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real life reservoirs are invariably heterogeneous therefore it becomes extremely difficult to achieve a uniform sub-cool along the entire horizontal length of a well. As a consequence many operators, when faced with uneven stunted steam chamber development, allow a small quantity of steam to enter into the producer to keep the bitumen in the entire wellbore hot hence keeping its viscosity low with the added benefit of transferring heat to colder parts of the reservoir along the wellbore. Another variation sometimes called
Partial SAGD is used when operators deliberately circulate steam in the producer following a long shut-in period or as a startup procedure. Though a high value of sub-cool is desirable from a thermal efficiency standpoint as it generally includes reduction of steam injection rates but it also results in slightly reduced production due to a corresponding higher viscosity and lower mobility of bitumen caused by lower temperature. Another drawback of very high sub-cool is the possibility of steam pressure eventually not being enough to sustain steam chamber development above the injector, sometimes resulting in collapsed steam chambers where condensed steam floods the injector and precludes further development of the chamber.
426:(AER) news release explained the difference between high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS) and steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD). "HPCSS has been used in oil recovery in Alberta for more than 30 years. The method involves injecting high-pressure steam, well above the ambient reservoir pressure, into a reservoir over a prolonged period of time. As heat softens the bitumen and water dilutes and separates the bitumen from the sand, the pressure creates fractures, cracks and openings through which the bitumen can flow back into the steam-injector wells. HPCSS differs from steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) operations where steam is continuously injected at lower pressures without fracturing the reservoir and uses gravity drainage as the primary recovery mechanism."
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several weeks or months, mobilizing cold bitumen, the well is then shut in for several weeks or months to allow the steam to soak into the formation. Then the flow on the injection well is reversed producing oil through the same injection well bore. The injection and production phases together comprise one cycle. Steam is re-injected to begin a new cycle when oil production rates fall below a critical threshold due to the cooling of the reservoir. Cyclic steam stimulation also has a number of CSS Follow-up or
Enhancement Processes, including Pressure Up and Blow Down (PUBD), Mixed Well Steam Drive and Drainage (MWSDD), Vapor Extraction (Vapex), Liquid Addition to Steam for Enhanced Recovery of Bitumen (LASER) and HPCSS Assisted SAGD and Hybrid Process.
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operations by drilling an infill well between two established operating SAGD well pairs once the SAGD steam chambers have matured to the point where they have merged and are in fluid communication and then what is left to recover in that reservoir area between the operating SAGD well pairs is a 'wedge' of residual, bypassed oil. Wedge well technology has been shown to improve overall recovery rates by 5%-10% at a reduced capital cost as less steam is required once the steam chambers mature to the point where they are in fluid communication and typically at this stage in the recovery process, also commonly known as the 'blow down' phase, the injected steam is replaced with a non-condensable gas such as methane, further reducing production costs.
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reservoirs. The process is relatively insensitive to shale streaks and other vertical barriers to steam and fluid flow because, as the rock is heated, differential thermal expansion allows steam and fluids to gravity flow through to the production well. This allows recovery rates of 60% to 70% of oil in place, even in formations with many thin shale barriers. Thermally, SAGD is generally twice as efficient as the older CSS process, and it results in far fewer wells being damaged by the high pressures associated with CSS. Combined with the higher oil recovery rates achieved, this means that SAGD is much more economic than cyclic steam processes where the reservoir is reasonably thick.
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generates over 5 billion gallons of produced water every day. The concern of using large amounts of water has little to do with proportion of water used, rather the quality of the water. Traditionally close to 70 million cubic metres of the water volume that was used in the SAGD process was fresh, surface, water. There has been a significant reduction in fresh water use as of 2010, when approximately 18 million cubic metres were used. Though to offset the drastic reduction in fresh water use, industry has begun to significantly increase the volume of saline
338:"Petroleum from the Canadian oil sands extracted via surface mining techniques can consume 20 times more water than conventional oil drilling." However, by 2011 there was inadequate data on the amount of water used in the increasingly important steam-assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) method. Evaporators can treat the SAGD produced water to produce high quality freshwater for reuse in SAGD operations. However, evaporators produce a high volume blowdown waste which requires further management.
