 3557: 3555: 3436: 3434: 3380: 3365: 3112: 3110: 3092: 3056: 1750:

On March 19, 1853, the Taipings captured the city of

1674:

routed Qing forces stationed in Jintian (present-day

1289:

Weakened severely by internal conflicts following an

1049: 1035: 1019: 1005: 991: 977: 4188:. University of Washington Press. pp. 120–121. 3468:

De Bary, William Theodore; Lufrano, Richard (2000).

3446: 1858: 7165:

Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory

5704:(6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 4502: 4485: 4461: 3131: 2964:, a 46-episode series about the Taiping Rebellion. 2941:takes place within the Taiping capital at Nanjing. 1094: 5470: 5423: 5034: 4926: 3431: 3419: 3107: 2985:Cannibalism in Asia § Ming and Qing dynasties 2137:, set of twelve paintings in ink and color on silk 2009:, Guangxi, an early seat of the Taiping government 1946:Qing forces were reorganized under the command of 1415:) because the two names sound similar in Chinese. 5561:. Manchester University Press. pp. 342–353. 3607: 3229:. Stanford University Press, September 26, 2013. 3183:Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land and Power 3080: 3068: 1935:surrendered to the Qing near the Sichuan capital 7961: 5262: 2793:, whose Christian members organized short-lived 2733:civilians. On 27 October 1853, they crossed the 2133:A battle of the Panthay Rebellion, from the set 1347: Held at various times during the rebellion 219: 5672:(Army Command And General Staff College, 2017) 4000:] (in Chinese). Qingpingguo shuju zhongxin. 3347:Taiping Rebel: The Deposition of Li Hsiu-ch'eng 2777:, wrote that these evolved into armies used by 1909:with help from a naval blockade imposed by the 1689:On January 11, 1851, Hong declared himself the 6565:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations 5323:. Osprey Military Men-at-Arms Series. Osprey. 3933:The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern China 3467: 3179: 3167:"Global Trends: Facing up to a Changing World" 2014:August 1871 that the last Taiping army led by 1746:The royal seal of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 47:to make improvements to the overall structure. 7435: 6985:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China 6956:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 6024: 5557:. In Bak, János M.; Benecke, Gerhard (eds.). 5126:Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953 5088: 5086: 4853:The Hakka Odyssey & their Taiwan homeland 4838:Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953 4589: 2057: 2045:), fled to Vietnam but was killed in 1869 in 2040: 2034: 2028: 2019: 1897:In 1861, around the time of the death of the 1778:, and their troops on Hong Xiuquan's orders. 1738:1851–1860: Control of Nanjing and expeditions 1481: 1342:Territories of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. 939: 925: 769: 5623:Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 5590:The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents 5518:The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents 5512: 3840:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 229. 3791: 3413: 5451:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 5399: 3929: 3238: 3180:Bickers, Robert; Jackson, Isabella (2016). 1365:tumultuous civil war as a period of chaos ( 7442: 7428: 6031: 6017: 5790:Comparative Studies in Society and History 5750:Comparative Studies in Society and History 5592:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 5380: 5083: 4986: 4808: 4080:. Stanford University Press. p. 139. 3498:, Vol 23, No. 1 (November 1963), pp. 55–67 3213: 2881:The Taiping Rebellion has been treated in 2813:, who commanded Chinese troops during the 2213:peoples. They were assisted by non-Muslim 1541:was strongest in southern China among the 776: 762: 6645:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 5359: 5288: 4905: 4893: 3546: 3285: 2575:A particularly famous imperial force was 2425:Learn how and when to remove this message 2101:) against the incompetent forces of King 2049:by a Qing-Vietnamese coalition headed by 63:Learn how and when to remove this message 6494:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi 5902: 5784: 5613: 5345:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 4611: 4411: 4103:Chinese studies in philosophy, Volume 28 3038:According to P. Richard Bohr, this is a 2700: 2543: 2494: 2436: 2308: 2254: 2128: 2124: 2078:to engage against the French during the 2000: 1862: 1840:the Taiping defeated the imperial forces 1741: 1717:Taiping leaders may have reached out to 1596: 1501: 1337: 204: 7101:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 6038: 5824: 5584: 5524: 5297: 5269: 5173: 5148: 5077: 5014:Lary, Diana (1980). "Warlord Studies". 4944: 4920: 4881: 4865: 4835: 4440: 4332: 4282: 4140: 3750: 3738: 3726: 3690: 3660: 3589: 3461: 3386: 3333: 3321: 3309: 3297: 3137: 2093:kingdom. They were then engaged in the 1917:was easily captured on 9 December, and 1886:. This army would become known as the " 1224:, was a civil war in China between the 7962: 5883: 5864: 5721:A New Literary History of Modern China 5491: 5465: 5444: 5215: 5052: 4765: 4753: 4722:"Western colonialism – The Opium Wars" 4457:. Business & Economies. Routledge. 4386: 4380: 4374: 4362: 4347: 4316: 4263: 4242: 4181: 4124: 4073: 4039: 3959: 3835: 3779: 3766:(Millwood, New York: KTO Press, 1978), 3714: 3702: 3644: 3601: 3577: 3561: 3534: 3455: 3401: 3250: 2795:Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Mingshun 1661:1851–1853: Outbreak and initial stages 1145: 1051: 7449: 7423: 7399:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions 6640:Principles of the Constitution (1908) 6012: 5940: 5549: 5421: 5318: 4850: 4781: 4668: 4666: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4508: 4496: 4479: 4467: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4251: 3974: 3860: 3625: 3613: 3149: 3101: 3086: 3074: 3062: 2876: 2313:The Heavenly King's throne in Nanjing 2221:and other hill tribes in the revolt. 951:Great Peace Heavenly Kingdom Movement 783: 757: 135:between Qing and Taiping naval forces 6620:Ministry of Posts and Communications 5907:. Translated by Lay, W. T. Praeger. 5747: 5718: 5678: 5649: 5337: 5092: 5040: 5013: 4932: 4525: 4452: 4208: 3986: 3803: 3507: 3440: 3425: 3374: 3360:The Wobbling Pivot: China Since 1800 3262: 3116: 3005:Millenarianism in colonial societies 2705:A map of the Taiping Rebellion, 1866 2652:Relationship with the Western powers 2407:adding citations to reliable sources 2378: 1726:, a rebel who had assumed the title 1510:, dating from around the early 1850s 1494:, allowing their hair to grow long. 20: 16:Major rebellion in China (1850–1864) 7368:History of Qing (People's Republic) 5697: 5291:Peasant Revolts in China, 1840–1949 5176:The Yale University Library Gazette 5098:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing 4870:. London: Ernest Benn. p. 167. 