Standard German phonology

6447:/aɪnstˈʃtrɪtɛnzɪçˈnɔrtvɪntʊntˈzɔnɛ |veːrfɔnˈiːnɛnˈbaɪdɛnvoːldeːrˈʃtɛrkɛrɛˈvɛːrɛ |alsaɪnˈvandɛrɛr |deːrɪnˈaɪnɛnˈvarmɛnˈmantɛlɡɛˈhʏltvaːr |dɛsˈveːɡɛsdaˈheːrˌkaːm ‖ziːˈvʊrdɛnˈaɪnɪç |dasˈdeːrjeːnɪɡɛfyːrdeːnˈʃtɛrkɛrɛnˈɡɛltɛnˈzɔltɛ |deːrdeːnˈvandɛrɛrˈtsvɪŋɛnˈvʏrdɛ |ˈzaɪnɛnˈmantɛlˈaptsuːˌneːmɛn ‖deːrˈnɔrtvɪntbliːsmɪtˈalɛrmaxt |ˈaːbɛrjeːˈmeːreːrbliːs |ˈdɛstoːˈfɛstɛrˈhʏltɛzɪçdeːrˈvandɛrɛrɪnˈzaɪnɛnˈmantɛlaɪn ‖ˈɛntlɪçɡaːpdeːrˈnɔrtvɪntdeːnkampfaʊf ‖nuːnɛrˈvɛrmtɛdiːˈzɔnɛdiːlʊftmɪtˈiːrɛnˈfrɔɪntlɪçɛnˈʃtraːlɛn |ʊntʃoːnnaːxˈveːnɪɡɛnaʊɡɛnˈblɪkɛntsoːkdeːrˈvandɛrɛrˈzaɪnɛnˈmantɛlaʊs ‖daːˈmʊstɛdeːrˈnɔrtvɪntˈtsuːɡeːbɛn |dasdiːˈzɔnɛfɔnˈiːnɛnˈbaɪdɛndeːrˈʃtɛrkɛrɛvaːr/ 1628: 1876: 1864: 153: 6455: 3757: 4816: 6513:

blies mit aller Macht, aber je mehr er blies, desto fester hüllte sich der Wanderer in seinen Mantel ein. Endlich gab der Nordwind den Kampf auf. Nun erwärmte die Sonne die Luft mit ihren freundlichen Strahlen, und schon nach wenigen Augenblicken zog der Wanderer seinen Mantel aus. Da mußte der Nordwind zugeben, daß die Sonne von ihnen beiden der Stärkere war.

6191:. However, in Southern Standard German, in Swiss Standard German and Austrian Standard German, final-obstruent devoicing does not occur and so speakers are more likely to retain the original pronunciation of word-final lenes (although realizing them as fortes may occur because of confusing English spelling with pronunciation). 7812::341–342): "SAG features a wide variety of realizations of the trill. In approximately the past 40 years, the pronunciation norm has changed from an alveolar to a uvular trill. The latter is mostly pronounced as a fricative, either voiced or voiceless. Alveolar trills are still in use, mostly pronounced as an approximant. 6435:, respectively. The phonetic transcription is a fairly narrow transcription of the educated northern accent. The speaker transcribed in the narrow transcription is 62 years old, and he is reading in a colloquial style. Aspiration, glottal stops and devoicing of the lenes after fortes are not transcribed. 6024:

Many English words are used in German, especially in technology and pop culture. Some speakers pronounce them similarly to their native pronunciation, but many speakers change non-native phonemes to similar German phonemes (even if they pronounce them in a rather English manner in an English-language

5717:

occur, some of which are universal and some of which are typical for certain regions or dialect backgrounds. Overall, there is a strong tendency of reduction and contraction. For example, long vowels may be shortened, consonant clusters may be simplified, word-final may be dropped in some cases, and

4624:

The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that

2408:

also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases." This leads to , , , , , being pronounced the same as , , , , , . This merger is usual in the Standard Austrian accent, in which e.g.

6603:

In northern Germany, it appears that in Hanover – perhaps because of the presence of the electoral (later royal) court – a parastandard High German was spoken by the 18th century as well, at least among the educated, with the curious result that Hanover speech – though non-native – became the model

5376:

containing these modified consonants. In many cases, the subjects (mean age = 5.1) avoided making phonotactic violations, opting instead for other consonants or clusters in their speech. This suggests that phonotactic constraints do apply to the speech of German children with phonological delay, at

6512:

Einst stritten sich Nordwind und Sonne, wer von ihnen beiden wohl der Stärkere wäre, als ein Wanderer, der in einen warmen Mantel gehüllt war, des Weges daherkam. Sie wurden einig, daß derjenige für den Stärkeren gelten sollte, der den Wanderer zwingen würde, seinen Mantel abzunehmen. Der Nordwind

5311:

frequencies among individuals decreases with age. After 24 months, infants expand their vowel space individually at different rates. However, if the parents' utterances possess a well-defined vowel space, their children produce clearly distinguished vowel classes earlier. By about three years old,

4868:

In German words there is always one syllable carrying main stress, with all other syllables either being unstressed or carrying a secondary stress. The position of the main stress syllable has been a matter of debate. Traditionally, word stress is seen as falling onto the first stem syllable. In

5769:, the two pairs are homophones for most speakers. The commonest practice is to drop the stop (thus , for both words), but some speakers insert the stop where it is not etymological (, for both words), or they alternate between the two ways. Only a few speakers retain a phonemic distinction. 4873:, word stress is put regularly onto the second-to-last syllable, the penultimate syllable. However, syllable quantity may modify this pattern: a heavy final or prefinal syllable, i.e., one with a long vowel or with one or more consonants in the syllable coda, will usually attract main stress. 5352:, when compared with Dutch-speaking children. This may reflect differences in the languages the children are being exposed to, although the researchers claim that the development of nasals likely cannot be seen apart from the more general phonological system the child is developing. 6604:

of German pronunciation on the stage (Bühnendeutsch), since everywhere else in Germany dialects were still spoken by everyone. Other capitals (Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna) eventually developed their own Umgangssprachen, but the Hanover model remained the ideal.

8798:

Ammon, Ulrich; Bickel, Hans; Ebner, Jakob; Esterhammer, Ruth; Gasser, Markus; Hofer, Lorenz; Kellermeier-Rehbein, Birte; Löffler, Heinrich; Mangott, Doris; Moser, Hans; Schläpfer, Robert; Schloßmacher, Michael; Schmidlin, Regula; Vallaster, Günter (2004),

2346:

is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable." He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic

5672:, are all still distinguished even in unstressed syllables. In this latter case, however, many simplify the system in various degrees. For some speakers, this may go so far as to merge all four into one, hence misspellings by schoolchildren such as 6475: 1612:

in the right places. Such persons apparently have to picture the spellings of the words in question, which impedes the flow of speech. However, the examples above with a non-rhotic context for the disputed vowel distinction speak against this

3405:(twice). It is much more frequent in northern varieties than in the south. It is not usually considered a phoneme. In colloquial and dialectal speech, is often omitted, especially when the word beginning with a vowel is unstressed. 5192:. Children begin to produce protowords near the end of their first year. These words do not approximate adult forms, yet have a specific and consistent meaning. Early word productions are phonetically simple and usually follow the 4761:

in the strict sense of the word. It is disputed whether coda devoicing is due to a constraint which specifically operates on syllable codas or whether it arises from constraints which "protect voicing in privileged positions".

2906:

can be laminal alveolar , laminal post-dental (i.e. fronted alveolar, articulated with the blade of the tongue just behind upper front teeth), or even apical alveolar . Austrian German often uses the post-dental articulation.

2957:

Distribution: Common in the south (Bavaria and many parts of Switzerland and Austria), but it is also found in some speakers in central and northern Germany, especially the elderly. It is also one of possible realizations of

1117:. The authors of the study advocate for ditching the distinction in transcriptions aimed at foreign learners of German. This neutralization may not apply to all dialects with r-vocalization, particularly the southern ones. 6472: 991:

have final syllables which are perceptually very similar, and are nearly or completely identical in some dialects." He also says that "outside of a word context, cannot be distinguished from . (As early as 1847,

6641:

In Hannover wird zweifellos ein Deutsch gesprochen, das sehr nah an der nationalen Aussprachenorm liegt. Aber das gilt auch für andere norddeutsche Städte wie Kiel, Münster oder Rostock. Hannover hat da keine

2953:

Voiced apical coronal trill , either alveolar (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge), or dental (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper front teeth).

7326::73). Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Rather, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the rounded mid back vowel and the rounded mid front vowel ." 7314::72–73). Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Rather, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the unrounded open vowel and the rounded mid back vowel ." 7301::72). Authors do not provide a vowel chart. Rather, they state rather vaguely that "the diphthong is a monosyllabic compound consisting of the unrounded open vowel and the unrounded mid front vowel ." 132:. This standardised pronunciation was invented, rather than coming from any particular German-speaking city. But the pronunciation that Germans usually consider to be closest to the standard is that of 6616: 2935:

Laminal, articulated with the foremost part of the blade of the tongue approaching the foremost part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue resting behind either upper or lower front teeth.