55:, causing the heated oil to drain into the lower wellbore, where it is pumped out. Dr. Roger Butler, engineer at Imperial Oil from 1955 to 1982, invented the steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process in the 1970s. Butler "developed the concept of using horizontal pairs of wells and injected steam to develop certain deposits of bitumen considered too deep for mining". In 1983 Butler became director of technical programs for the
328:"Petroleum from the Canadian oil sands extracted via surface mining techniques can consume 20 times more water than conventional oil drilling. As a specific example of an underlying data weakness, this figure excludes the increasingly important steam-assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) method. We encourage future researchers to fill this hole.
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higher pressures; then, the cycle switches to production where the resulting hot mixture of bitumen and steam (called a "bitumen emulsion") is pumped up to the surface through the same well, again just like CSS, until the resulting pressure drop slows production to an uneconomical stage. The process is then repeated multiple times." An
263:. The concept coincided with development of directional drilling techniques that allowed companies to drill horizontal wells accurately, cheaply and efficiently, to the point that it became hard to justify drilling a conventional vertical well any more. With the low cost of drilling horizontal well pairs, and the very high
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the void space left by the oil. Associated gas forms, to a certain extent, an insulating heat blanket above (and around) the steam. Oil and water flow is by a countercurrent, gravity driven drainage into the lower well bore. The condensed water and crude oil or bitumen is recovered to the surface by pumps such as
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involved. This, as well as other, more general water saving techniques have allowed surface water usage by oil sands operations to decrease by more than threefold since production first began. Relying upon gravity drainage, SAGD also requires comparatively thick and homogeneous reservoirs, and so is
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to promote the development and use of new technology for oil sands and heavy crude oil production, and enhanced recovery of conventional crude oil. Its first facility was owned and operated by ten industrial participants and received ample government support (Deutsch and McLennan 2005) including from
102:"Petroleum from the Canadian oil sands extracted via surface mining techniques can consume 20 times more water than conventional oil drilling. As a specific example of an underlying data weakness, this figure excludes the increasingly important steam-assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) method."
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In the
Clearwater Formation near Cold Lake, Alberta the high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS) is used. There are both horizontal and vertical wells. Injection is at fracture pressure. There is a 60 m to 180 m spacing for horizontal wells. Vertical wells are spaced at 2 to 8 Acre spacing for
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during the 2000s. While traditional drilling methods were prevalent up until the 1990s, high crude prices of the 21st
Century are encouraging more unconventional methods (such as SAGD) to extract crude oil. The Canadian oil sands have many SAGD projects in progress, since this region is home of one
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of
California. The key to all steam flooding processes is to deliver heat to the producing formation to reduce the viscosity of the heavy oil and enable it to move toward the producing well. The cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) process developed for the California heavy oil fields was able to produce
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eMSAGP is a MEG Energy patented process wherein MEG, in partnership with
Cenovus, developed a modified recovery process dubbed “enhanced Modified Steam and Gas Push” (eMSAGP), a modification of SAGP designed to improve the thermal efficiency of SAGD by utilizing additional producers located midway
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to generate heat that diminishes oil viscosity; alongside carbon dioxide generated by heavy crude oil displace oil toward production wells. One ISC approach is called THAI for Toe to Heel Air
Injection. The THAI facility in Saskatchewan was purchased in 2017 by Proton Technologies Canada Inc., who
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with
Horizontal Well Pairs (700 to 1000 m), Operating pressure 3 to 5 MPa, Burnt Lake SAGD was started with higher operating pressure close to dilation pressure, 75 m to 120 m spacing, Development to as low as 10 m net pay, In areas with or without bottom water, CSOR: 2.8 to 4.0 (at 100% quality),
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production in the
Alberta oil sands uses a technique called high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS), which cycles between two phases: first, steam is injected into an underground oil sands deposit to fracture and heat the formation to soften the bitumen just like CSS does, excepting at even
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Sub-cool is the difference between the saturation temperature (boiling point) of water at the producer pressure and the actual temperature at the same place where the pressure is measured. The higher the liquid level above the producer the lower the temperature and higher is the sub-cool. However,
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of the heavy crude oil or bitumen which allows it to flow down into the lower wellbore. The steam and associated gas rise because of their low density compared to the heavy crude oil below, ensuring that steam is not produced at the lower production well, tend to rise in the steam chamber, filling
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in the oil sands area. However, with the building of natural gas pipelines to outside markets in Canada and the United States, the price of gas has become an important consideration. The fact that natural gas production in Canada has peaked and is now declining is also a problem. Other sources of
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At Foster Creek
Cenovus has employed its patented 'wedge well' technology to recover residual resources bypassed by regular SAGD operations, this improves the total recovery rate of the operation. The 'wedge well' technology works by accessing the residual bitumen that is bypassed in regular SAGD