4146: 3902: 3253:, pp. 115–16, 160–163, 181–82. 2905:recounts his adventures during the 2728:one Qing loyalist who observed the 2524: 2168:were incorporated into Nian ranks. 13: 7765:Qing dynasty leaders and personnel 7085:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor 6454:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 6447:1909 Provincial Assembly elections 6327:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874) 6151:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 5921: 5599: 5577: 5343:The Taiping Revolutionary Movement 5120: 4663: 4600: 4590:Clarke, Prescott; Gregory (1982). 4574: 4514: 4248: 4212:Encyclopedia of Islam, Volumes 1–5 4010: 3980: 3675: 3042:of an unidentified Taiping leader. 2995:List of revolutions and rebellions 2620: 2346:his execution, Taiping Loyal King 14: 8131: 8120:Wars involving the United Kingdom 7374:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty 7215:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) 7090:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 6242:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war) 5955: 5301:Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989 4908:The Awakening of China: 1793–1949 4654:"A letter from Dr D B McCartee". 2149:rebellions in the southwest (the 2097:(misnamed due to conflation with 1859:1861–1864: Faltering and collapse 1824:in May 1858 and then the rest of 1808:under the personal leadership of 1556:, a Hakka from a poor village in 1261:syncretic version of Christianity 1131:taai3 ping4 tin1 gwok3 wan6 dung6 7877: 7709: 7685: 7674: 7663: 7652: 7584: 7569:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom leaders 7185:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 6501:Articles of Favourable Treatment 6257:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 5366:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 5321:The Taiping Rebellion, 1851–1866 5228: 5218:"Mandarin, by Robert S. Elegant" 5209: 5194: 5167: 5142: 5114: 5046: 5007: 4980: 4938: 4914: 4899: 4874: 4859: 4182:Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). 4106:. M. E. Sharpe. 1997. p. 67 4046:. Richmond: Curzon. p. 59. 3930:Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (2016). 2572:like Willoughbe & Ponsonby. 2441:Retaking the provincial city of 2383: 2224:The other Muslim rebellion, the 2173:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 2153:, 1855–1873) and the northwest ( 1653:and Jesus Christ in the case of 665: 643: 632: 621: 610: 542: 510: 490: 470: 450: 430: 410: 398: 378: 366: 354: 342: 330: 318: 306: 294: 221: 206: 187: 109: 98: 25: 8115:Wars involving the Qing dynasty 6232:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 6118:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 4844: 4829: 4802: 4775: 4714: 4681: 4648: 4446: 4405: 4276: 4202: 4175: 4135:joined by hill tribes of shans. 4118: 4094: 4067: 4033: 4004: 3923: 3896: 3879: 3854: 3829: 3797: 3756: 3488: 3352: 3339: 3256: 3219: 3173: 3032: 2830:concentration of land ownership 2394:needs additional citations for 2364: 2279:with the Taiping Christianity, 2107: 1714:was captured in February 1853. 1195: 1171: 1144: 1130: 1116: 1095: 1074: 8095:Rebellions in the Qing dynasty 6886:Guest House of Imperial Envoys 6176:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 5926:. Westview. pp. 135–152. 5608:The Taeping Rebellion in China 5274:. Princeton University Press. 5234: 3159: 3122: 2934:Rebels of the Heavenly Kingdom 2916:Snow Flower and the Secret Fan 2909:and the Taiping Rebellion. In 2533: 2375:List of ethnic groups in China 1641:and subsequently a widespread 1473: 1463: 1453: 1411: 1401: 1391: 1381: 1371: 1096:Thai-phìn-thiên-koet yun-thung 1050: 1036: 1020: 1006: 992: 978: 940: 926: 1: 7320:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank 7095:Islam during the Qing dynasty 6951:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty) 6635:Provincial military commander 6625:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 6610:Imperial Household Department 6437:Preparative Constitutionalism 6141:Sino-Russian border conflicts 5943:Frontiers of History in China 5850:American Libraries eBook text 5635:10.1080/03086534.2016.1210251 5531:Frontiers of History in China 5385:. Stanford University Press. 5381:Meyer-Fong, Tobie S. (2013). 5263:Modern monographs and surveys 5237:Tienkuo: The Heavenly Kingdom 4788:. W. W. Norton. p. 289. 4289:. London: Routledge. p. 4270:Brill's Encyclopedia of China 4017:China at War: An Encyclopedia 3049: 2950:was produced in Hong Kong by 2939:Tienkuo: The Heavenly Kingdom 2744:Since the rebellion began in 2741:and murdered 10,000 Manchus. 2596:armies were able to succeed. 2115: 1605: 1514:During the 19th century, the 1497: 1316:reform and self-strengthening 1022:T'ai-p'ing t'ien-kuo yün-tung 7079:Researches on Manchu Origins 6484:Mongolian Revolution of 1911 6094:Transition from Ming to Qing 6084:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 5981:Resources in other libraries 5698:Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (2000). 5525:Hayford, Charles W. (2018). 5492:Spence, Jonathan D. (1999). 5205:. Vol. II. p. 162. 5100:. Harvard University Press. 4809:Clodfelter, Micheal (2002). 4672:"A Report by R. J. Forest". 4532:The Journal of Asian Studies 3861:Davis, Bradley Camp (2017). 3496:The Journal of Asian Studies 3471:Sources of Chinese Tradition 2961:The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 2709:The Taiping Rebellion was a 2696: 2680:After the conclusion of the 2540:Military of the Qing dynasty 1996: 1196:Tái-bìng-tiĕng-guók ông-dông 7: 6979:Changzhou School of Thought 6489:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang 6464:Railway Protection Movement 6442:1909 Parliamentary election 6427:British expedition to Tibet 6337:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang 6297:Self-Strengthening Movement 6272:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856) 5924:A Military History of China 5825:Lindley, Augustus (1970) . 5723:. Harvard University Press. 5614:Chappell, Jonathan (2016). 5543:10.3868/s020-007-018-0006-0 5495:The Search for Modern China 5445:Reilly, Thomas H. (2011) . 5360:Kilcourse, Carl S. (2016). 4283:Tarocco, Francesca (2007). 3987:Wang Xinlong (王新龙) (2013). 3936:. Oxford University Press. 3909:. Oxford University Press. 3836:Tucker, Spencer C. (2017). 3678:A Military History of China 2973: 2568:) and supplied by European 2304: 2244: 1905:, Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army 1301:organised and commanded by 1172:Thài-pêng-thian-kok ūn-tōng 1117:Taaipìhng tīngwok wahnduhng 735:10 million (all combatants) 151:December 1850 – August 1864 10: 8136: 7379:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 6267:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 6206:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806) 6196:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa 6166:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736) 5865:Wagner, Rudolf G. (1982). 