6473: 9369: 2415:'bog' is often pronounced ; this, in contrast with the Standard Northern variety, also happens intervocalically, along with the diphthongization of the laxed vowel to , so that e.g. 8924: 6471: 2440:

With around 22 to 26 phonemes, the German consonant system has an average number of consonants in comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual

1380:. Other authors claim that there is regional variation, a distinction occurring especially in southern variaties of Standard German. In contexts other than before intervocalic 2421:'teacher' is pronounced (the corresponding Standard Northern pronunciation is ). Another feature of the Standard Austrian accent is complete absorption of by the preceding 2938:

Apico-laminal, articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the gums and the foremost part of the blade approaching the foremost part of the hard palate. According to

5348:(sounds before a vowel in a syllable) than Dutch children do. German children, once they reached 16 months, also produced significantly more nasals in syllables containing 9428:"The effect of phonotactic constraints in German-speaking children with delayed phonological acquisition: Evidence from production of word-initial consonant clusters" 5134:; with stress on the root () it means 'to drive around (an obstacle in the street)', and with stress on the prefix () it means 'to run down/over' or 'to knock down'. 1540:, their usage does not follow that of the standard. There is also little agreement across dialects as to whether individual lexical items should be pronounced with 4745:

are unvoiced or at most variably voiced (as stated above), this cannot be called devoicing in the strict sense of the word because it does not involve the loss of

5228:

emerging last. German children often use phonological processes to simplify their early word production. For example, they may delete an unstressed syllable (

3105:

In the Standard Austrian accent, the uvular fricative is also the most common realization, although its voicing is variable (that is, it can be either voiced

562:

In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Bavarian and Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong .

8801:

Variantenwörterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in Österreich, der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südtirol

5426:('we lay'). This pronunciation is frequent all over central and northern Germany. It is characteristic of regional languages and dialects, particularly 5968:

from other languages. Loanwords are often adapted to German phonology but to varying degrees, depending on the speaker and the commonness of the word.

52: 8952:

Goswami, U.; Ziegler, J.; Richardson, U. (2005), "The effects of spelling consistency on phonological awareness: A comparison of English and German",

6560:(German has developed into a pluricentric language separate standard varieties (and hence standard pronunciations)), but refers to these standards as 6557:

Da sich das Deutsche zu einer plurizentrischen Sprache entwickelt hat, bildeten sich jeweils eigene Standardvarietäten (und damit Standardaussprachen)

5527:('horse') are both pronounced . This most commonly occurs in northern and western Germany, where the local dialects did not originally have the sound 5377:

least in the case of word-initial consonant clusters. Additional research has also shown that spelling consistencies seen in German raise children's

4959: 624:

In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong .

605:

In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong .

9044:

Höhle, Barbara; Weissenborn, Jürgen (2003), "German-learning infants' ability to detect unstressed closed-class elements in continuous speech",

9824: 9542: 6373:(always long). However, their status as phonemes is questionable and they are often resolved into sequences either of (short) oral vowel and 4757:

of fortis and lenis sounds in the coda. Fricatives are truly and contrastively voiced in Northern Germany. Therefore, the fricatives undergo

1755:

The following usually are not counted among the German diphthongs as German speakers often feel they are distinct marks of "foreign words" (

9321:

Meibauer, Jörg; Demske, Ulrike; Geilfuß-Wolfgang, Jochen; Pafel, Jürgen; Ramers, Karl-Heinz; Rothweiler, Monika; Steinbach, Markus (2007),

2360:

According to the "lengthless" analysis, the aforementioned "long" diphthongs are analyzed as , , , , , , and . This makes non-prevocalic

6474: 1094:. In each case but the first one, is strongly differentiated from . In regions without r-vocalization, the difference is always present. 6578:"Angeblich sprechen die Hannoveraner das reinste - sprich dialektfreieste - Deutsch und kommen dem Hochdeutschen am nächsten. Stimmt's?" 1109:'grandpa' (traditionally transcribed ) are thus homophones (as ), rather than minimal pairs. The merged vowel has a centralized quality 9461:

Rathcke, Tamara; Mooshammer, Christine (2020), "'Grandpa' or 'opera'? Production and perception of unstressed /a/ and /əʁ/ in German",

6330:

French loanwords, once very numerous, have in part been replaced by native German coinages or more recently English loanwords. Besides

4833: 3098:

states that "with educated professional radio and TV announcers, as with professional actors on the stage and in film, the fricative

1189:

is similarly shortened in those positions, with the difference being that it is shortened also in native words, such as aforementioned

5152:

stage in the early phases of phonological acquisition, during which they produce the sounds they will later use in their first words.

10475: 10086: 3576:

are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels, respectively. For a more detailed analysis see below at

5122:(inseparable prefix) is pronounced , with stress on the second syllable. This word means 'to paraphrase', and its associated noun, 9496: 8357: 5976:

do not occur in native German words but are common in a number of French and English loan words. Many speakers replace them with

5332:, at the extreme limits of the F1–F2 vowel space (i.e., the height and backness of the vowels are made extreme by the infants). 9201: 4390:

Within German dialects, a large variation exists as to the environments which trigger or prevent one realization or the other.

1039: 9427: 8734::88). In the original transcription the vowel length is not indicated, apart from where it is phonemic—that is, for the pairs 4869:

recent analyses, there is agreement that main stress is placed onto one of the last three (stressable) syllables. Within this

10091: 10054: 9781: 9607: 9312: 9268: 9184: 9022: 8914: 8896: 5303:

vowel space of unstressed vowels becomes more centralized. The majority of infants are then capable of stable production of F

3664: 507: 499: 281: 4919:

A set of illustrative examples also stems from Japanese loan words, as these cannot be borrowed with their stress patterns (

6636: 826:

common to all German-speaking areas but Switzerland. As schwa /ə/ is never pronounced here, it also possible to interpret

4348: 2790: 521: 295: 4024:('to smoke'). This exception to the allophonic distribution may be an effect of the morphemic boundary or an example of 9817: 9764: 9739: 9721: 9703: 9628: 9349: 9330: 9166: 8864: 6624:

He spoke the dialect of Hanover, where – as also in the vicinity to the south of this city – German is pronounced best.

3672: 3401:, occurs in careful speech before word stems that begin with a vowel and before stressed vowels word-internally, as in 3292:

in southern varieties. Voiceless lenis consonants continue to contrast with voiceless fortis consonants . The section

535: 320: 9224:

Phonetic and phonological development of stress in German (Doctoral thesis, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany)

8818: 5110:(separable prefix), it means 'to rewrite' and is pronounced , with stress on the first syllable. Its associated noun, 4754: 9673: 9655: 9406: 9293: 9211: 9148: 9002: 8808: 8386: 8148: 5944:

dialects retain the diphthongs. A remnant of their former diphthong character is shown when continues to be written

4855: 1245:

Northern German varieties influenced by Low German could be analyzed as lacking contrasting vowel quantity entirely:

643: 6129:

are usually retained, but some speakers (especially in South Western Germany and Western Austria) replace them with

5450:). However common it is, this pronunciation is considered sub-standard. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending 9926: 4368: 4356: 4340: 4026: 3937: 3533: 3525: 3470: 3454: 3427: 2708: 2639: 4603:

states that they are "to a large extent voiced" in all other environments, but some studies have found the stops

1097:

According to a 2020 study, is not distinguished from unstressed in Northern Standard German. Word pairs such as

10312: 10299: 9853: 7939: 4695: 4677: 3411: 2694: 2625: 2441: 1486:

is an irregularity in a vowel system that otherwise has pairs of long and tense vs. short and lax vowels such as

1089: 897: 589: 554: 288: 34: 9523: 10510: 9878: 8414: 4837: 4738:

are realized as fortis stops. This does not happen in varieties from Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland.

4669: 4159: 3545: 2395: 1081: 1069: 754: 732: 665: 349: 341: 88: 10470: 10435: 10076: 9868: 9810: 9553:(1974), "Linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography", 9141:

Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet

9032: 6333: 3517: 3509: 3443: 3435: 2762: 2666: 597: 573: 302: 128: 3149:

is devoiced after voiceless plosives and fricatives, especially those within the same word, giving the word

10066: 10019: 9863: 5540: 4721: 4713: 4658: 4642: 3553: 3419: 2747: 2701: 2632: 1209: 1045: 1033: 921: 851: 776: 768: 616: 404: 397: 357: 327: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8100: 8081: 8065: 8049: 8033: 7656: 7635: 7558: 7533: 7517: 7481: 7468: 7452: 7285: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7066: 7058: 7054: 7050: 6994: 6990: 6856: 6446: 6432: 6428: 6308: 6304: 6291: 6287: 6274: 6270: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6157: 6156:

is usually retained, but in Northern and Western Germany as well as Luxembourg, it is often replaced with

6153: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6088: 6084: 6067: 6055: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6013: 6009: 5999: 5995: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5926: 5910: 5881: 5872: 5860: 5851: 5839: 5830: 5818: 5809: 5800: 5791: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5612: 5593: 5589: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5512: 5505: 5399: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 4742: 4636: 4614: 4608: 4604: 4502: 4495: 4453: 4446: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4315: 4289: 4271: 3840: 3737: 3733: 3723: 3713: 3703: 3693: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3615: 3607: 3603: 3349: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3285: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3180: 3099: 3042: 3038: 2959: 2947: 2929: 2925: 2914: 2908: 2903: 2889: 2868: 2854: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2813: 2444: 2422: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2352: 2348: 2295: 2258: 2233: 2209: 2184: 2159: 2134: 2110: 2086: 2062: 2038: 2013: 1989: 1964: 1940: 1915: 1849: 1841: 1837: 1825: 1815: 1811: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1703: 1694: 1689: 1677: 1664: 1609: 1605: 1568: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1498: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1454: 1441: 1428: 1415: 1402: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1273: 1264: 1260: 1253: 1249: 1228: 1215: 1203: 1196: 1186: 1182: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1136: 1132: 1063: 1051: 1019: 950: 935: 915: 903: 869: 865: 861: 857: 837: 823: 811: 784: 762: 740: 718: 629: 610: 567: 548: 529: 515: 493: 479: 465: 451: 436: 432: 428: 424: 416: 48: 44: 6061: 4628:

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the

4376: 4332: 4212: 4188: 4168: 4153: 4145: 4117: 4040: 4005: 3986:. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word 3921: 3878: 3852: 3777: 3772: 3563: 3369: 2965: 2731: 2715: 798: 790: 457: 377: 247: 10448: 9994: 9949: 9883: 9858: 7406:

For a detailed discussion of the German consonants from a synchronic and diachronic point of view, see

6424: 5257:

Prosodically, children prefer bisyllabic words with the pattern strong – weak over monosyllabic words.