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A source of large amounts of fresh and brackish water and large water re-cycling facilities are required in order to create the steam for the SAGD process. Water is a popular topic for debate in regards to water use and management. As of 2008, American petroleum production (not limited to SAGD)
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employs cyclic steam or "huff and puff" technology to develop bitumen resources. This technology requires one well bore and the production consists of the injection to fracture and heat the formation prior to the production phases. First steam is injected above the formation fracture point for
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Continuous operation of the injection and production wells at approximately reservoir pressure eliminates the instability problems that plague all high-pressure and cyclic steam processes and SAGD produces a smooth, even production that can be as high as 70% to 80% of oil in place in suitable
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or bitumen that flows down due to gravity, plus recovered water from the condensation of the injected steam. The basis of the SAGD process is that thermal communication is established with the reservoir so that the injected steam forms a "steam chamber". The heat from the steam reduces the
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countries combined. Most of the new production comes from Alberta's vast oil sands deposits. There are two primary methods of oil sands recovery. The strip-mining technique is more familiar to the general public, but can only be used for shallow bitumen deposits. However, the more recent
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SAGD bitumen recovery facility. It was here that their first test of twin (horizontal) SAGD wells took place, proving the feasibility of the concept, briefly achieving positive cash flow in 1992 at a production rate of about 2,000 barrels per day (320 m/d) from three well pairs.
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vertical wells. The development can be as low as 7 m net pay. It is used in areas generally with no to minimal bottom water or top gas. The CSOR is 3.3 to 4.5. The ultimate recovery is predicted at 15 to 35%. SAGD thermal recovery method is also used in Clearwater and
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steam-assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) is better suited to the much larger deep deposits that surround the shallow ones. Much of the expected future growth of production in the Canadian oil sands is predicted to be from SAGD.
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481:, and ISC (for In Situ Combustion). VAPEX, a "gravity-drainage process that uses vapourized solvents rather than steam to displace or produce heavy oil and reduce its viscosity, was also invented by Butler.
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between adjacent SAGD well pairs, at the elevation of the SAGD producers. These additional producers, commonly referred to as “infill” wells, are an integral part of the eMSAGP recovery system.
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Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) and cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) steam injection (oil industry) are two commercially applied primal thermal recovery processes used in the oil sands in
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256:, was the first commercial Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) project and by 2010 Foster Creek "became the largest commercial SAGD project in Alberta to reach royalty payout status. "
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By 2009 the two commercially applied primal thermal recovery processes, steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) and cyclic steam stimulation (CSS), were used in oil sands production in the
231:. One of the main targets of AOSTRA finding of suitable technologies for that part of the Athabasca oil sands that could not be recovered using conventional surface mining technologies.
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In 1984, AOSTRA initiated the Underground Test Facility in the Athabasca oil sands, located between the MacKay Rivers and the Devon River west of the Syncrude plant as an
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Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage emissions are equivalent to what is emitted by the steam flood projects which have long been used to produce heavy oil in California's
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Canada is the largest supplier of imported oil to the United States, supplying over 35% of US imports, much more than Saudi Arabia or Venezuela, and more than all the
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has demonstrated separation of pure hydrogen at this site. Proton's goal is to leave the carbon in the ground and extract only the hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
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Ralph M. Hall, Statement to the Committee on Science and Technology for the Produced Water Utilization Act of 2008, 110th Congress 2d Session, Report 110-801.
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ET-DSP is a patented process that uses electricity to heat oil sands deposits to mobilize bitumen allowing production using simple vertical wells. ISC uses
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1332:"Alberta Energy Regulator orders enhanced monitoring and further steaming restrictions at Primrose and Wolf Lake projects due to bitumen emulsion releases"
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sub-units, such as Grand Rapids Formation, Clearwater Formation, McMurray Formation, General Petroleum Sand, Lloydminster Sand, of the
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and approximately quadrupled North American oil reserves. As of 2011, the oil sands reserves stand at around 169 billion barrels.
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In 1974, Premier of Alberta Peter Lougheed created the Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority (AOSTRA) as an Alberta
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Review of Thermal Recovery Technologies for the Clearwater and Lower Grand Rapids Formations in the Cold Lake Area in Alberta
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As in all thermal recovery processes, cost of steam generation is a major part of the cost of oil production. Historically,
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and heavy crude oil production. AOSTRA quickly supported SAGD as a promising innovation in oil sands extraction technology.