5729:Cambridge History of China 5516:; Chang, Chung-li (1966). 5477:. New York: W. W. Norton. 5422:Platt, Stephen R. (2012). 5298:Elleman, Bruce A. (2001). 5257: 5028:10.1177/009770048000600403 4815:. McFarland. p. 256. 4387:Ramsey, Robert S. (1987). 4264:Wagner, Rudolf G. (2008). 3792:Michael & Chang (1966) 3414:Michael & Chang (1966) 3225:Meyer-Fong, Tobie. "War". 3186:. Routledge. p. 224. 3000:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 2537: 2511:, an indigenous people of 2371:Ethnic minorities in China 2368: 2248: 2018:'s commander, Li Fuzhong ( 1385:) or military ascendancy ( 1037:Tài-píng tian-guó yùn-dòng 993:ㄊㄞˋ ㄆㄧㄥˊ ㄊㄧㄢㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄩㄣˋ ㄉㄨㄥˋ 8090:Religion-based civil wars 7950: 7934: 7900: 7764: 7720: 7568: 7457: 7389:Names of the Qing dynasty 7332: 7300: 7257: 7250: 7119: 7037:Manchu Han Imperial Feast 6964: 6896: 6817: 6722: 6518: 6409: 6367:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) 6362:Gongche Shangshu movement 6307:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 6219: 6156:Chinese Rites controversy 6126: 6056: 6047: 5976:Resources in your library 5884:Wright, Mary C. (1978) . 5802:10.1017/S0010417500001390 5762:10.1017/S0010417500008756 5610:(London: J. Murray, 1862) 4954:Pacific Historical Review 4906:Pelissier, Roger (1967). 4855:. Allegheny. p. 120. 4614:The Far Eastern Quarterly 4526:Teng, Yuan Chung (1963). 4428:10.1017/S0026749X16000986 4074:Atwill, David G. (2005). 4019:. ABC-CLIO. p. 415. 3263:Bohr, P. Richard (2009). 2928:The Hundred Secret Senses 2763: 2629:(Hunan): 130,000 soldiers 2171:After the failure of the 2145:(1853–1868), and several 2074:and would later help the 2058: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2020: 1582:(whom he identified with 1482: 1468: 1458: 1448: 1406: 1396: 1386: 1376: 1366: 1276:one of the bloodiest wars 1206: 1185: 1178: 1161: 1154: 1137: 1123: 1109: 1102: 1088: 1081: 1067: 1060: 1043: 1029: 1013: 999: 985: 971: 964: 959: 955: 947: 933: 919: 915: 910: 795: 744: 739: 734: 721: 284: 177: 143: 92: 84: 79: 8105:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 8085:Persecution of Buddhists 7310:Great Qing Treasure Note 7130:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 6840:Administrative divisions 6657:Administrative divisions 6585:Flag of the Qing dynasty 5997:, University of Oxford; 5701:The rise of modern China 5289:Chesneaux, Jean (1973). 4866:Purcell, Victor (1962). 4040:Dillon, Michael (1999). 3992: 3808: 3705:, pp. 237, 242–244. 3508:Rhee, Hong Beom (2007). 3025: 2956:China Central Television 2815:Second Sino-Japanese War 2635:(Anhui): 70,000 soldiers 2484:are locally dominant in 2251:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 2135:Victory over the Muslims 1876:attempt to take Shanghai 1816:for the final time. The 1333: 1251:The uprising was led by 1244:—which they had renamed 1238:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 1075:Tha bin thi koq hhyn don 1007:Taypyng tiangwo yunndonq 921:Traditional Chinese 241:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 122:An 1884 painting of the 8055:19th-century rebellions 7864:Frederick Townsend Ward 6906:Chengde Mountain Resort 6707:Three Eastern Provinces 6357:First Sino-Japanese War 6332:Northern Chinese Famine 6191:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 6089:Qing invasion of Joseon 6005:, University of London. 5843:Thomas Taylor Meadows, 5304:. New York: Routledge. 5270:Andrade, Tonio (2016). 5058:"Marx and the Taipings" 4945:Michael, Franz (1949). 4782:White, Matthew (2011). 4209:Gibb, H. A. R. (1954). 4125:Fytche, Albert (1878). 3891:Encyclopædia Britannica 2898:Flashman and the Dragon 2562:Frederick Townsend Ward 2110: 1868–1910– 1972:Third Battle of Nanjing 1884:Frederick Townsend Ward 1620:God Worshipping Society 1293:and the failure of the 979:Tàipíng tiānguó yùndòng 935:Simplified Chinese 477:Frederick Townsend Ward 7287:Great Qing Copper Coin 7175:Convention of Tientsin 7108:Annotated Bibliography 7056:Qing official headwear 6099:Battle of Shanhai Pass 5993:– BBC discussion with 4453:Deng, Kent G. (2011). 4389:The Languages of China 4215:. Brill. p. 849. 4129:. C. K. Paul. p. 4127:Burma past and present 3358:Pamela Kyle Crossley, 2874: 2826:scorched earth tactics 2706: 2663:Issachar Jacox Roberts 2613:Army: 250,000 soldiers 2552: 2504: 2445: 2314: 2260: 2138: 2010: 1871: 1804:, the local irregular 1747: 1611: 1592:Issachar Jacox Roberts 1511: 1490:as Qing subjects were 1361: 285:Commanders and leaders 87:Century of Humiliation 8110:Wars involving France 8060:Christianity in China 8050:19th century in China 7901:Other notable figures 7458:Battles and campaigns 7361:Draft History of Qing 7220:Treaty of Shimonoseki 7001:performance criticism 6605:Imperial Commissioner 6595:Great Qing Legal Code 6394:Eight-Nation Alliance 6377:Third plague pandemic 6287:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 6211:White Lotus Rebellion 6001:British Library; and 5991:The Taiping Rebellion 5903:Xiucheng, Li (1970). 5001:10.1300/J265v02n02_06 4851:Kiang, Clyde (1992). 4013:"Small Sword Society" 4011:Li, Xiaobing (2012). 3903:Lee, Gregory (2018). 3809:天朝向左，世界向右：近代中西交锋的十字路口 3015:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 2990:Christianity in China 2869: 2704: 2684:, Royal Navy officer 2548:Qing forces retaking 2547: 2498: 2460:, local residents of 2440: 2312: 2277:Chinese folk religion 2258: 2132: 2125:Concurrent rebellions 2004: 1901:and ascension of the 1892:Charles George Gordon 1867:Qing troops retaking 1866: 1745: 1732:White Lotus Rebellion 1600: 1539:Anti-Manchu sentiment 1505: 1444:that they initiated. 1341: 740:Casualties and losses 517:Charles George Gordon 7935:Miscellaneous topics 7777:Empress Dowager Cixi 7292:Great Qing Gold Coin 7225:Treaty of Tarbagatai 7170:Convention of Peking 7050:Pentaglot Dictionary 7032:Literary inquisition 6742:Ever Victorious Army 6575:Deliberative Council 6479:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 6432:1905 Batang uprising 6372:Hundred Days' Reform 6262:Small Swords Society 5650:Carr, Caleb (1992). 5498:. New York: Norton. 4836:Ping-ti, Ho (1959). 4415:Modern Asian Studies 2947:Twilight of a Nation 2903:Harry Paget Flashman 2791:Revive China Society 2645:Ever Victorious Army 2558:Ever Victorious Army 2403:improve this article 2185:Small Swords Society 1939:and was executed by 1888:Ever Victorious Army 1562:imperial examination 1284:House of Aisin-Gioro 1272:Ming–Qing transition 1216:, also known as the 313:Empress Dowager Cixi 266:Small Swords Society 8100:Civil wars in China 7757:(Red Turban rebels) 7721:Other rebel leaders 7490:Northern Expedition 7345:Anti-Qing sentiment 7195:Treaty of the Bogue 7135:Treaty of Nerchinsk 7067:Complete Tang Poems 6747:Green Standard Army 6630:Provincial governor 6600:Imperial Clan Court 6580:Diplomatic missions 6555:Consultative Bureau 6302:Tongzhi Restoration 6181:Afaqi Khoja revolts 6161:Ten Great Campaigns 6069:Jurchen unification 5786:Levenson, Joseph R. 5679:Gray, Jack (1990). 