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The reef stonefish lives most of its life as a solitary animal, and during mating season only aggregates with the opposite sex for a short time. When a female stonefish has reached sexual maturity, she will lay her unfertilized eggs on the floor of the reef. A male will then swim by and release sperm
499:
The reef stonefish eats mostly small fish, shrimp and other crustaceans. It captures prey by sitting motionless on the reef floor and waiting for animals to swim by. The stonefish will then engulf its prey, doing so at incredible speeds. Some stonefish have been recorded striking their prey in 0.015
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The reef stonefish has evolved many adaptations to help them succeed in the reef bottom. Their skin texture and color is highly irregular which helps them hide and remain camouflaged when among rocks and corals. The 13 dorsal spines with attendant venom sacs are an additional adaptation that protect
416:
has 3 spines and 5 or 6 soft rays. The dorsal spines are of equal length with a thicker sheath of skin containing the venom glands at their base. The skin has no scales but there are numerous warts. The pectoral fins are fleshy. The head is wide and flattened. The skin is tough and rough with warts.
555:
soles. Stonefish venom can be fatal at a dose of only 18 mg, which the fish is capable of releasing with only six of its thirteen spines. The protein makeup differs between the three species of stonefish, but in reef stonefish the fatal protein is the
852:"Order Perciformes (Part 10): Suborder Scorpaenoidei: Families Apistidae, Tetrarogidae, Synanceiidae, Aploacrinidae, Perryenidae, Eschmeyeridae, Pataceidae, Gnathanacanthidae, Congiopodidae and Zanclorhynchidae"
1041:
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in 1801 by the German naturalists Marcus
Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider with the type locality given as India. Bloch and Schneider described a new
1485:
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onto the layer of eggs, fertilizing them. Stonefish eggs are fairly large, with young fish hatching well developed. The mating system of the reef stonefish is
819:
551:
in the world. Its dorsal area is lined with 13 spines, each of which has two venom sacs. The spines are sharp and stiff and have been known to pierce
575:. A large dose can be fatal to humans, generally young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems. Medical treatment includes the
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The small upwardly directed eyes have a deep pit behind them with a smaller pit underneath them. This species reaches a maximum recorded
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319:, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the most widespread species of stonefish, mostly found in shallow waters of the
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or firm constrictive bandaging is no longer recommended. Surviving victims may have nerve damage, which can lead to local
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1082:"Verrucotoxin, a stonefish venom, modulates calcium channel activity in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes"
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This fish lives in coral reefs. It may settle on and around rocks and plants, or rest on the seabed.
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the proteins in the venom. The immobilization of venom at penetration site using a
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327:. It possesses highly effective venom which can be lethal to humans. It is the
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includes immersion of the affected limb in hot water; this is thought to help
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are usually brown or grey, and may have areas of yellow, orange, or red. The
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942:(Actinopterygii: Scorpaeniformes: Synanceiidae), in the Mediterranean Sea"
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of 40 cm (16 in) but 27 cm (11 in) is more typical.
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884:"Reef Stonefish, Synanceia verrucosasasa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)"
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is apparent in reef stonefish, with females being larger than males.
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The venom consists of a mixture of proteins, including the hemolytic
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1158:"Notes on reproduction in the estuarine stonefish Synanceia horrida"
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Christopher
Scharpf & Kenneth J. Lazara, eds. (10 March 2022).
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476:. It has since been observed in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and Israel.
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114:
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https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Synanceia_verrucosa.pdf
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contains between 12 and 14 spines and 5 and 7 soft rays while the
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The primary commercial significance of this stonefish is as an
469:
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976:). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.
938:"Evidence for the cccurrence of the Indo-Pacific stonefish,
1042:"Toxic fish spine injury: lessons from 11 years experience"
552:
394:
397:”, an allusion to the warty growths all over its body.
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775:
1055:(1): 7–8. Archived from the original on June 10, 2015.
606:, the proteinaceous verrucotoxin, and the cardiotoxic
935:
669:
10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T114180058A116389039.en
936:Edelist, D.; Spanier, E.; Golani, D. (June 2011).
818:; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.).
779:; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.).
644:Motomura, H.; Matsuura, K. & Khan, M. (2018).
1049:South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal
972:Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (
755:"The Stonefish – The Deadliest Fish in The World"
456:There is recent evidence showing the presence of
1442:
856:The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database
1486:Taxa named by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider
881:
1155:
429:This stonefish lives primarily north of the
858:. Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara
732:. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 478.
464:since at least 2010 as one was caught near
433:. It is the most widespread species in the
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1156:Fewings, D.G.; Squire, L.C. (April 1999).
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563:Effects of the venom include severe pain,
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453:, southern Japan and surrounding Taiwan.
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1188:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
1165:SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin
1131:"First Aid for Marine Bites and Stings"
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362:Eugène Anselme Sébastien Léon Desmarest
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1080:Yazawa, K; Wang, J-W (August 2007).
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1451:IUCN Red List least concern species
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882:McGrouther, M. (21 February 2013).
820:"Genera in the family Synanceiinae"
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655:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
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1481:Taxa named by Marcus Elieser Bloch
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512:pet. It is also sold for meat in
38:Reef stonefish in an aquarium in
946:Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria
486:Reef stonefish on the reef floor
360:, for this species, but in 1856
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1086:British Journal of Pharmacology
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547:The reef stonefish is the most
516:markets. It is consumed in the
830:California Academy of Sciences
795:California Academy of Sciences
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275:Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
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227:(Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
219:(Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
370:which had been described by
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886:. Sydney: Australian Museum
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491:the animal when necessary.