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734:"A New Heavy Oil Recovery Technology to Maximize Performance and to Maximize Performance and Minimize Environmental Impact"
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The original UTF SAGD wells were drilled horizontally from a tunnel in the limestone underburden, accessed with vertical
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generating heat are under consideration, notably gasification of the heavy fractions of the produced bitumen to produce
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858:"Harness Oil and Gas Big Data with Analytics: Optimize Exploration and Production with Data Driven Models"
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to head their heavy oil research effort. He tested the concept with Imperial Oil in 1980, in a pilot at
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of the SAGD process (up to 60% of the oil in place), SAGD is economically attractive to oil companies.
715:"The Opposite of Mining: Tar Sands Steam Extraction Lessens Footprint, but Environmental Costs Remain"
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to 179 billion barrels, which raised Canada's oil reserves to the third highest in the world after
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Diana Glassman; Michele Wucker; Tanushree Isaacman; Corinne Champilou; Annie Zhou (March 2011).
578:"Guide to SAGD (Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage) Reservoir Characterization Using Geostatistics"
47:, one a few metres above the other. High pressure steam is continuously injected into the upper
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1190:"New SAGD technologies show promise in reducing environmental impact of oil sand production"
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which featured one of the first horizontal wells in the industry, with vertical injectors.
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The gravity drainage idea was originally conceived by Dr. Roger Butler, an engineer for
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has been used as a fuel for Canadian oil sands projects, due to the presence of large
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SAGD, a thermal recovery process, consumes large quantities of water and natural gas.
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1360:"Unlocking the oil sands: The late Dr. Roger Butler, Schulich School of Engineering"
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Gu, Fagang; Rismyhr, Oddmund; Kjosavik, Arnfinn; Chan, Mark Y. S. (June 11, 2013).
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939:"Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority. The Canadian Encyclopedia"
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This technology was not at-first commercially viable. It became so during the
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in the 1970s In 1975 Imperial Oil transferred Butler from Sarnia, Ontario to
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The SAGD process of heavy oil or bitumen production is an enhancement on the
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Practical Reservoir Simulation: Using, Assessing, and Developing Results
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The Foster Creek plant in Alberta Canada, built in 1996 and operated by
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that work well for moving high-viscosity fluids with suspended solids.
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to be economic when oil prices are at least US$ 30 to $ 35 per barrel.
1374:"Canadian Patent Database / Base de données sur les brevets canadiens"
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1115:"Optimization of SAGD Wind-down and Blow-down for Athabasca Oil Sands"
1100:"Canadian Patent Database / Base de données sur les brevets canadiens"
137:, but did not work as well to produce bitumen from heavier and deeper
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654:. Canadian International Petroleum Conference. Osum Oil Sands Corp.
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Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority (AOSTRA) 1974
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1318:"Cold Lake bitumen blowout first test for new energy regulator"
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techniques originally developed to produce heavy oil from the
1388:"Canadian Oil Sands & US Shale: Innovation via Necessity"
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AOSTRA is now known as the Alberta Energy Research Institute.
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oil from some portions of the Alberta oil sands, such as the
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Qi Jiang; Bruce Thornton; Jen Russel-Houston; Steve Spence.
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Alternative enhanced oil recovery mechanisms include VAPEX (
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and industry partners. The SAGD process is estimated by the
1273:"Volume and Quality of Water used in Oil and Gas 1976-2010"
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Journal of Environmental Solutions for Oil, Gas, and Mining
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360:
94:
1060:"Harbir Chhina keeps Cenovus Energy Inc. running smoothly"
830:"Canada's Oil Sands: Opportunities and Challenges to 2015"
453:, use the high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS).
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1301:. Thermal in situ oil sands. CNRL. 2013. Archived from
702:(Report). A World Policy Paper. The Water-Energy Nexus.
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Primrose and Wolf Lake in situ oil sands project near
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Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority
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Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority
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479:Electro-Thermal Dynamic Stripping Process (ET-DSP)
297:Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB)
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1075:"Yedlin: Showing cynics how oil business is done"
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381:not suitable for all heavy-oil production areas.