5551:Perry, Elizabeth J. 5467:Spence, Jonathan D. 5430:. New York: Knopf. 5401:Osterhammel, Jürgen 5319:Heath, Ian (1994). 4335:, pp. 275–277. 4266:"Taiping Rebellion" 3804:Wang, Long (2010). 3241:, pp. 652–654. 2809:. American General 2730:genocidal massacres 2617:Green Standard Army 2162:Northern Expedition 2084:Republic of Formosa 1847:on March 19, 1860, 1680:Green Standard Army 1531:population of China 1520:a series of famines 1506:Alleged drawing of 825:Northern Expedition 708:(Red Turban rebels) 45:editing the article 7495:Eastern Expedition 7485:Western Expedition 7230:Treaty of Tientsin 6941:Western Qing tombs 6936:Eastern Qing tombs 6762:Peking Field Force 6506:Manchu Restoration 6399:Declaration of war 6352:Jindandao incident 6171:Lhasa riot of 1750 4695:. March 29, 1862. 4693:The New York Times 4147:Garnaut, Anthony. 3990:Dà qīng wángcháo 4 3762:Richard J. Smith, 3239:Osterhammel (2015) 2877:In popular culture 2865:John King Fairbank 2797:in 1903. Although 2707: 2553: 2505: 2446: 2315: 2261: 2139: 2011: 1872: 1748: 1700:besieging Changsha 1612: 1512: 1438:Jürgen Osterhammel 1362: 1353: Early period 1222:Taiping Revolution 830:Eastern Expedition 820:Western Expedition 8075:Genocides in Asia 7970:Taiping Rebellion 7957: 7956: 7505:Tianjing incident 7451:Taiping Rebellion 7417: 7416: 7328: 7327: 7240:Treaty of Whampoa 7235:Treaty of Wanghia 7210:Treaty of Nanking 7180:Li–Lobanov Treaty 7155:Chefoo Convention 7150:Burlingame Treaty 7021:Kangxi Dictionary 6926:Old Summer Palace 6757:Firearm Battalion 6560:Cup of Solid Gold 6514: 6513: 6459:Manchurian plague 6422:Late Qing reforms 6413:(1901–1912) 6347:Sikkim expedition 6277:Panthay Rebellion 6247:Taiping Rebellion 6223:(1801–1900) 6201:Sino-Nepalese War 6146:Dzungar–Qing Wars 6132:(1683–1799) 6060:(1616–1683) 5967:Taiping Rebellion 5962:Library resources 5914:978-0-275-02723-0 5895:978-0-8047-0476-2 5876:978-0-912966-60-1 5831:. Day & Son. 5711:978-0-19-512503-0 5690:978-0-19-913076-4 5661:978-0-679-41114-7 5606:Brine, Lindesay, 5586:Michael, Franz H. 5514:Michael, Franz H. 5458:978-0-295-80192-6 5437:978-0-307-27173-0 5414:978-0-691-16980-4 5392:978-0-8047-5425-5 5373:978-1-137-53728-7 5107:978-0-674-06624-3 4989:Trends in History 4822:978-0-7864-1204-4 4795:978-0-393-08192-3 4744: 4482:, pp. 13–14. 4300:978-1-136-75439-5 4026:978-1-598-84415-3 3943:978-0-199-68375-8 3916:978-1-787-38168-1 3886:Taiping Rebellion 3872:978-0-295-99969-2 3847:978-1-440-84294-8 3822:978-7-507-52744-5 3729:, pp. 53–54. 3693:, pp. 94–95. 3604:, pp. 44–45. 3580:, pp. 97–99. 3537:, pp. 78–80. 3521:978-1-934-04342-4 3481:978-0-231-11271-0 3404:, pp. 47–49. 3377:, pp. 15–18. 3336:, pp. 14–15. 3324:, pp. 10–12. 3312:, pp. 15–16. 3300:, pp. 4, 10. 3288:, pp. 23–24. 3216:, pp. 11–12. 3214:Meyer-Fong (2013) 3193:978-1-317-26628-0 3065:, pp. 11–16. 2883:historical novels 2807:Chinese Civil War 2641:: 40,000 soldiers 2435: 2434: 2427: 2195:Panthay Rebellion 2151:Panthay Rebellion 1772:Tianjing Incident 1708:capturing Wuchang 1639:guerrilla warfare 1442:social revolution 1412:Hóngyáng zhī luàn 1402:Hóngyáng zhī luàn 1359: Late period 1328:Republic of China 1218:Taiping Civil War 1214:Taiping Rebellion 1210: 1209: 1202: 1201: 1111:Yale Romanization 966:Standard Mandarin 911:Taiping Rebellion 903: 902: 840:Tianjing incident 787:Taiping Rebellion 752: 751: 714:(Black Flag Army) 256:Red Turban rebels 173: 172: 80:Taiping Rebellion 73: 72: 65: 38:layout guidelines 8127: 8065:Christianization 7926: 7892: 7882: 7881: 7872: 7859: 7846: 7833: 7815: 7772:Xianfeng Emperor 7755: 7736: 7713: 7701: 7689: 7678: 7667: 7656: 7644: 7631: 7618: 7605: 7588: 7444: 7437: 7430: 7421: 7420: 7394:New Qing History 7277:Qianlong Tongbao 7255: 7254: 7200:Treaty of Canton 7140:Unequal treaties 6946:Fuling Mausoleum 6545:Advisory Council 6474:Wuchang Uprising 6414: 6317:Tianjin Massacre 6282:Second Opium War 6224: 6186:Sino-Burmese War 6133: 6111:Battle of Penghu 6079:Seven Grievances 6061: 6054: 6053: 6033: 6026: 6019: 6010: 6009: 5950: 5937: 5918: 5899: 5880: 5855:Archdeacon Moule 5840: 5821: 5781: 5724: 5715: 5694: 5665: 5654:. Random House. 5646: 5620: 5593: 5572: 5546: 5521: 5509: 5488: 5476: 5462: 5441: 5429: 5418: 5396: 5377: 5356: 5334: 5315: 5294: 5285: 5251: 5250: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5094:Rowe, William T. 5090: 5081: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5064: 5050: 5044: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5011: 5005: 5004: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4951: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4903: 4897: 4894:Chesneaux (1973) 4891: 4885: 4878: 4872: 4871: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4806: 4800: 4799: 4779: 4773: 4763: 4757: 4751: 4745: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4685: 4679: 4670: 4661: 4652: 4646: 4645: 4609: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4572: 4571: 4523: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4483: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4384: 4378: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4351: 4345: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4314: 4305: 4304: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4261: 4246: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4206: 4200: 4199: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4163:on March 9, 2012 4162: 4155: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4071: 4065: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3984: 3978: 3972: 3963: 3957: 3948: 3947: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3900: 3894: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3771: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3673: 3664: 3658: 3652: 3642: 3633: 3623: 3617: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3569: 3559: 3550: 3547:Kilcourse (2016) 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3525: 3505: 3499: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3465: 3459: 3453: 3444: 3438: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3363: 3356: 3350: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3319: 3313: 3307: 3301: 3295: 3289: 3286:Chesneaux (1973) 3283: 3277: 3276: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3223: 3217: 3211: 3198: 3197: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3163: 3157: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3105: 3104:, p. xxiii. 