4321: 4309: 4283: 4257: 4088: 3828: 3760:

A map showing the German dialect area with black/white squares indicating the Ich-Laut and the Ach-Laut

3589: 3462: 3383: 3240: 3232: 3155:

as an example. According to this author, can be reduced to an approximant in an intervocalic position.

3116: 3019: 2770: 2548: 2541: 889: 843: 3163:

describe it as a uvular fricative or approximant . The latter is less likely to occur word-initially.

586:. One source shows it as considerably centralized on the vowel chart (the one shown above), closer to 10609: 10096: 9954: 9939: 6390: 6382: 6374: 6366: 6358: 6350: 6342: 6331: 6170: 6059: 5447: 5361: 5241: 4758: 4719: 4711: 4693: 4675: 4667: 4656: 4640: 4374: 4366: 4354: 4346: 4338: 4330: 4319: 4307: 4301: 4299: 4281: 4265: 4263: 4255: 4249: 4247: 4210: 4200: 4198: 4186: 4176: 4174: 4166: 4151: 4143: 4137: 4135: 4115: 4109: 4107: 4086: 4080: 4078: 4048: 4046: 4038: 4013: 4011: 4003: 3935: 3927: 3919: 3876: 3850: 3834: 3832: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3775: 3678: 3670: 3662: 3654: 3646: 3622: 3597: 3595: 3587: 3571: 3569: 3561: 3551: 3543: 3531: 3523: 3515: 3507: 3468: 3460: 3452: 3441: 3433: 3425: 3417: 3409: 3394: 3381: 3367: 3356: 3246: 3238: 3230: 3192: 3186: 3184: 3172: 3142: 3114: 3106: 3017: 2992: 2984: 2971: 2963: 2921: 2895: 2893: 2858: 2754: 2723: 2393: 2387: 2385: 1853: 1207: 1110: 1087: 1079: 1067: 1055: 1043: 1031: 1023: 958: 944: 942: 929: 927: 919: 895: 887: 878: 876: 849: 841: 827: 815: 796: 788: 774: 766: 752: 746: 744: 730: 724: 722: 663: 641: 633: 614: 595: 587: 579: 571: 552: 533: 519: 505: 497: 483: 471: 469: 455: 256: 9065: 5344:, a phonologically closely related language. German children produce proportionately more nasals in 10480: 10172: 10106: 10071: 8402: 4430:

pairs, since describing them as voiced–voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications,

3358: 3057: 2860: 2850: 485: 267: 20: 9416: 8981: 5842:, while in other dialects or languages, the vowels have changed but the distinction is kept, e.g. 5240:'roof' pronounced ). One case study found that a 17-month-old child acquiring German replaced the 10324: 10217: 10187: 10152: 9944: 9888: 9873: 8331:

In Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland there is no phonetic voice in fricatives either, see

4826: 3929: 3248: 3174: 3144: 3108: 3089: 2591: 2584: 2559: 1855: 1836:

do not recognize these diphthongs as phonemes, and prescribe pronunciations with the long vowels

1112: 1025: 960: 829: 817: 581: 367: 9802: 8776:

Altvater-Mackensen, N.; Fikkert, P. (2007), "On the acquisition of nasals in Dutch and German",

10578: 10365: 10182: 10081: 8294:

induced the writing "(der) doofe" even though the standard pronunciation of the latter word is

6464: 4403: 3254: 3075: 3061: 2994: 2465: 1572: 116: 30: 9618: 8681: 8138: 5185: 5098:

A few homographs with such prefixes exist. They are not perfect homophones. Consider the word

87:

While the spelling of German is officially standardised by an international organisation (the

10199: 10192: 10101: 10014: 10009: 6392: 6384: 6257: 4923:

has a system of pitch accents, completely different from word stress in Germanic languages):

4399: 3183:. The non-syllabic variant of it is not always near-open or central; it is similar to either 2507: 2500: 6854: 5596:

is realised as a back vowel. Here the words are kept distinct as ('sheep') and ('sharp').

3653:

can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed

10568: 10430: 10340: 10319: 10229: 10222: 9966: 6577: 5282: 5274: 5065: 4123: 3648: 2602: 1627: 8635: 5197: 2962:

in the Standard Austrian accent, but a more common alveolar realization is an approximant

1875: 1863: 1018:, the standard pronunciation differentiates from unstressed (which typically belongs to 8: 10558: 10465: 10443: 10400: 10385: 10350: 10294: 10239: 10234: 10113: 9999: 9976: 9921: 9222: 8656: 7218: 6598: 6077: 5940:

long vowels , and after the Middle High German long vowels changed to diphthongs. Most

5435: 5181: 5177: 4475: 4471: 4457: 3911: 3907: 2986: 2973: 2681: 2612: 1575:

rather than an original feature of the language. It is an attempt to "speak as printed" (

973:

notes that "there is a tendency to neutralize the distinction between , , and . That is,

5745:

usually lose their phonemic status. Thus while the standard pronunciation distinguishes

5095:, can function as separable or inseparable prefixes and are stressed or not accordingly. 4969:

Secondary stresses precede the main stress if at least two syllables are present, as in

4607:

to be voiceless word/utterance-initially in most dialects (while still contrasting with

3041:

realize it as a fricative or an approximant. It is also one of possible realizations of

1860:

in the syllable coda, a diphthong ending in may be formed with every stressable vowel:

10455: 10264: 10209: 10204: 10159: 10118: 9911: 9837: 9570: 9450: 9282: 9128: 9088: 8841: 8706: 7262:

are of the same quality as vowels of which they consist. On the page 8, he states that

6524: 6376: 6232: 6042: 5864: 5778: 5714: 5395: 5378: 4689: 3680: 3624: 2518: 2460: 1525: 1506: 152: 10355: 9730:

Rues, Beate; Redecker, Beate; Koch, Evelyn; Wallraff, Uta; Simpson, Adrian P. (2007),

9175:

Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009),

5281:

already show different distributions in the vowel space. Once word production begins,

4962:

reveals that none of the words with four syllables has initial stress, confirming the

1155:

in order to maintain this tense/lax division. Short occur in unstressed syllables of

10583: 10548: 10533: 10517: 10505: 10490: 10460: 10420: 10390: 10370: 10360: 10304: 10284: 10274: 10259: 10244: 10139: 10134: 10061: 10031: 10026: 10004: 9986: 9981: 9971: 9961: 9777: 9760: 9753: 9735: 9717: 9699: 9669: 9651: 9624: 9603: 9574: 9536: 9511: 9402: 9326: 9308: 9289: 9264: 9207: 9180: 9162: 9144: 9132: 9018: 8998: 8969: 8910: 8892: 8873: 8860: 8804: 8410: 8382: 8144: 6554:(the standard pronunciation which is the topic of this dictionary). It also mentions 6033:

are usually pronounced as in RP or General American; some speakers replace them with

5885: 5843: 5373: 5189: 4920: 4770:

As against standard pronunciation rules, in western varieties including those of the

4746: 4461: 3915: 3820: 3656: 3277:

are never aspirated, and neither are any other consonants besides the aforementioned

3265:, and some northern ones do so only in a stressed position. The voiceless affricates 3194: 2846: 2782: 2528: 2487: 2472: 1143:, the German lax vowels require a following consonant, with the notable exception of 1057: 635: 310: 77: 9454: 9092: 6438:

The audio file contains the whole fable and was recorded by a much younger speaker.

5312:

children command the production of all vowels, and they attempt to produce the four

10563: 10495: 10485: 10425: 10415: 10410: 10395: 10380: 10375: 10289: 10279: 10147: 10041: 9934: 9916: 9906: 9691: 9595: 9562: 9470: 9442: 9384: 9228: 9120: 9080: 9053: 8961: 8939: 8845: 8833: 8785: 5485: 5278: 5173: 4621:

in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as .

4427: 4074: 3289: 3208: 3129:

writes that "the place of articulation of the consonant varies from uvular in e.g.

2842: 2814: 2806: 2740: 2687: 2654: 2618: 2577: 2534: 2482: 2455: 1795: 1781: 1529: 1299:

as a spelling pronunciation. Most commonly, they are merged before an intervocalic

9351:

Vowels in Standard Austrian German: An Acoustic-Phonetic and Phonological Analysis

5543:, i.e. a consonant produced by pressing air flow through the tensed lips. Thereby 3522:

occur only in words of foreign origin. In certain varieties, they are replaced by

2857:

that has been reported to occur in unstressed intervocalic positions is retroflex

1501:

has developed out of the spelling of the language rather than from any historical

706:

often lacks syllabic sonorants under the influence of Luxembourgish, so that e.g.