284:of the largest deposits of bitumen in the world (
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1404:SAGD process with a focus on Reverse Emulsions
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413:High pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS)
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493:Enhanced Modified Steam and Gas Push (eMSAGP)
359:, using the nearby (and massive) deposits of
164:In the SAGD process, two parallel horizontal
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773:Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers
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439:Canadian Natural Resources Limited's (CNRL)
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1362:. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary.
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914:The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
435:Predicted ultimate recovery: 45% to 55%.
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583:. Centre for Computational Geostatistics
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554:. Canadian Petroleum Hall of Fame. 2012.
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1275:. Government of Alberta. Archived from
1249:. Government of Alberta. Archived from
960:"History of AOSTRA and accomplishments"
911:
791:
342:Use of natural gas for steam generation
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2431:
1170:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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576:C. V. Deutsch; J. A. McLennan (2005).
384:
319:
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1316:Chris Severson-Baker (29 July 2013).
1247:"Water Use Breakdown in Alberta 2005"
1058:Czarnecka, Marzena (1 January 2013).
235:AOSTRA Underground Test Facility 1984
1488:Frontier exploration and development
1409:Description of SAGD and SAGD history
1349:
1291:
292:have the world's largest deposits).
1414:Example Supplier of SAGD components
1334:. AER. 18 July 2013. Archived from
666:"U.S. Imports by Country of Origin"
229:Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund
13:
1121:. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
741:SPE Distinguished Lecturer Program
712:
397:in the Cold Lake Area in Alberta.
88:Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
14:
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1397:
697:Adding Water to the Energy Agenda
371:Use of water for steam generation
1467:Western Canada Sedimentary Basin
1073:Yedlin, Deborah (19 June 2013).
941:. Historica Foundation of Canada
792:Carlson, M.R. (1 January 2003).
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116:and elsewhere around the world.
67:to promote new technologies for
1419:Key Supplier of SAGD components
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1203:(1). Alberta Innovates: 47–58.
1188:Lightbown, Vicki (April 2015).
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1119:SPE Heavy Oil Conference-Canada
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916:. CRC Press. pp. 165–167.
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856:Holdaway, Keith (13 May 2014),
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769:Canadian Petroleum Hall of Fame
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51:to heat the oil and reduce its
17:Steam-assisted gravity drainage
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745:Society of Petroleum Engineers
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449:, operated by CNRL subsidiary
401:Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS)
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1:
1209:10.3992/1573-2377-374X-1.1.47
1129:– via www.onepetro.org.
533:
432:Lower Grand Rapids Formations
395:Lower Grand Rapids Formations
295:The SAGD process allowed the
1431:Key Supplier of SAGD boilers
1008:"Oil Sands Recorded History"
417:"Roughly 35 per cent of all
35:. It is an advanced form of
7:
1523:Northwestern Alberta Plains
501:
333:The Water-Energy Nexus 2011
153:with the assistance of the
107:The Water-Energy Nexus 2011
10:
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1299:"Cyclic Steam Stimulation"
912:Speight, James G. (2007).
406:Canadian Natural Resources
197:
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27:technology for producing
1550:Northern Rocky Mountains
457:Vapor extraction (Vapex)
424:Alberta Energy Regulator
184:progressive cavity pumps
2459:Stratigraphy of Alberta
1536:North-central foothills
1483:Oil sands and heavy oil
299:to increase its proven
1036:Cite journal requires
988:Cite journal requires
604:Cite journal requires
336:
110:
1835:Glauconitic Sandstone
1218:on September 25, 2014
837:National Energy Board
765:"Dr. Roger M. Butler"
552:"Dr. Roger M. Butler"
508:Enhanced oil recovery
367:to produce the heat.