3099: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3066: 3060: 3043: 3036: 2907:Second Opium War 2901:, the fictional 2775:Franz H. Michael 2682:Second Opium War 2647:: 5,000 soldiers 2623:610,000 soldiers 2622: 2525:Social structure 2499:The retaking of 2430: 2423: 2419: 2416: 2410: 2387: 2379: 2299:Ten Commandments 2111: 2109: 2061: 2060: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2037: 2032: 2031: 2023: 2022: 1899:Xianfeng Emperor 1795:Confucian values 1684:Jintian uprising 1610: 1607: 1566:scholar-official 1485: 1484: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1429:Tobie Meyer-Fong 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1358: 1352: 1346: 1320:provincial power 1295:siege of Beijing 1198: 1197: 1174: 1173: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1133: 1132: 1119: 1118: 1098: 1097: 1077: 1076: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1039: 1038: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1009: 1008: 995: 994: 981: 980: 957: 956: 943: 942: 929: 928: 908: 907: 790: 788: 778: 771: 764: 755: 754: 706: 686: 669: 647: 636: 625: 614: 602: 589: 576: 563: 546: 515: 514: 513: 505: 495: 494: 493: 485: 475: 474: 473: 465: 455: 454: 453: 445: 435: 434: 433: 425: 415: 414: 413: 403: 402: 401: 393: 383: 382: 381: 371: 370: 369: 359: 358: 357: 347: 346: 345: 335: 334: 333: 323: 322: 321: 311: 310: 309: 301:Xianfeng Emperor 299: 298: 297: 246:Co-belligerents: 231: 227: 225: 224: 216: 212: 210: 209: 193: 191: 190: 145: 144: 124:Battle of Anqing 113: 102: 77: 76: 68: 61: 57: 54: 48: 29: 28: 21: 8135: 8134: 8130: 8129: 8128: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8080:Peasant revolts 7960: 7959: 7958: 7953: 7946: 7930: 7922: 7896: 7888: 7876: 7868: 7855: 7842: 7829: 7811: 7760: 7751: 7732: 7716: 7697: 7640: 7627: 7614: 7601: 7564: 7453: 7448: 7418: 7413: 7409:Willow Palisade 7355:Chuang Guandong 7324: 7296: 7246: 7205:Treaty of Kulja 7190:Treaty of Aigun 7123: 7115: 7014:History of Ming 6966: 6960: 6898: 6892: 6818:Special regions 6813: 6752:Imperial Guards 6718: 6510: 6469:1911 Revolution 6415: 6412: 6405: 6382:Boxer Rebellion 6342:Sino-French War 6292:Amur Annexation 6237:First Opium War 6225: 6222: 6215: 6134: 6131: 6122: 6106:Great Clearance 6062: 6059: 6043: 6037: 5987: 5986: 5985: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5958: 5953: 5934: 5915: 5896: 5877: 5712: 5691: 5668:Carl J. Danko, 5662: 5618: 5602: 5600:Further reading 5597: 5580: 5578:Primary sources 5575: 5569: 5506: 5485: 5459: 5438: 5415: 5393: 5374: 5353: 5331: 5312: 5282: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5254: 5247: 5233: 5229: 5216:Kirkus (1983), 5214: 5210: 5199: 5195: 5172: 5168: 5161: 5147: 5143: 5136: 5119: 5115: 5108: 5091: 5084: 5076: 5072: 5062: 5060: 5051: 5047: 5039: 5035: 5012: 5008: 4985: 4981: 4966:10.2307/3635664 4949: 4943: 4939: 4931: 4927: 4919: 4915: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4879: 4875: 4864: 4860: 4849: 4845: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4807: 4803: 4796: 4780: 4776: 4764: 4760: 4752: 4748: 4741:tertiary source 4730: 4728: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4705: 4703: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4678:. Clarke, 1982. 4671: 4664: 4660:. Clarke, 1982. 4653: 4649: 4626:10.2307/2049091 4610: 4601: 4588: 4575: 4544:10.2307/2050633 4524: 4515: 4507: 4503: 4495: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4451: 4447: 4439: 4435: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4385: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4361: 4354: 4346: 4339: 4331: 4327: 4315: 4308: 4301: 4281: 4277: 4262: 4249: 4241: 4237: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4180: 4176: 4166: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4145: 4141: 4123: 4119: 4109: 4107: 4100: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4072: 4068: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4038: 4034: 4027: 4009: 4005: 3994: 3985: 3981: 3973: 3966: 3958: 3951: 3944: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3901: 3897: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3810: 3802: 3798: 3790: 3786: 3778: 3774: 3761: 3757: 3749: 3745: 3737: 3733: 3725: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3701: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3674: 3667: 3659: 3655: 3643: 3636: 3624: 3620: 3612: 3608: 3600: 3596: 3588: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3560: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3506: 3502: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3466: 3462: 3454: 3447: 3439: 3432: 3424: 3420: 3412: 3408: 3400: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3366: 3357: 3353: 3344: 3340: 3332: 3328: 3320: 3316: 3308: 3304: 3296: 3292: 3284: 3280: 3261: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3224: 3220: 3212: 3201: 3194: 3178: 3174: 3165: 3164: 3160: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3119:, pp. 4–7. 3115: 3108: 3100: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3047: 3046: 3040:woodblock print 3037: 3033: 3028: 2980:Boxer Rebellion 2976: 2879: 2811:Joseph Stilwell 2766: 2717:into the army. 2699: 2654: 2542: 2536: 2527: 2518:Zhuang language 2431: 2420: 2414: 2411: 2400: 2388: 2377: 2367: 2307: 2281:God Worshipping 2253: 2247: 2239:Jonathan Spence 2127: 2118: 2106: 2099:Chinese Muslims 2080:Sino-French War 2064:Black Flag Army 1999: 1907:captured Anqing 1903:Tongzhi Emperor 1861: 1851:on May 26, and 1791:Chinese culture 1740: 1663: 1649:in the case of 1630:and indigenous 1608: 1529:Meanwhile, the 1524:First Opium War 1500: 1492:obligated to do 1360: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1336: 1031:Tongyong Pinyin 1021: 1001:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 948:Literal meaning 906: 905: 904: 899: 791: 786: 784: 782: 717: 702: 682: 598: 585: 572: 559: 521: 511: 509: 501: 491: 489: 481: 471: 469: 461: 451: 449: 441: 431: 429: 421: 411: 409: 399: 397: 389: 379: 377: 367: 365: 355: 353: 343: 341: 331: 329: 319: 317: 307: 305: 295: 293: 280: 276:Black Flag Army 234: 222: 220: 207: 205: 188: 186: 161: 139: 138: 137: 136: 127: 116: 115: 114: 105: 104: 103: 69: 58: 52: 49: 43:Please help by 42: 30: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8133: 8123: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7955: 7954: 7951: 7948: 7947: 7945: 7944: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7931: 7929: 7928: 7915: 7910: 7904: 7902: 7898: 7897: 7895: 7894: 7884:Auguste Protet 7874: 7861: 7848: 7835: 7825:Zhang Guoliang 7822: 7817: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7787:Sengge Rinchen 7784: 7779: 7774: 7768: 7766: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7758: 7744: 7739: 7724: 7722: 7718: 7717: 7715: 7714: 7703: 7690: 7679: 7668: 7657: 7646: 7633: 7620: 7607: 7594: 7589: 7581:Hong Tianguifu 7578: 7572: 7570: 7566: 7565: 7563: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7461: 7459: 7455: 7454: 7447: 7446: 7439: 7432: 7424: 7415: 7414: 