139: 10573: 10553: 10538: 10500: 10405: 10345: 10269: 10254: 10249: 10049: 10036: 9258: 9193: 9099: 9014:

Velar fronting in German dialects: A study in synchronic and diachronic phonology

8886: 5937: 5782: 5489: 5481: 5365: 5345: 5196:

structure CV or CVC, although this generalization has been challenged. The first

5161: 4566: 4362: 4234: 4218: 4182: 4094: 3967: 3480: 3050:

Dorsal continuant, about the quality of which there is not a complete agreement:

2494: 2477: 2381: 1238: 684:, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance 275: 144:(stage German), but the latter has its own definition and is slightly different. 122: 81: 65: 19:

For assistance with IPA transcriptions of German for Knowledge articles, see

5984:

respectively (especially in Southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland), so that

4505:

range from being weakly voiced to almost voiceless after voiceless consonants:

3037:

Distribution: Occurs in some conservative varieties—most speakers with a uvular

1291:

does not exist in some varieties of Standard German, and many authors treat the

10588: 10543: 9550: 8965: 5341: 5313: 5297: 5157: 4629: 4070: 4066: 4054: 993: 335: 9566: 9475: 9446: 9389: 9124: 9084: 8944: 8837: 8140:

Germanistische Sprachwissenschaft: Deutsch als Erst-, Zweit- oder Fremdsprache

5994:) can be pronounced or . Some speakers in Northern and Western Germany merge 4639:

is not considered a fortis–lenis pair, but a simple voiceless–voiced pair, as

3408:

The phonemic status of affricates is controversial. The majority view accepts

2829:

can be uvular, alveolar or even dental, a consonant or a semivowel, see below.

10603: 9748: 9515: 9504:

Acta Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis Ostraviensis. Studia germanistica

9483: 9197: 9012: 8852: 6312: 5465: 5443: 5439: 5225: 4799: 4735: 4674:. However, there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis 4632:; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases. 4618: 4485: 3014: 2918: 2876: 1140: 1078:

and partially also in the coastal regions of Germany, the vowel is closer to

1022:

phoneme, see below). The authors claim that the difference is one of height:

681: 185: 9797: 9057: 7093: 5234:'chocolate' pronounced ), or replace a fricative with a corresponding stop ( 1494:. On the other hand, such irregularities are not ruled out by any principle. 1357:

is possible in this position unless in hypercorrect pronunciation, in which

1003:

by Schiller into the Italian language, to render the distinctly German name

1000: 8973: 7124: 6837: 6835: 5941: 5822: 5785:

diphthong , whereas and developed into . For example, Middle High German

5369: 5290: 3396: 3300: 3166:

Distribution: Almost all areas apart from Bavaria and parts of Switzerland.

2567: 1725: 1502: 1124: 997: 949:

is the Standard Austrian pronunciation. It is also a common realization of

662:('occupy'). It is often considered a complementary allophone together with 9599: 3756: 9277: 8790: 7284::87). Despite their true ending points, Kohler still transcribes them as 6368: 6360: 6352: 6344: 6339: 5821:. In some dialects, the Middle High German vowels have not changed, e.g. 5286: 5266: 5169: 4664: 4206: 3983: 3141:('kick'), depending on back or front vowel contexts." He also notes that 3065: 3045:

in the Standard Austrian accent, but it is less common than a fricative .

239: 209: 202: 197: 180: 156: 111: 7329: 6885: 6832: 5795: 5786: 5611:. Speakers with this merger also often use (instead of formally normal 5588:('sharp') can both be pronounced or . This merger does not occur where 5128:

is also stressed on the second syllable – . Another example is the word

2294:

notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic

1778:

Many German speakers use and as adaptations of the English diphthongs

9232: 6490: 5733:

If the clusters , , , or are followed by another consonant, the stops

5427: 5245: 4840: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4194: 3993: 3219: 954: 907: 787:

has been variously described as somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded

703: 670:, which only rarely or regionally occurs in unstressed syllables (e.g. 387: 214: 190: 9034:

Retroflexion of voiced stops: data from Dhao, Thulung, Afar and German

2865:. Austrian German often uses the laminal denti-alveolar articulation. 9833: 7202: 7200: 5933: 5634: 5509: 5502: 4991:

and inseparable prefixes in verbs and words derived from such verbs:

4771: 4750: 3824: 1631: 1231:). An analogous process has taken place in Danish, as in the cognate 1185:), which cannot occur in unstressed syllables (unless in compounds). 1178: 1156: 1128: 1075: 435:

or as a vocalic realization of syllabic /r̩/. The phonemic status of

420: 73: 69: 9418:

Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft (WSK) Online

8995:

Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English

8288:. On the other hand, the keeping to the variety is so standard that 4815: 2970:. Even more common are uvular realizations, fricatives and a trill 1086:, whereas in west-central Germany it is slightly more open, that is 114:

and the training materials of radio and television stations such as

9320: 8475: 8451: 8432: 8409:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 276–287. 8276:

can devoice in nearly every place once the word has become common;

5965: 5270: 5193: 5149: 4652: 3903: 3500: 3258: 3215: 1601: 677: 40: 7197: 7160: 7158: 7156: 7105: 5269:

of German speakers in their first three years of life. During the

4655:

the lenes (with however some exceptions). Generally, the southern

3388:, which is the usual realization in the Standard Austrian variety. 868:. The latter occurs only in unstressed open syllables, exactly as 80:

thereof as well as the geographical variants and the influence of

9832: 9368:

Moosmüller, Sylvia; Schmid, Carolin; Brandstätter, Julia (2015),

5895: 5308: 5153: 4976:

Suffixes, if containing a stressable vowel, are either stressed (

4460:

in many varieties. The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a

4031: 3495: 3494:). is, however, well-established in loanwords, including German 3377:

a sound variable between a weak fricative and an approximant, and

2872: 133: 9497:"Zum Phonemstatus von Schwa im Deutschen. Eine Bestandsaufnahme" 8983:

First Steps in the Acquisition of German Phonology: A Case Study

8358:"Lautstruktur des Luxemburgischen – Wortübergreifende Phänomene" 6427:". The phonemic transcription treats every instance of and as 4165:

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of

4093:

instead) in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that

3459:

occurs in native words, it only appears in historic clusters of

9620:

Deutsche Sprachgeschichte: vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegewart

8819:"German fricatives: coda devoicing or positional faithfulness?" 7153: 6873: 6104:

is often retained (especially in the South, where word-initial

5630: 5624: 4988: 4795: 4648: 3952: 2880: 9592:

Deutsche Phonologie und Morphologie: Merkmale und Markiertheit

9245:, Faculty of Computer Sciences, Technische Universität München 6551:

die Standardaussprache, die Gegenstand dieses Wörterbuches ist

5621:('arks') is thus pronounced , which makes a minimal pair with 5116:

is also stressed on the first syllable – . On the other hand,

5037:

and a few other inseparable prefixes are stressed on the root.

1295:

phoneme as peripheral and regard a distinction between it and

9583:

Instrumentalphonetisch-auditive R-Untersuchungen im Deutschen

6173:

is applied to English loan words just as to other words e.g.

5349: 5165: 4053:

after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as

570:

has been variously described as close-mid near-front rounded

104: 101:(German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al., 91:) the pronunciation has no official standard and relies on a 9367: 8096: 7809: 7597: 7394: 7021: 4329:

In Western varieties, there is a strong tendency to realize

3918:

varies: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is

3611: 3179:

is a post-vocalic allophone of (mostly dorsal) varieties of

2351:

which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if

1283:

in German is disputed. The distinction between the long lax

765:

has been variously described as open-mid near-front rounded

8797: 8332: 8304: 4065:'daughter', and the same distribution is reconstructed for 4030:, where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate 3982:'little dog'), so theoretically, it could only occur after 1798: 1784: 1597:

in writing by making them distinct in the spoken language).

1470:'blessing'. Even here the vowels can merge, but to a tense 496:

has been variously described as near-close front unrounded

9174: 8884: 8817:

Beckman, Jill; Jessen, Michael; Ringen, Catherine (2009),

8622: 8143:(in German) (2nd, revised ed.). Tübingen: A. Franke. 8017: 8005: 7869: 7777: 7704: 7631: 7529: 7501: 7448: 7335: 7323: 7311: 7298: 7099: 6962: 6891: 6841: 4987:

In addition, German uses different stresses for separable

3053: 2835:

is bilabial–labiodental , rather than purely labiodental .

2380:

shows that they have somewhat different starting points –

1833: 1810:, or they replace them with the native German long vowels 1635: 648:. It occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in 160: 9426:

Ott, Susan; van de Vijver, Ruben; Höhle, Barbara (2006),

9143:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–89, 8997:(2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, 8775: 8574: 8562: 8550: 8538: 6679: 6677: 5340:

The acquisition of nasals in German differs from that of

5273:

stage, vowel distribution has no clear pattern. However,

3202:

Distribution: Widespread, but less common in Switzerland.

3068:, while the velar variant is used in all other positions. 1147:(which is absent in many varieties, as discussed below). 721:

has been variously described as mid near-front unrounded

9729: 8951: 8610: 4782:

if the following word begins with a vowel. For example,

4651:

in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that

3393:

In many varieties of standard German, the glottal stop,

1740:, and as an alternative to disyllabic in words such as 7185: 5724:

may be contracted with preceding consonants, e.g. for

4734:

In varieties from Northern Germany, lenis stops in the

1604:

find it rather difficult to utter longer passages with

918:

has been variously described as open central unrounded

834:

as the vocalic allophone of the syllabic sonorant /r̩/.