352:stranded gas reserves
326:
159:National Energy Board
147:Peace River oil sands
100:
43:are drilled into the
25:enhanced oil recovery
2444:Petroleum technology
1507:Depositional regions
447:Clearwater Formation
281:increased oil prices
275:Current applications
130:Kern River Oil Field
114:Kern River Oil Field
76:Geological formation
2062:Beaverhill Lake GRP
1779:Horseshoe Canyon FM
1726:Beaverhill Lake GRP
1575:Northeastern plains
1493:Natural gas liquids
1475:Hydrocarbon history
719:Scientific American
385:Alternative methods
363:, or even building
320:Oil and water nexus
168:are drilled in the
143:Athabasca oil sands
135:Cold Lake oil sands
84:stratigraphic range
63:created by Alberta
39:in which a pair of
2439:Unconventional oil
1940:Porcupine Hills FM
1796:Ribstone Creek MBR
1424:2016-01-25 at the
1015:Alberta Government
967:Alberta Government
899:Alberta Government
443:Cold Lake, Alberta
2426:
2425:
2393:Stony Mountain FM
2271:Mission Canyon FM
2229:Gypsum Springs FM
1533:North-east Plains
1127:10.2118/165481-MS
923:978-0-8493-9067-8
892:"Talk about SAGD"
451:Horizon Oil Sands
224:crown corporation
61:crown corporation
37:steam stimulation
23:; "Sag-D") is an
2466:
2454:Bituminous sands
2327:Saskatchewan GRP
2120:Judith River GRP
2090:Cypress Hills FM
1935:Cypress Hills FM
1926:Southern Alberta
1528:Canadian Rockies
1514:Southern Alberta
1460:
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1390:. June 22, 2015.
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1211:. Archived from
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1146:. Archived from
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365:nuclear reactors
334:
208:Calgary, Alberta
108:
65:Premier Lougheed
41:horizontal wells
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2469:
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2449:Water pollution
2429:
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2427:
2422:
2418:Canadian Shield
2371:Winnipegosis FM
2349:Souris River FM
2305:Three Forks GRP
2076:
2072:Canadian Shield
2057:Cooking Lake FM
1955:Belly River GRP
1920:
1916:Canadian Shield
1845:Sunburst Member
1791:Belly River GRP
1746:Central Alberta
1740:
1736:Canadian Shield
1719:Cooking Lake FM
1657:Lloydminster SS
1627:Grand Rapids FM
1587:Belly River GRP
1570:
1519:Central Alberta
1502:
1469:
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1426:Wayback Machine
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513:Heavy crude oil
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126:steam injection
122:
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80:Mannville Group
29:heavy crude oil
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2224:Gravelbourg FM
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2125:Belly River FM
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1867:Rock Creek MBR
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1398:External links
1396:
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1348:
1323:
1308:
1305:on 2015-10-16.
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1091:
1079:Calgary Herald
1065:
1062:. Alberta Oil.
1047:
1038:|journal=
999:
990:|journal=
951:
937:Wiggins, E.J.
929:
922:
904:
883:
871:978-1118910955
870:
848:
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800:PennWell Books
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265:recovery rates
254:Cenovus Energy
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2361:Davson Bay FM
2359:
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2356:Elk Point GRP
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2315:Big Valley FM
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2298:Souris Valley
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2239:Big Snowy GRP
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2165:Mannville GRP
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2150:Milk River FM
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2098:
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2095:Ravenscrag FM
2093:
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2067:Elk Point GRP
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1985:Mannville GRP
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1975:Milk River FM
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1884:Mount Head FM
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1855:Detrital Beds
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1840:Ostracod Beds
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1830:Mannville GRP
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1731:Elk Point GRP
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1699:Winterburn FM
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1647:Clearwater FM
1645:
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1642:Gen. Petr. SS
1640:
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1617:Mannville GRP
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1338:on 2013-07-30
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1279:on 2011-12-09
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18:
2388:Stonewall FM
2383:Interlake FM
2344:Manitoba GRP
2293:Lodgepole FM
2214:Shaunavon FM
2155:Colorado GRP
2100:Frenchman FM
2082:Saskatchewan
1980:Colorado GRP
1950:Edmonton GRP
1850:Taber Member
1818:Colorado GRP
1806:Brosseau MBR
1801:Victoria MBR
1774:Whitemud MBR
1764:Edmonton GRP
1704:Woodbend GRP
1667:Cummings MBR
1662:Wabiskaw MBR
1597:La Biche GRP
1560:Saskatchewan
1382:
1368:
1340:. Retrieved
1336:the original
1326:
1311:
1303:the original
1293:
1281:. Retrieved
1277:the original
1267:
1255:. Retrieved
1251:the original
1241:
1232:
1220:. Retrieved
1213:the original
1200:
1196:
1155:. Retrieved
1148:the original
1135:
1118:
1108:
1094:
1082:. Retrieved
1078:
1068:
1029:cite journal
1018:. Retrieved
1002:
981:cite journal
970:. Retrieved
954:
943:. Retrieved
932:
913:
907:
898:
886:
875:, retrieved
861:
851:
840:. Retrieved
824:
813:. Retrieved
794:
787:
776:. Retrieved
768:
759:
748:. Retrieved
740:
732:Law, David.