7412: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7364: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7336: 7334: 7330: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7306: 7304: 7298: 7297: 7295: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7272:Kangxi Tongbao 7269: 7263: 7261: 7252: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7244: 7243: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7145:Boxer Protocol 7137: 7132: 7126: 7124: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7111: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7075: 7070: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7046: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7017: 7010: 7005: 7004: 7003: 6993: 6988: 6981: 6976: 6970: 6968: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6911:Forbidden City 6908: 6902: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6878: 6877: 6876: 6874:General of Ili 6871: 6861: 6860: 6859: 6857:List of ambans 6854: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6832: 6827: 6821: 6819: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6811: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6728: 6726: 6720: 6719: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6710: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6659: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6524: 6522: 6516: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6497: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6444: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6418: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6406: 6404: 6403: 6402: 6401: 6391: 6390: 6389: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6322:Margary Affair 6319: 6314: 6312:Mudan incident 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6252:Nian Rebellion 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6228: 6226: 6221: 6217: 6216: 6214: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6137: 6135: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6115: 6114: 6113: 6103: 6102: 6101: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6065: 6063: 6058: 6051: 6045: 6044: 6036: 6035: 6028: 6021: 6013: 6007: 6006: 5984: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5971: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5956:External links 5954: 5952: 5951: 5938: 5932: 5919: 5913: 5900: 5894: 5881: 5875: 5862: 5852: 5841: 5822: 5796:(4): 436–453. 5782: 5756:(3): 350–366. 5745: 5735:Philip A. Kuhn 5732: 5725: 5716: 5710: 5695: 5689: 5676: 5666: 5660: 5647: 5629:(4): 533–550. 5611: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5573: 5567: 5547: 5522: 5510: 5505:978-0393973518 5504: 5489: 5483: 5463: 5457: 5442: 5436: 5419: 5413: 5397: 5391: 5378: 5372: 5357: 5351: 5335: 5329: 5316: 5311:978-0415214735 5310: 5295: 5286: 5281:978-0691178141 5280: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5245: 5227: 5208: 5193: 5182:(3): 293–296. 5166: 5160:978-1351715942 5159: 5141: 5135:978-0674852457 5134: 5113: 5106: 5082: 5080:, p. 113. 5078:Hayford (2018) 5070: 5054:Little, Daniel 5045: 5033: 5006: 4979: 4960:(4): 469–483. 4937: 4925: 4913: 4898: 4886: 4873: 4858: 4843: 4828: 4821: 4801: 4794: 4774: 4758: 4746: 4726:britannica.com 4713: 4680: 4662: 4647: 4620:(2): 115–124. 4599: 4573: 4513: 4501: 4484: 4472: 4460: 4445: 4441:Michael (1966) 4433: 4404: 4397: 4379: 4367: 4352: 4337: 4333:Andrade (2016) 4325: 4306: 4299: 4275: 4247: 4245:, p. 176. 4235: 4221: 4201: 4194: 4174: 4139: 4117: 4093: 4086: 4066: 4052: 4032: 4025: 4003: 3998:Qing Dynasty 4 3979: 3964: 3949: 3942: 3922: 3915: 3895: 3878: 3871: 3853: 3846: 3828: 3821: 3796: 3794:, p. 173. 3784: 3782:, p. 325. 3772: 3755: 3751:Hayford (2018) 3743: 3739:Elleman (2001) 3731: 3727:Elleman (2001) 3719: 3717:, p. 244. 3707: 3695: 3691:Michael (1966) 3683: 3680:. p. 138. 3665: 3661:Michael (1966) 3653: 3634: 3618: 3606: 3594: 3590:Michael (1966) 3582: 3570: 3551: 3539: 3527: 3520: 3500: 3487: 3480: 3460: 3445: 3430: 3418: 3406: 3391: 3387:Michael (1966) 3379: 3364: 3351: 3345:C. A. Curwen, 3338: 3334:Michael (1966) 3326: 3322:Michael (1966) 3314: 3310:Michael (1966) 3302: 3298:Michael (1966) 3290: 3278: 3255: 3243: 3231: 3218: 3199: 3192: 3172: 3158: 3142: 3138:Michael (1966) 3130: 3121: 3106: 3091: 3079: 3067: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3044: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3010:Nian Rebellion 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2975: 2972: 2887:Robert Elegant 2878: 2875: 2845:Huizhou region 2779:local warlords 2765: 2762: 2698: 2695: 2686:Sir James Hope 2658:Western powers 2653: 2650: 2649: 2648: 2642: 2636: 2630: 2624: 2614: 2570:arms companies 2566:Charles Gordon 2550:Run Prefecture 2538:Main article: 2535: 2532: 2526: 2523: 2503:by Qing troops 2456:subgroup; the 2433: 2432: 2391: 2389: 2382: 2366: 2363: 2306: 2303: 2249:Main article: 2246: 2243: 2193:, who led the 2147:Chinese Muslim 2143:Nian Rebellion 2126: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2076:Nguyễn dynasty 1998: 1995: 1979:Hong Tianguifu 1860: 1857: 1828:by September. 1739: 1736: 1662: 1659: 1632:millenarianism 1580:God the Father 1499: 1496: 1375:), rebellion ( 1355: 1349: 1343: 1335: 1332: 1291:attempted coup 1208: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1192: 1183: 1182: 1176: 1175: 1168: 1159: 1158: 1152: 1151: 1141: 1135: 1134: 1127: 1121: 1120: 1113: 1107: 1106: 1104:Yue: Cantonese 1100: 1099: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1071: 1065: 1064: 1058: 1057: 1047: 1041: 1040: 1033: 1027: 1026: 1017: 1011: 1010: 1003: 997: 996: 989: 983: 982: 975: 969: 968: 962: 961: 960:Transcriptions 953: 952: 949: 945: 944: 937: 931: 930: 923: 917: 916: 913: 912: 901: 900: 898: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 796: 793: 792: 781: 780: 773: 766: 758: 750: 749: 742: 741: 737: 736: 732: 731: 728: 724: 723: 719: 718: 716: 715: 709: 695: 689: 675: 673:Co-commanders: 670: 659: 648: 637: 626: 615: 604: 591: 578: 565: 552: 547: 539:Hong Tianguifu 536: 524: 522: 520: 519: 507: 497:Auguste Protet 487: 467: 447: 427: 417:Zhang Guoliang 407: 395: 375: 363: 351: 339: 337:Sengge Rinchen 327: 315: 303: 290: 287: 286: 282: 281: 279: 278: 273: 268: 263: 253: 248: 243: 237: 235: 233: 232: 229:United Kingdom 217: 202: 197: 183: 180: 179: 175: 174: 171: 170: 167: 163: 162: 159: 157: 153: 152: 149: 141: 140: 131:Battle on the 118: 117: 108: 107: 106: 97: 96: 95: 94: 93: 90: 89: 82: 81: 75: 74: 71: 70: 33: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8132: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8070:Eight Banners 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8045:1864 in China 8043: 8041: 8040:1863 in China 8038: 8036: 8035:1862 in China 8033: 8031: 8030:1861 in China 8028: 8026: 8025:1860 in China 8023: 8021: 8020:1859 in China 8018: 8016: 8015:1858 in China 8013: 8011: 8010:1857 in China 8008: 8006: 8005:1856 in China 