9240: 8885:

Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) ,

7175: 7173: 6674: 5355: 875:

Standard Austrian pronunciation of this vowel is back

632:

has been variously described as mid central unrounded

9425: 9079:(2), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 189–221, 8598: 8586: 8204: 6653:

Differences include the pronunciation of the endings

6381:(in the north), or of (long or short) oral vowel and 5920: 5904: 5531:. Some speakers also have peculiar pronunciation for 5368:

and stopping of fricatives) and whether they applied

4398:

Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same

4122:. While it is impossible to know for certain whether 3366:

a fricative which can be fricated less strongly than

1474:: . Scholars who question the existence of a phoneme 1151:

is sometimes considered the lax counterpart of tense

840:

has been variously described as open front unrounded

8168:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 218–234. 7937: 7880: 7878: 7288:, i.e. with higher offsets than those actually have. 7143: 7141: 3064:. The post-palatal variant appears before and after 1589:(i.e. speakers attempt to justify the appearance of 743:

has been variously described as mid front unrounded

39:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see 9645: 9307:(in German) (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, 9238: 8816: 8344: 8319: 7170: 7070: 7033: 7006: 6986: 6975: 6932: 5640:In the standard pronunciation, the vowel qualities 5515:in the beginning of a word, in which case the verb 5360:A 2006 study examined the acquisition of German in 3348:There is no complete agreement about the nature of 9752: 9281: 9192: 7925: 7857: 7833: 7773: 7771: 7769: 7767: 7627: 7625: 7562: 7485: 5599:In umlaut forms, the difference usually reoccurs: 5535:in the middle or end of a word, replacing the in 3621:Some phonologists do not posit a separate phoneme 3160: 110:(Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by 9798:Listen to the pronunciation of German first names 9589: 9463:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9460: 9401:(6th ed.), Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 9377:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9113:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 8979: 8932:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 8891:(in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, 8878:The Consonants of German: Synchrony and Diachrony 8487: 8463: 7989: 7987: 7875: 7805: 7803: 7801: 7250::11, 14). On the page 14, the author states that 7206: 7164: 7138: 7111: 7017: 7015: 5402:at the end of a syllable with or , for instance 4710:); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis 4353:, and the phoneme may be confused or merged with 4010:, even though normally it would be followed by a 3550:is occasionally considered to be an allophone of 1349:. Some authors claim that no distinction between 773:and somewhat lowered open-mid near-front rounded 10601: 9776:(1st ed.), Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2014 , 9397:Morciniec, Norbert; Prędota, Stanisław (2005) , 9396: 9043: 8510: 8508: 8447: 8445: 8443: 8441: 8428: 8426: 8029: 7884: 7821: 7792: 7723: 7652: 7545: 7513: 7464: 7062: 5364:children (specifically, issues with fronting of 4798:phenomenon exists also as a general rule in the 4625:one of these characteristics implies the other. 4002:'woman'), so that a back vowel is followed by a 3071: 2939: 53:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters 9325:(2nd ed.), Stuttgart: Verlag J.B Metzler, 8240: 8238: 7788: 7786: 7764: 7648: 7646: 7644: 7622: 7495: 6058:can be pronounced the same as in English, i.e. 6012:) can be pronounced , or . The realization of 5629:, arguably making the difference between and 4246:is further differentiated into two allophones, 3345:) are retracted to post-velar or even uvular . 2302::180), following the pronouncing dictionaries ( 934:. Because of this, it is sometimes transcribed 702:('donkey'). However, Standard German spoken in 136:. Standard German is sometimes referred to as 95:standard documented in reference works such as 64:is the standard pronunciation or accent of the 8922: 8225: 8223: 8221: 8219: 8092: 8090: 7984: 7798: 7719: 7717: 7715: 7713: 7593: 7591: 7589: 7587: 7390: 7388: 7012: 6958: 6956: 6879: 6108:is common), but many speakers replace it with 5855: 5846: 5265:In 2009, Lintfert examined the development of 5148:Like all infants, German infants go through a 4774:, coda fortis–lenis neutralization results in 3313:and, in varieties that realize them as front, 3207:Retroflex approximant realized like the r in 1038:. However, they tend to be neutralized in the 9818: 9650:(6th ed.), Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 9646:Wierzbicka, Irena; Rynkowska, Teresa (1992), 9339:Meinhold, Gottfried; Stock, Eberhard (1980), 9338: 8520: 8505: 8493: 8438: 8423: 8315: 8313: 8136: 6076:or . German and Austrian speakers tend to be 5914: 5898: 5480:('importance'). The merger occurs neither in 3863:'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in 3558:, especially in southern varieties of German. 3337:and, in varieties that realize them as back, 2883:instead, but that is considered non-standard. 2299: 1177:('psychometry'). They are usually considered 16:Standard pronunciation of the German language 9759:(19th ed.), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 9711: 9521: 9415:Noack, Christina (2023) . "Phoneminventar". 9263:, Continuum International Publishing Group, 9156: 9063: 8289: 8283: 8277: 8270: 8256: 8235: 7962: 7960: 7783: 7754: 7752: 7750: 7748: 7746: 7744: 7685: 7683: 7681: 7679: 7677: 7641: 7612: 7610: 7608: 7606: 7539: 7516::51–52, 84). According to this source, only 7467::51–52, 84). According to this source, only 7432: 7430: 7428: 7379: 7276: 7274: 7272: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7223: 6737: 6735: 6733: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6717: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6561: 6555: 6549: 6543: 6510: 6410: 6404: 6398: 6316: 6295: 6278: 6261: 6236: 6211: 6186: 6180: 6174: 6161: 6144: 6138: 6113: 6092: 6071: 6046: 6003: 5985: 5964:German incorporates a significant number of 5951: 5945: 5889: 5876: 5867: 5834: 5825: 5813: 5804: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5746: 5725: 5719: 5693: 5683: 5673: 5622: 5616: 5606: 5600: 5583: 5577: 5544: 5522: 5516: 5493: 5475: 5469: 5451: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5389: 5249: 5235: 5229: 5129: 5123: 5117: 5111: 5105: 5099: 5090: 5084: 5078: 5072: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5041: 5040:Words beginning with the separable prefixes 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4789: 4783: 4701: 4683: 4590: 4580: 4570: 4556: 4546: 4536: 4526: 4516: 4506: 4489: 4479: 4465: 4382: 4293: 4275: 4241: 4228: 4222: 4101: 4019: 3997: 3987: 3977: 3971: 3961: 3955: 3943: 3894: 3888: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3844: 3814: 3808: 3790: 3783: 3765: 3728: 3718: 3708: 3698: 3688: 3612:Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015) 3486:) or in words with expressive quality (e.g. 3325:are realized as post-palatal . According to 3150: 3136: 3130: 3025: 3000: 2426: 2416: 2410: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2307: 2267: 2242: 2218: 2193: 2168: 2143: 2119: 2095: 2071: 2047: 2022: 1998: 1973: 1949: 1924: 1879:German diphthongs ending in (part 2), from 1867:German diphthongs ending in (part 1), from 1819: 1766: 1756: 1741: 1735: 1729: 1576: 1458: 1445: 1432: 1419: 1406: 1393: 1367: 1358: 1332: 1322: 1313: 1304: 1232: 1219: 1218:when unstressed, as in one pronunciation of 1202:In dialects with r-vocalization, historical 1190: 1160: 1104: 1098: 986: 980: 974: 707: 694: 685: 671: 649: 137: 102: 96: 9648:Samouczek języka niemieckiego: kurs wstępny 9323:Einführung in die germanistische Linguistik 9064:Jessen, Michael; Ringen, Catherine (2002), 9030: 8907:Grundriss der deutschen Grammatik: Das Wort 8216: 8137:Graefen, Gabriele; Liedke, Martina (2012). 