449:and coastal East Africa to
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1471:Marine fish of East Africa
662:: e.T114180058A116389039.
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1065:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
224:Synanceichthys verrucosus
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78:Scientific classification
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728:Smith, J. L. B. (1977).
714:. February 2022 version.
700:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
425:Distribution and habitat
216:Synanceichthys verrucosa
959:10.3750/AIP2011.41.2.09
1476:Fish described in 1801
1135:CSL Antivenom Handbook
1098:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707340
781:"Species in the genus
544:
487:
277:
273:Reef stonefish in the
1197:on Sealife Collection
816:Eschmeyer, William N.
777:Eschmeyer, William N.
583:can reduce the pain.
539:
485:
272:
1137:. www.toxinology.com
543:in a public aquarium
389:means “covered with
312:as being within the
1466:Fish of the Red Sea
1272:Synanceia_verrucosa
1259:Synanceia_verrucosa
1245:Synanceia verrucosa
1215:Synanceia verrucosa
1195:Synanceia verrucosa
1183:Synanceia verrucosa
1040:Taylor, G. (2000).
974:Synanceia verrucosa
940:Synanceia verrucosa
915:Fishes of Australia
909:Synanceia verrucosa
905:Bray, D.J. (2020).
704:Synanceia verrucosa
648:Synanceia verrucosa
541:Synanceia verrucosa
522:Chinese restaurants
460:in the far eastern
445:, ranging from the
431:Tropic of Capricorn
406:Synanceia verrucosa
346:was first formally
344:Synanceia verrucosa
301:, belonging to the
282:Synanceia verrucosa
254:Synanceia thersites
187:Synanceia verrucosa
48:Conservation status
1129:White, J. (2001).
917:. Museums Victoria
730:Smiths' Sea Fishes
545:
488:
293:, is a species of
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232:Scorpaena brachion
1438:
1437:
1410:Open Tree of Life
1207:Taxon identifiers
825:Catalog of Fishes
790:Catalog of Fishes
625:Sexual dimorphism
462:Mediterranean Sea
367:Scorpaena horrida
267:
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243:Synanceia brachio
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169:S. verrucosa
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581:local anesthetic
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374:in 1766, as the
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1139:. Retrieved
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1061:cite journal
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990:"Adaptation"
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759:. Retrieved
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673:. Retrieved
659:
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614:Reproduction
601:
573:tissue death
562:
558:verrucotoxin
546:
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458:S. verrucosa
457:
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443:Indian Ocean
428:
419:total length
405:
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379:
376:type species
365:
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329:type species
325:Indo-Pacific
317:Scorpaenidae
306:Synanceiinae
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145:Scorpaenidae
18:
1319:iNaturalist
1239:Wikispecies
1014:"Nutrition"
675:19 November
621:promiscuity
604:stonustoxin
518:Philippines
401:Description
364:designated
1445:Categories
1193:Photos of
1023:2019-12-06
999:2019-11-04
757:. Petplace
753:Wells, V.
631:References
593:tourniquet
504:Human uses
474:Suez Canal
410:dorsal fin
310:classified
289:or simply
1456:Synanceia
1363:114180058
783:Synanceia
585:First aid
577:antivenom
569:paralysis
560:protein.
524:, and in
514:Hong Kong
500:seconds.
387:verrucosa
380:Synanceia
357:Synanceia
348:described
333:Synanceia
308:which is
303:subfamily
297:, marine
291:stonefish
163:Species:
156:Synanceia
101:Kingdom:
95:Eukaryota
1337:10581485
1293:FishBase
1230:Q2330446
1224:Wikidata
1116:17572694
921:17 April
862:17 April
835:17 April
800:15 April
711:FishBase
589:denature
532:Toxicity
510:aquarium
441:and the
414:anal fin
391:verrucas
339:Taxonomy
323:and the
295:venomous
236:Lacépède
207:Synonyms
141:Family:
115:Chordata
111:Phylum:
105:Animalia
91:Domain:
68:IUCN 3.1
1311:5201174
1141:30 June
1107:2189832
890:30 June
761:30 June
495:Feeding
447:Red Sea
382:. The
321:Red Sea
151:Genus:
131:Order:
121:Class:
66: (
1428:215627
1402:215627
1350:167078
1114:
1104:
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571:, and
470:Israel
314:family
285:, the
260:, 1901
249:, 1829
247:Cuvier
238:, 1801
200:, 1801
196:&
40:Prague
1423:WoRMS
1415:98143
1389:79486
1376:51996
1332:IRMNG
1324:64490
1285:78465
1161:(PDF)
1045:(PDF)
565:shock
526:Japan
466:Yavne
395:warts
352:genus
258:Seale
194:Bloch
1397:OBIS
1371:NCBI
1358:IUCN
1345:ITIS
1306:GBIF
1298:5825
1280:BOLD
1143:2014
1112:PMID
1067:link
923:2022
892:2014
864:2022
837:2022
802:2022
763:2014
734:ISBN
677:2021
660:2018
579:. A
553:boot
1267:AFD
1254:ADW
1102:PMC
1094:doi
1090:151
954:doi
664:doi
528:.
393:or
378:of
331:of
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