8003: 8001: 8000:1855 in China 7998: 7996: 7995:1854 in China 7993: 7991: 7990:1853 in China 7988: 7986: 7985:1852 in China 7983: 7981: 7980:1851 in China 7978: 7976: 7975:1850 in China 7973: 7971: 7968: 7967: 7965: 7949: 7943: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7933: 7927: 7925: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7905: 7903: 7899: 7893: 7891: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7873: 7871: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7858: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7845: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7832: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7814: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7802:Luo Bingzhang 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7756: 7754: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738:(Nian Rebels) 7737: 7735: 7729: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7719: 7712: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7700: 7694: 7691: 7688: 7683: 7680: 7677: 7672: 7669: 7666: 7661: 7658: 7655: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7643: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7617: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7604: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7592:Hong Xuanjiao 7590: 7587: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7567: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7445: 7440: 7438: 7433: 7431: 7426: 7425: 7422: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7384:Manchu people 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7369: 7365: 7363: 7362: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7350:Canton System 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7335: 7331: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7315:Hubu Guanpiao 7313: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7303: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7260: 7256: 7253: 7249: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7142: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7118: 7110: 7109: 7105: 7104: 7103: 7102: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7068: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7051: 7047: 7045: 7044: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7022: 7018: 7016: 7015: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6986: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6965:Society & 6963: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6931:Summer Palace 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6921:Mukden Palace 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6903: 6901: 6897:Palaces & 6895: 6887: 6884: 6883: 6882: 6879: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6862: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6849: 6848: 6845: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6816: 6810: 6807: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6737:Eight Banners 6735: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6721: 6715: 6712: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6651: 6648: 6647: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6590:Grand Council 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6521: 6517: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6410:20th century 6408: 6400: 6397: 6396: 6395: 6392: 6388: 6385: 6384: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6220:19th century 6218: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6138: 6136: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6066: 6064: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6046: 6041: 6034: 6029: 6027: 6022: 6020: 6015: 6014: 6011: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5949:(2): 167–172. 5948: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5925: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5906: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5878: 5872: 5868: 5863: 5860: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5847: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5733: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5717: 5713: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5696: 5692: 5686: 5682: 5677: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5657: 5653: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5617: 5612: 5609: 5605: 5604: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5582: 5570: 5568:0-7190-0990-1 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5537:(1): 90–126. 5536: 5532: 5528: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5501: 5497: 5496: 5490: 5486: 5484:0-393-03844-0 5480: 5475: 5474: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5449: 5443: 5439: 5433: 5428: 5427: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5384: 5379: 5375: 5369: 5365: 5364: 5358: 5354: 5352:0-300-01542-9 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5330:1-85532-346-X 5326: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5307: 5303: 5302: 5296: 5292: 5287: 5283: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5267: 5248: 5246:1-5426-6057-2 5242: 5238: 5231: 5224:(Book review) 5223: 5219: 5212: 5204: 5197: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5162: 5156: 5153:. Routledge. 5152: 5145: 5137: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5117: 5109: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5089: 5087: 5079: 5074: 5059: 5055: 5049: 5042: 5037: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4983: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4948: 4941: 4934: 4929: 4923:, p. 168 4922: 4917: 4909: 4902: 4896:, p. 40. 4895: 4890: 4884:, p. 239 4883: 4877: 4869: 4862: 4854: 4847: 4839: 4832: 4824: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4805: 4797: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4778: 4771: 4767: 4766:Reilly (2011) 4762: 4756:, chapter 13. 4755: 4754:Spence (1996) 4750: 4742: 4727: 4723: 4717: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4677: 4676: 4669: 4667: 4659: 4658: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4595: 4594: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4522: 4520: 4518: 4511:, p. 33. 4510: 4505: 4499:, p. 16. 4498: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4481: 4476: 4470:, p. 11. 4469: 4464: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4416: 4408: 4400: 4398:0-691-06694-9 4394: 4390: 4383: 4377:, chapter 22. 4376: 4375:Spence (1996) 4371: 4365:, chapter 21. 4364: 4363:Spence (1996) 4359: 4357: 4350:, chapter 16. 