8097:Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015 8087: 7897: 7895: 7893: 7810:Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015 7710: 7598:Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015 7584: 7578: 7395:Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015 7385: 7362: 7360: 7358: 7356: 7083: 7081: 7079: 7022:Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015 6953: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6822: 6820: 6818: 6816: 6814: 6781: 6779: 6777: 6775: 6773: 6771: 6715: 6713: 6711: 6709: 6707: 6705: 6703: 6701: 6699: 6697: 6338:, they can also contain the characteristic 5803:('hot' and 'white') became Standard German 4077:, and many Southern German dialects retain 1600:Speakers with an otherwise fairly standard 1206:(phonetically typically a long monophthong 1127:, vowels are often analyzed according to a 953:in northern German varieties influenced by 906:in northern German varieties influenced by 822:. It is a common allophone of the sequence 9825: 9811: 9716:(2nd ed.), New York: Schirmer Books, 9616: 9561:(2), Cambridge University Press: 215–246, 9541:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 9347: 9341:Phonologie der deutschen Gegenwartssprache 9161:, Leipzig: VEB Bibhographisches Institut, 9159:Großes Wörterbuch der deutschen Aussprache 9157:Krech, Eva Maria; Stötzer, Ursula (1982), 8872: 8832:(2), Cambridge University Press: 231–268, 8310: 7978: 7700: 7698: 7407: 7229: 7100:Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015) 6892:Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015) 6842:Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015) 6812: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6798: 6796: 6794: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6753: 6751: 5615:) where it stems from original . The word 5260: 3577: 2932:. There are two variants of these sounds: 2879:accents. A few Austrian accents may use a 1718:has been variously described as , , and . 1712:has been variously described as , , and . 1303:, so that potential minimal pairs such as 1271: 9494: 9474: 9388: 9343:, Leipzig: VEB Bibliographisches Institut 9288:(in German) (3rd ed.). Dudenverlag. 8943: 8904: 8859:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 8789: 8376: 7957: 7741: 7729: 7674: 7662: 7603: 7451::94, 96). According to this source, only 7425: 7413: 7269: 7235: 7191: 6943: 6941: 6688: 6637:"Nicht das beste Hochdeutsch in Hannover" 6498: 6441: 6019: 5552:Many speakers who have a vocalization of 4856:Learn how and when to remove this message 4749:. More accurately, it can be called coda 4069:. However, it is by no means inevitable: 3261:. Many southern dialects do not aspirate 3214:Distribution: Middle Hessian between the 1848:In the varieties where speakers vocalize 1636:Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015 1139:their lax counterparts. Like the English 1103:'opera' (traditionally transcribed ) and 161:Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015 9690: 9549: 9220: 9104:Einführung in die Phonetik des Deutschen 8954:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 8923:Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), 8526: 8514: 8499: 7890: 7353: 7076: 6897: 6694: 6325: 6066:, or as the corresponding native German 5460:), the fricative pronunciation of final 4442:are also considered fortis–lenis pairs. 3893:'fear'. In southeastern regiolects, the 3755: 3745: 3440:; some accept none, some accept all but 3056:describe two fricative variants, namely 1874: 1862: 1706:has been variously described as , and . 1626: 1431:('saws, n.') may be differentiated from 856:. Some scholars differentiate two short 173:Monophthong phonemes of Standard German 151: 9732:Phonetische Transkription des Deutschen 9712:Odom, William; Schollum, Benno (1997), 9636: 9580: 9302: 9276: 9179:, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 8851: 8803:, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 8611:Goswami, Ziegler & Richardson (2005 8244: 8229: 8061: 7966: 7851: 7758: 7735: 7695: 7689: 7668: 7616: 7566: 7489: 7436: 7419: 7341: 7049::86–89) (without length marks, i.e. as 6791: 6748: 6742: 6575: 6505: 5781:vowels and developed into the modern 4600: 3293: 3095: 3081: 2950:has a number of possible realizations: 2942:, this variant is used more frequently. 2376:may also merge, but the vowel chart in 2303: 1829: 1341:'berries' are rendered homophonous, as 1259:These varieties also consistently lack 10602: 9138: 9110: 9098: 9031:Hamann, Silke; Fuchs, Susanne (2010), 8759: 8731: 8575:Altvater-Mackensen & Fikkert (2007 8563:Altvater-Mackensen & Fikkert (2007 8551:Altvater-Mackensen & Fikkert (2007 8539:Altvater-Mackensen & Fikkert (2007 8379:Neuere Entwicklungen in der Phonologie 8194: 8190: 8113: 7913: 7901: 7655::65, 75) This source talks only about 7634::79–80). This source talks only about 7281: 6938: 6908: 6785: 5488:nor in the corresponding varieties of 4611:due to the aspiration of the latter). 3618:only in the Standard Austrian variety. 3352:; it has been variously described as: 3126: 3085: 2853:. The other possible pronunciation of 2377: 1880: 1868: 1376:may be pronounced and , with a tense 1040:Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region 9806: 9747: 9663: 9482: 9435:Advances in Speech Language Pathology 9414: 9256: 8682:"SteakSprayStSp < AADG < TWiki" 8638:. Prowiki.ids-mannheim.de. 2016-04-27 8401: 8198: 8178: 8163: 8125: 8045: 7993: 7845: 7532::90). According to this source, only 7366: 7347: 7247: 7179: 7147: 7087: 7061:in the same open central position ), 7046: 6947: 6920: 6826: 6684: 6403:('balloon') may be realized as or , 5772: 5501:Many speakers do not distinguish the 4494:'seed'). All fortis consonants, i.e. 4393: 3926:, while in Southern varieties, it is 3614:, the uvular allophone is used after 3326: 3010: 2991:, which can be realized as voiceless 2405: 2291: 1807: 1581:) and to differentiate the spellings 1237: 996:'s librettist found it natural, when 970: 715:('put') is pronounced , rather than . 189: 184: 9260:A Critical Introduction to Phonetics 9227:(doctoralThesis), pp. 138–160, 9010: 8992: 8980:Grijzenhout, J.; Joppen, S. (1998), 8599:Ott, van de Vijver & Höhle (2006 8587:Ott, van de Vijver & Höhle (2006 8210: 8099::340). The authors transcribe it as 8077: 7940:"Dialekte - Hessische Zungenbrecher" 6566:(regional and sociolectal variants). 6563:regionale und soziolektale Varianten 5888:has kept the original diphthong in 4838:adding citations to reliable sources 4809: 3857:after front vowels (for instance in 2368:homophonous as or . Non-prevocalic 504:and near-close near-front unrounded 43:. For the distinction between , 9668:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 9525:Variation of vowel length in German 9203:The Sounds of the World's Languages 9139:Kohler, Klaus J. (1999), "German", 9111:Kohler, Klaus J. (1990), "German", 8032::77–78). The authors transcribe it 7053:—the vowel chart on page 87 places 6576:Drösser, Christoph (14 June 2000). 6252:are pronounced the same, as German 6227:are pronounced the same, as German 5915: 5899: 5356:Phonotactic constraints and reading 4361:altogether, secondarily leading to 4227:'chemistry') and after consonants ( 3887:in superregional variants, e.g. in 3823:'. In German, these two sounds are 1806:in English loanwords, according to 1761:). These appear only in loanwords: 1548:. E.g. South Hessian dialects have 1214:) may undergo a shortening akin to 1050:. Conversely, in southern Germany, 13: 9734:(in German) (1st ed.), Narr, 9696:German Pronunciation & Accents 9683: 9623:, vol. 1, Walter de Gruyter, 9017:, Berlin: Language Science Press, 8345:Beckman, Jessen & Ringen (2009 8320:Beckman, Jessen & Ringen (2009 6453: 4185:is better described as backing of 3934:, and in Western varieties, it is 3899:is commonly used here, yielding . 3171:Near-open central unrounded vowel 2999:after voiceless consonants (as in 2888:In the Standard Austrian variety, 1509:/ǣ/ correspond to New High German 640:. and close-mid central unrounded 14: 10621: 9791: 8857:Fundamental Problems in Phonetics 8636:"ZhimAnlaut < AADG < TWiki" 8381:(in German). Berlin: de Gruyter. 7071:Wierzbicka & Rynkowska (1992) 6976:Wierzbicka & Rynkowska (1992) 6423:The sample text is a reading of " 5560:merge this combination with long 5549:('drop') becomes , rather than . 5492:, and therefore in these regions 4729: 4706:'polite' from Middle High German 3906:, the pronunciation of potential 3606:and according to some also after 2789: 2769: 2761: 2753: 2746: 2730: 2722: 2714: 2707: 2700: 2693: 2665: 2638: 2631: 2624: 2601: 2590: 2583: 2566: 2558: 2547: 2540: 2517: 2506: 2499: 1478:do so for the following reasons: 1135:being the tense vowels and short 957:(in which it may even be rounded 518:is near-close near-front rounded 403: 396: 376: 366: 356: 348: 340: 326: 319: 309: 301: 294: 287: 280: 266: 255: 246: 9698:(1st ed.), Munich: LINCOM, 8753: 8724: 8699: 8674: 8657:"SimAnlaut < AADG < TWiki" 8649: 8628: 8616: 8604: 8592: 8580: 8568: 8556: 8544: 8532: 8481: 8469: 8457: 8395: 8370: 8350: 8338: 8325: 8297: 8262: 8250: 8080::48). The author transcribes it 8064::51). The author transcribes it 8048::12). The author transcribes it 7034:Wierzbicka & Rynkowska (1992 7007:Wierzbicka & Rynkowska (1992 6987:Wierzbicka & Rynkowska (1992 6933:Wierzbicka & Rynkowska (1992 6489:Problems playing this file? See 6469: 6290:is usually pronounced as German 6273:is usually pronounced as German 5384: 5381:as they acquire reading skills. 4814: 4240:According to Kohler, the German 3966:. Usually, this ending triggers 3813:the interjection 'oh', 'alas'). 3296:covers the issue in more detail. 3199:, depending on the environment. 3161:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) 1794: 1780: 1532:dialects) have an opposition of 1014:According to the 7th edition of 532:is near-close near-back rounded 431:as an allophone of the sequence 427:. Likewise, some scholars treat 9774:Wielki słownik niemiecko-polski 9637:Wängler, Hans-Heinrich (1961), 9590:van Lessen Kloeke, Wus (1982). 