727:
718:
708:
674:, retrieved
669:
660:
647:
618:
597:cite journal
585:. Retrieved
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388:
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309:Saudi Arabia
301:oil reserves
294:
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269:
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248:Foster Creek
238:
221:
204:Imperial Oil
201:
192:
188:
163:
151:Imperial Oil
123:
111:
101:
92:
73:
59:(AOSTRA), a
20:
16:
15:
2413:Deadwood FM
2408:Winnipeg FM
2332:Birdbear FM
2244:Madison GRP
2207:Sawtooth FM
2187:Vanguard FM
2140:Lea Park FM
2135:Foremost FM
2105:Whitemud FM
2037:Crowfoot FM
2005:Sawtooth FM
1965:Foremost FM
1872:Nordegg MBR
1813:Lea Park FM
1759:Scollard FM
1754:Paskapoo FM
1709:Grosmont FM
1672:McMurray FM
1622:McLaren MBR
1607:Joli Fou FM
1592:Lea Park FM
1545:Fort Nelson
1540:Liard River
1498:Natural gas
477:traction),
378:groundwater
348:natural gas
261:mine shafts
120:Description
2433:Categories
2366:Prairie FM
2337:Duperow FM
2320:Torquay FM
2249:Charles FM
2234:Watrous FM
2202:Rierdon FM
2180:Success FM
2175:Cantuar FM
2145:Pakowki FM
2115:Bearpaw FM
2110:Eastend FM
2032:Wabamun FM
2012:Rundle GRP
2000:Rierdon FM
1970:Pakowki FM
1899:Pekisko FM
1889:Elkton MBR
1879:Rundle GRP
1862:Fernie GRP
1823:Cardium FM
1786:Bearpaw FM
1714:Irteton FM
1694:Wabamun FM
1582:Bearpaw FM
1342:2013-07-30
1157:2017-12-31
1020:2008-12-27
972:2008-12-27
945:2008-12-27
877:3 February
842:2016-07-19
815:2016-07-19
778:2016-07-19
750:2016-07-19
676:3 February
587:3 February
534:References
391:Clearwater
2403:Yeoman FM
2398:Herald FM
2376:Ashern FM
2310:Bakken FM
2276:Kisbey SS
2259:Ratcliffe
2192:Ellis GRP
2160:Viking FM
2130:Oldman FM
2047:Ireton FM
2027:Bakken FM
2022:Exshaw FM
1990:Ellis GRP
1960:Oldman FM
1911:Exshaw FM
1894:Shunda FM
1769:Battle FM
1689:Exshaw FM
1637:Sparky SS
1632:Waseca SS
1612:Colony SS
1602:Viking FM
1530:foothills
1283:4 October
523:Oil shale
518:Oil sands
473:etroleum
305:Venezuela
290:Venezuela
212:Cold Lake
179:viscosity
174:crude oil
170:formation
166:oil wells
69:oil sands
53:viscosity
2219:Piper FM
2197:Swift FM
2170:Pense FM
2052:Leduc FM
2042:Nisku FM
2017:Banff FM
1995:Swift FM
1906:Banff FM
1684:Banff FM
1677:Dina MBR
1566:Manitoba
1564:Western
1422:Archived
1166:cite web
502:See also
469:ssisted
331:—
139:deposits
105:—
49:wellbore
2286:Tilston
1257:June 1,
1222:May 22,
1084:19 June
445:in the
419:in situ
241:in-situ
198:History
141:in the
86:in the
33:bitumen
2264:Midale
2254:Poplar
1928:plains
1652:Rex SS
920:
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806:
672:, 2014
486:oxygen
357:syngas
286:Canada
2281:Alida
1216:(PDF)
1193:(PDF)
1151:(PDF)
1144:(PDF)
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963:(PDF)
895:(PDF)
862:Wiley
833:(PDF)
737:(PDF)
700:(PDF)
652:(PDF)
581:(PDF)
528:Mazut
465:apor
1285:2011
1259:2005
1224:2019
1172:link
1086:2013
1042:help
994:help
918:ISBN
879:2014
866:ISBN
804:ISBN
678:2015
610:help
589:2015
393:and
361:coal
307:and
288:and
227:the
145:and
95:OPEC
82:, a
31:and
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1123:doi
670:EIA
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