4349: 4348:Spence (1996) 4344: 4342: 4334: 4329: 4322: 4318: 4317:Reilly (2011) 4313: 4311: 4302: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4287: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4244: 4243:Spence (1999) 4239: 4224: 4222:9-004-07164-4 4218: 4214: 4213: 4205: 4197: 4195:0-295-80055-0 4191: 4187: 4186: 4178: 4159: 4152: 4151: 4143: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4121: 4105: 4104: 4097: 4089: 4087:0-804-75159-5 4083: 4079: 4078: 4070: 4055: 4053:0-700-71026-4 4049: 4045: 4044: 4036: 4028: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4007: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3961: 3960:Spence (1996) 3956: 3954: 3945: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3926: 3918: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3874: 3868: 3864: 3857: 3849: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3824: 3818: 3814: 3807: 3800: 3793: 3788: 3781: 3780:Spence (1996) 3776: 3769: 3765: 3759: 3753:, p. 98. 3752: 3747: 3741:, p. 52. 3740: 3735: 3728: 3723: 3716: 3715:Spence (1996) 3711: 3704: 3703:Spence (1996) 3699: 3692: 3687: 3679: 3672: 3670: 3663:, p. 93. 3662: 3657: 3650: 3646: 3645:Reilly (2011) 3641: 3639: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3615: 3610: 3603: 3602:Reilly (2011) 3598: 3592:, p. 35. 3591: 3586: 3579: 3578:Spence (1996) 3574: 3567: 3563: 3562:Reilly (2011) 3558: 3556: 3548: 3543: 3536: 3535:Spence (1996) 3531: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3512: 3504: 3497: 3491: 3483: 3477: 3473: 3472: 3464: 3458:, p. 64. 3457: 3456:Spence (1996) 3452: 3450: 3443:, p. 20. 3442: 3437: 3435: 3428:, p. 19. 3427: 3422: 3416:, p. 28. 3415: 3410: 3403: 3402:Spence (1996) 3398: 3396: 3389:, p. 23. 3388: 3383: 3376: 3371: 3369: 3361: 3355: 3348: 3342: 3335: 3330: 3323: 3318: 3311: 3306: 3299: 3294: 3287: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3259: 3252: 3251:Spence (1996) 3247: 3240: 3235: 3228: 3222: 3215: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3195: 3189: 3185: 3184: 3176: 3168: 3162: 3155: 3151: 3146: 3139: 3134: 3125: 3118: 3113: 3111: 3103: 3098: 3096: 3088: 3083: 3076: 3071: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3041: 3035: 3031: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2971: 2969: 2968: 2963: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2930: 2929: 2924: 2920: 2918: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2899: 2894: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2873: 2868: 2866: 2861: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2839:Merchants in 2837: 2833: 2832:was reduced. 2831: 2827: 2823: 2822:Yangtze delta 2818: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2703: 2694: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2664: 2659: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2611:Eight Banners 2609: 2608: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2595: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2531: 2522: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2502: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2429: 2426: 2418: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2392:This section 2390: 2386: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2362: 2360: 2359:Tang Zhengcai 2355: 2351: 2349: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2320:Hong Xuanjiao 2311: 2302: 2300: 2295: 2293: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2257: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2226:Dungan revolt 2222: 2220: 2219:Kachin people 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2155:Dungan revolt 2152: 2148: 2144: 2136: 2131: 2122: 2113: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2054: 2052: 2048: 2025: 2017: 2008: 2003: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1982: 1980: 1975: 1973: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1870: 1865: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1838:In May 1860, 1836: 1834: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1744: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1691:Heavenly King 1687: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1604: 1601:A map of the 1599: 1595: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1560:, failed the 1559: 1555: 1550: 1548: 1545:community, a 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1509: 1504: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1483:長毛鬼、長髪鬼、髪逆、髪賊 1478: 1476: 1466: 1456: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1433:Stephen Platt 1430: 1425: 1422: 1416: 1414: 1404: 1394: 1384: 1374: 1340: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1205: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1177: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1122: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1105: 1101: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1059: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1018: 1016: 1012: 1004: 1002: 998: 990: 988: 984: 976: 974: 970: 967: 963: 958: 954: 950: 946: 938: 936: 932: 924: 922: 918: 914: 909: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 797: 794: 789: 779: 774: 772: 767: 765: 760: 759: 756: 748:20–30 million 747: 743: 738: 733: 729: 726: 725: 720: 713: 710: 707: 705: 699: 696: 694:(Nian rebels) 693: 690: 688:(Nian rebels) 687: 685: 679: 676: 674: 671: 668: 663: 660: 658: 657: 652: 649: 646: 641: 638: 635: 630: 627: 624: 619: 616: 613: 608: 605: 603: 601: 595: 592: 590: 588: 582: 579: 577: 575: 569: 566: 564: 562: 556: 553: 551: 550:Hong Xuanjiao 548: 545: 540: 537: 535: 534: 529: 526: 525: 523: 518: 508: 506: 504: 498: 488: 486: 484: 478: 468: 466: 464: 458: 448: 446: 444: 438: 428: 426: 424: 418: 408: 406: 396: 394: 392: 386: 376: 374: 373:Luo Bingzhang 364: 362: 352: 350: 340: 338: 328: 326: 316: 314: 304: 302: 292: 291: 289: 288: 283: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 261: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 238: 236: 230: 218: 215: 203: 201: 200:Later stages: 198: 196: 185: 184: 182: 181: 176: 168: 165: 164: 158: 155: 154: 150: 147: 146: 142: 134: 130: 125: 121: 112: 101: 91: 88: 83: 78: 67: 64: 56: 46: 40: 39: 34:This article 32: 23: 22: 19: 7923: 7908:Fu Shanxiang 7889: 7869: 7856: 7843: 7830: 7820:Zuo Zongtang 7812: 7797:Li Hongzhang 7752: 7733: 7728:Zhang Lexing 7698: 7682:Chen Yucheng 7641: 7636:Wei Changhui 7628: 7623:Xiao Chaogui 7615: 7610:Feng Yunshan 7602: 7597:Yang Xiuqing 7576:Hong Xiuquan 7515:2nd Jiangnan 7500:1st Jiangnan 7450: 7404:Treaty ports 7366: 7359: 7333:Other topics 7106: 7099: 7077: 7065: 7048: 7043:Peiwen Yunfu 7041: 7019: 7012: 6983: 6732:Beiyang Army 6714:Zongli Yamen 6570:Da-Qing Bank 6387:Red Lanterns 6246: 6040:Qing dynasty 6003:Julia Lovell 5999:Frances Wood 5966: 5946: 5942: 5923: 5904: 5885: 5866: 5858: 5844: 5827: 5793: 5789: 5753: 5749: 5738: 5728: 5720: 5700: 5680: 5669: 5651: 5626: 5622: 5607: 5589: 5558: 5534: 5530: 5517: 5494: 5472: 5447: 5425: 5404: 5382: 5362: 5342: 5339:Jian, Youwen 5320: 5300: 5290: 5271: 5236: 5230: 5221: 5211: 5202: 5196: 5179: 5175: 5169: 5150: 5144: 5125: 5116: 5097: 5073: 5063:December 23, 5061:. 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