8184: 8172: 8157: 8130: 8118: 8106: 8071: 8055: 8039: 8023: 8011: 7999: 7972: 7931: 7926:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996 7919: 7907: 7863: 7858:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996 7839: 7834:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996 7827: 7815: 7572: 7563:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996 7551: 7523: 7507: 7486:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996 7474: 7458: 7442: 7400: 7372: 7317: 7304: 7291: 7219:Südhessisches Wörterbuch online 7212: 7117: 7112:Rathcke & Mooshammer (2020) 7065:(without length marks, i.e. as 7039: 7027: 7000: 6980: 6968: 6926: 6914: 6847: 4825:needs additional citations for 4765: 4426:. These pairs are often called 4037:The allophonic distribution of 3819:is the German word for 'sound, 3309:Before and after front vowels ( 2392:for the former, open-mid front 2328:to be long, while the vowel in 814:is near-open central unrounded 167: 35:International Phonetic Alphabet 9177:Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch 9066:"Laryngeal features in German" 8778:Linguistics in the Netherlands 8707:"ChipsCh < AADG < TWiki" 8488:Grijzenhout & Joppen (1998 8464:Grijzenhout & Joppen (1998 7536:can be laminal denti-alveolar. 7063:Morciniec & Prędota (2005) 6647: 6629: 6609: 6591: 6569: 6545:Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch 6536: 6087:is often replaced with German 5456:(which corresponds to English 5138: 4484:'father'), and weakest in the 3586:. According to some analyses, 3333:before and after back vowels ( 3306:can be lenited to fricatives . 3072:Morciniec & Prędota (2005) 2940:Morciniec & Prędota (2005) 2928:are fricated more weakly than 2284: 1724:is found only in a handful of 1517:, indicating that the modern 98:Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch 89:Council for German Orthography 1: 9522:Tröster-Mutz, Stefan (2011), 9399:Podręcznik wymowy niemieckiej 8768: 8030:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7885:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7822:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7793:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7724:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7653:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7546:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7514:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 7465:Morciniec & Prędota (2005 6855:"John Wells's phonetic blog: 6397:(in the south). For example, 6169:In Northern Standard German, 6080:when using English loanwords. 4445:Fortis-lenis distinction for 4387:, which may be realized as . 3960:is always pronounced with an 3883:also appears after vocalized 3839:occurs after back vowels and 3498:of non-Germanic origin (e.g. 2911:are always strongly fricated. 2435: 1617: 1524:Although some dialects (e.g. 1521:is not a regular development. 1252:has a different quality than 751:and open-mid front unrounded 729:and open-mid front unrounded 551:is close-mid front unrounded 439:is also debated – see below. 129:Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen 9239:LEO Dictionary Team (2006), 6880:Gilles & Trouvain (2013) 5959: 5541:voiceless bilabial fricative 5248:, or deleted it altogether ( 4496:/p,t,k,f,θ,s,ʃ,ç,x,pf,ts,tʃ/ 3875:'sometimes'). The allophone 3807:(which is found in the word 3782:(which is found in the word 1684: 1672: 1658: 1650: 468:is close near-front rounded 62:phonology of Standard German 7: 10055:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect 9639:Atlas deutscher Sprachlaute 9348:Moosmüller, Sylvia (2007), 8993:Hall, Christopher (2003) , 7125:"radar — Den Danske Ordbog" 6518: 6016:as , however, is uncommon. 5921: 5905: 5244:with the nearest available 5068:are stressed on the prefix. 3773:voiceless palatal fricative 3076:voiced post-velar fricative 1750: 1622: 1482:The existence of a phoneme 1279:The existence of a phoneme 902:is a common realization of 848:and open central unrounded 578:and mid near-front rounded 10: 10626: 9617:von Polenz, Peter (2000), 9370:"Standard Austrian German" 8966:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.06.002 7938:deutschlandfunkkultur.de. 7565::184), based on data from 7488::184), based on data from 6993:can be realized as Polish 6989::412). Authors state that 6599:"Reflections on Diglossia" 6530: 6465:The North Wind and the Sun 6425:The North Wind and the Sun 5936:, and became the modern 5521:(' travels') and the noun 5446:, as is common in German ( 5254:'book' pronounced or ). 5143: 4663:is realized as the voiced 4197:, rather than fronting of 4085:(which can be realized as 3829:complementary distribution 3257:except when preceded by a 2308:Krech & Stötzer (1982) 2300:Meinhold & Stock (1980 2286: 1227:'radar' as (phonemically 795:and open-mid back rounded 613:is close-mid back rounded 107:6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch 18: 10526: 10333: 10127: 9899: 9844: 9641:, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 9585:, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 9567:10.1017/S0047404500004358 9476:10.1017/S0025100320000110 9447:10.1080/14417040600970622 9390:10.1017/S0025100315000055 9221:Lintfert, Britta (2010), 9125:10.1017/S0025100300004084 9085:10.1017/S0952675702004311 9011:Hall, Tracy Alan (2022), 8945:10.1017/S0025100312000278 8905:Eisenberg, Peter (2016), 8838:10.1017/S0952675709990121 8257:Jessen & Ringen (2002 8103:, i.e. as an approximant. 8084:, i.e. as an approximant. 8068:, i.e. as an approximant. 8052:, i.e. as an approximant. 8036:, i.e. as an approximant. 7557:See the x-ray tracing of 7480:See the x-ray tracing of 6418: 6171:final-obstruent devoicing 5713:In everyday speech, more 5448:final-obstruent devoicing 5390:Sound changes and mergers 5335: 5242:voiceless velar fricative 5176:appear next, followed by 4805: 4470:'thaler'), weaker in the 4233:'newt'), and is thus the 4100:, the ancestor of modern 3798:voiceless velar fricative 3329:, in a parallel process, 3294:§ Fortis–lenis pairs 3209:Standard American English 3135:('red') to velar in e.g. 2812: 2805: 2781: 2680: 2611: 2527: 2493: 2452: 1892: 1889: 1646: 1644: 1634:of standard German, from 1123:Although there is also a 454:is close front unrounded 409: 393: 391: 261: 201: 196: 179: 177: 159:of standard German, from 147: 9495:Staffeldt, Sven (2010), 9305:Das Aussprachewörterbuch 9284:Das Aussprachewörterbuch 8888:Das Aussprachewörterbuch 8377:Vennemann, Theo (1986). 7579:Hamann & Fuchs (2010 7520:can be laminal alveolar. 6741:See the vowel charts in 6617:"Reading Heinrich Heine" 6409:('perfume') as or and 6202:are often replaced with 6010:/dʒʊrnaˈlɪst~ʒʊrnaˈlɪst/ 5184:, and finally all other 4960:Japanese words in German 4947:antepenultimate stress: 4904:antepenultimate stress: 4900:ˈTurban, ˈKonsul, ˈBison 3685:otherwise. For example: 3610:. However, according to 3321:), the velar consonants 3311:/ɪ,iː,ʏ,yː,ɛ,ɛː,eː,œ,øː/ 3024:intervocalically (as in 2431:'scarce' is pronounced . 1392:is more stable, so that 1195:'grandpa' (phonemically 1042:towards an open central 1016:Das Aussprachewörterbuch 926:and open back unrounded 442: 68:. It deals with current 21:Help:IPA/Standard German 10087:Regional North American 9666:The Phonology of German 9664:Wiese, Richard (1996), 9581:Ulbrich, Horst (1972), 9058:10.1111/1467-7687.00261 8711:prowiki.ids-mannheim.de 8686:prowiki.ids-mannheim.de 8661:prowiki.ids-mannheim.de 8407:The Phonology of German 8166:The Phonology of German 8164:Wiese, Richard (2000). 7471:can be apical alveolar. 7455:can be apical alveolar. 6683:See the discussions in 6542:Pages 1-2 of the book ( 5932:The Middle High German 5890: 5877: 5868: 5856: 5847: 5796: 5787: 5592:is a front vowel while 5468:standard, for instance 5370:phonotactic constraints 5261:Vowel space development 5156:inventories begin with 5071:Some prefixes, notably 4980:, etc.) or unstressed ( 4971:̩Bib-li- ̩o-the-'ka-rin 4692:stræflich) and a lenis 4298:'brook'), while either 4134:) were pronounced with 4045:after front vowels and 3849:'book'), the allophone 3641:. The phoneme sequence 3448:, and some accept all. 3222:and the Higher Lusatia. 3102:clearly predominates." 3090:voiced uvular fricative 1384:, the contrast between 78:historical developments 31:phonetic transcriptions 10511:Dialects and varieties 10082:Received Pronunciation 9927:American Sign Language 9488:Deutsche Bühnensprache 9303:Mangold, Max (2005) , 8853:Catford, John Cunnison 8290: 8284: 8278: 8271: 7944:Deutschlandfunk Kultur 7207:van Lessen Kloeke 1982 7165:van Lessen Kloeke 1982 6667: 6661: 6655: 6562: 6556: 6550: 6544: 6511: 6499:Phonetic transcription 6458: 6442:Phonemic transcription 6411: 6405: 6399: 6317: 6296: 6279: 6262: 6237: 6212: 6187: 6181: 6175: 6162: 6145: 6139: 6114: 6093: 6072: 6047: 6020:Loanwords from English 6004: 5986: 5952: 5946: 5835: 5826: 5814: 5805: 5765: 5759: 5757:('goose'), as well as 5753: 5747: 5726: 5720: 5694: 5684: 5674: 5637:, for these speakers. 5623: 5617: 5607: 5601: 5584: 5578: 5545: 5523: 5517: 5494: 5476: 5470: 5452: 5422: 5416: 5410: 5404: 5362:phonologically delayed 5250: 5236: 5230: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5091: 5085: 5079: 5073: 5060: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5015: 5009: 5003: 4997: 4790: 4784: 4741:Since the lenis stops 4702: 4684: 4591: 4581: 4571: 4557: 4547: 4537: 4527: 4517: 4507: 4503:/b,d,ɡ,v,ð,z,ʒ,j,r,dʒ/ 4490: 4480: 4466: 4404:manner of articulation 4383: 4294: 4276: 4242: 4229: 4223: 4106:, was pronounced with 4102: 4020: 3998: 3988: 3978: 3972: 3970:(compare for instance 3962: 3956: 3944: 3895: 3889: 3871: 3865: 3859: 3845: 3815: 3809: 3791: 3784: 3766: 3761: 3729: 3719: 3709: 3699: 3689: 3151: 3137: 3131: 3026: 3001: 2427: 2417: 2411: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2268: 2243: 2219: 2194: 2169: 2144: 2120: 2096: 2072: 2048: 2023: 1999: 1974: 1950: 1925: 1884: 1872: 1824:may be pronounced or 1820: 1767: 1757: 1742: 1736: 1730: 1639: 1577: 1573:spelling pronunciation 1459: 1446: 1433: 1420: 1407: 1394: 1368: 1359: 1333: 1323: 1314: 1305: 1233: 1220: 1191: 1181:of tense vowels (thus 1161: 1105: 1099: 987: 981: 975: 708: 695: 686: 672: 650: 482:is close back rounded 164: 138: 117:Westdeutscher Rundfunk 103: 97: 28:This article contains 9600:10.1515/9783111357171 9242:LEO Online Dictionary 9206:. Oxford: Blackwell. 9046:Developmental Science 8476:Meibauer et al. (2007 8452:Meibauer et al. (2007 8433:Meibauer et al. (2007 6457: 6326:Loanwords from French 5464:is prescribed by the 5307:. The variability of 5066:prepositional adverbs 4995:Words beginning with 4964:three-syllable-window 4871:three-syllable window 4501:The lenis consonants 4498:are fully voiceless. 4400:place of articulation 4160:Old English phonology 3759: 3645:is realized as when 2892:may be affricated to 2849:alveolar or laminal 2310:) judge the vowel in 1878: 1866: 1630: 1578:sprechen wie gedruckt 1054:is often realized as 155: 9106:, Berlin: E. Schmidt 8791:10.1075/avt.24.04alt 6506:Orthographic version 6415:('orange') as or . 5576:> or ). Hereby, 5430:in the North, where 4937:penultimate stress: 4898:penultimate stress: 4834:improve this article 3633:instead, along with 3229:The voiceless stops 2983:Voiced uvular trill 2900:before front vowels. 1405:'bid, conjunctive', 1242:, meaning the same. 1131:contrast, with long 415:Some scholars treat 10436:Proto-Indo-European 10092:White South African 9755:Deutsche Aussprache 9555:Language in Society 9257:Lodge, Ken (2009), 8880:, Milano: Cisalpino 7548::51–52, 59, 78, 84) 7336:Krech et al. (2009) 7280:See vowel chart in 5633:, rather than just 4794:becomes . The same 4579:('to chase away'), 4476:unstressed syllable 4406:, namely the pairs 3594:is an allophone of 3054:Krech et al. (2009) 2033:I/he/she/it became 1834:Krech et al. (2009) 1505:; Most examples of 1312:'ear of grain' and 1287:and the long tense 1272:Phonemic status of 1133:/iː,yː,uː,eː,øː,oː/ 1066:is often closer to 1062:(in turn, Standard 174: 9714:German for Singers 9233:10.18419/opus-2671 8874:Cercignani, Fausto 8623:Krech et al. (2009 8333:Ammon et al. (2004 8305:Ammon et al. (2004 8018:Krech et al. (2009 8006:Krech et al. (2009 7870:Krech et al. (2009 7778:Krech et al. (2009 7705:Krech et al. (2009 7632:Krech et al. (2009 7530:Krech et al. (2009 7502:Krech et al. (2009 7449:Krech et al. (2009 7380:Tröster-Mutz (2011 7378:Also supported by 7324:Krech et al. (2009 7312:Krech et al. (2009 7299:Krech et al. (2009 7102:, pp. 40, 72. 6963:Krech et al. (2009 6525:German orthography 6459: 6210:respectively e.g. 6043:th-alveolarization 5779:Middle High German 5773:Middle High German 5379:phonemic awareness 5374:consonant clusters 5190:consonant clusters 4982:-ung, -heit, -isch 4690:Middle High German 4394:Fortis–lenis pairs 4381:, for instance in 3916:stressed syllables 3762: 3432:or the non-native 2179:(you (sg.)) hear! 1935:he/she/it becomes 1885: 1873: 1640: 1507:Middle High German 1159:, for instance in 172: 165: 10597: 10596: 10097:Standard Canadian 9838:world's languages 9783:978-83-01-16182-8 9692:Canepari, Luciano 9609:978-3-484-30117-7 9314:978-3-411-04066-7 9270:978-0-8264-8873-2 9186:978-3-11-018202-6 9024:978-3-96110-398-0 8916:978-3-476-05050-2 8898:978-3-411-04067-4 8213:, pp. 455ff. 7408:Cercignani (1979) 7209:, pp. 11–12. 7114:, pp. 48–50. 6882:, pp. 70–71. 6639:. 7 August 2013. 6481:Traditional fable 6476: 6307:is pronounced as 6258:cot–caught merger 5950:in German (as in 5886:Colognian dialect 5462:⟨g⟩ 5432:⟨g⟩ 5279:unstressed vowels 5125:die Umˈschreibung 5113:die ˈUmschreibung 4866: 4865: 4858: 4599:('fruit juice'). 4462:stressed syllable 4452:The fortis stops 4373:is replaced with 4292:(for instance in 4274:(for instance in 3942:(for instance in 3885:⟨r⟩ 3843:(for instance in 2823: 2822: 2281: 2280: 1818:. Thus, the word 1775:, colloquially: . 1700: 1699: 1595:⟨ä⟩ 1591:⟨e⟩ 1587:⟨ä⟩ 1583:⟨e⟩ 1457:'to stretch' and 1183:/psyːçoːmeːˈtriː/ 419:as an unstressed 413: 412: 10617: 10610:German phonology 10449:Kerkrade dialect 10072:General American 9827: 9820: 9813: 9804: 9803: 9786: 9769: 9758: 9744: 9726: 9708: 9678: 9660: 9642: 9633: 9613: 9594:. Max Niemeyer. 9586: 9577: 9546: 9540: 9532: 9530: 9518: 9501: 9491: 9479: 9478: 9457: 9432: 9422: 9411: 9393: 9392: 9374: 9364: 9363: 9361: 9356: 9344: 9335: 9317: 9299: 9287: 9273: 9253: 9252: 9250: 9235: 9217: 9194:Ladefoged, Peter 9189: 9171: 9153: 9135: 9107: 9100:Kohler, Klaus J. 9095: 9070: 9060: 9040: 9039: 9027: 9007: 8989: 8988: 8976: 8948: 8947: 8929: 8919: 8901: 8881: 8869: 8848: 8823: 8813: 8794: 8793: 8763: 8757: 8751: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8728: 8722: 8721: 8719: 8717: 8703: 8697: 8696: 8694: 8692: 8678: 8672: 8671: 8669: 8667: 8653: 8647: 8646: 8644: 8643: 8632: 8626: 8620: 8614: 8608: 8602: 8596: 8590: 8584: 8578: 8572: 8566: 8560: 8554: 8548: 8542: 8536: 8530: 8524: 8518: 8512: 8503: 8497: 8491: 8485: 8479: 8473: 8467: 8461: 8455: 8449: 8436: 8430: 8421: 8420: 8399: 8393: 8392: 8374: 8368: 8367: 8365: 8364: 8354: 8348: 8342: 8336: 8335:, p. LVII). 8329: 8323: 8317: 8308: 8307:, p. LVII). 8301: 8295: 8293: 8287: 8281: 8275: 8274: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8233: 8227: 8214: 8208: 8202: 8188: 8182: 8176: 8170: 8169: 8161: 8155: 8154: 8134: 8128: 8122: 8116: 8110: 8104: 8102: 8094: 8085: 8083: 8075: 8069: 8067: 8059: 8053: 8051: 8043: 8037: 8035: 8027: 8021: 8015: 8009: 8003: 7997: 7991: 7982: 7979:Moosmüller (2007 7976: 7970: 7964: 7955: 7954: 7952: 7951: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7888: 7882: 7873: 7867: 7861: 7855: 7849: 7843: 7837: 7831: 7825: 7819: 7813: 7807: 7796: 7790: 7781: 7775: 7762: 7756: 7739: 7733: 7727: 7721: 7708: 7702: 7693: 7687: 7672: 7666: 7660: 7658: 7650: 7639: 7637: 7629: 7620: 7614: 7601: 7595: 7582: 7576: 7570: 7560: 7555: 7549: 7543: 7537: 7535: 7527: 7521: 7519: 7511: 7505: 7499: 7493: 7483: 7478: 7472: 7470: 7462: 7456: 7454: 7446: 7440: 7434: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7404: 7398: 7392: 7383: 7376: 7370: 7364: 7351: 7345: 7339: 7333: 7327: 7321: 7315: 7308: 7302: 7295: 7289: 7287: 7278: 7267: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7244: 7233: 7230:von Polenz (2000 7227: 7221: 7216: 7210: 7204: 7195: 7192:Eisenberg (2016) 7189: 7183: 7177: 7168: 7162: 7151: 7145: 7136: 7135: 7133: 7131: 7121: 7115: 7109: 7103: 7097: 7091: 7085: 7074: 7068: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7043: 7037: 7031: 7025: 7019: 7010: 7004: 6998: 6997:, i.e. central . 6996: 6992: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6951: 6945: 6936: 6930: 6924: 6918: 6912: 6906: 6895: 6889: 6883: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6858: 6851: 6845: 6839: 6830: 6824: 6789: 6783: 6746: 6739: 6692: 6681: 6672: 6670: 6664: 6658: 6651: 6645: 6644: 6633: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6613: 6607: 6606: 6595: 6589: 6588: 6573: 6567: 6565: 6559: 6553: 6547: 6540: 6515: 6478: 6477: 6456: 6448: 6434: 6430: 6414: 6408: 6402: 6396: 6388: 6380: 6372: 6364: 6356: 6348: 6337: 6320: 6310: 6306: 6299: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6276: 6272: 6265: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6240: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6190: 6184: 6178: 6165: 6159: 6155: 6148: 6142: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6117: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6090: 6086: 6075: 6069: 6065: 6057: 6050: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6001: 5997: 5989: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5955: 5949: 5928: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5912: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5893: 5883: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5862: 5859: 5853: 5850: 5841: 5838: 5832: 5829: 5820: 5817: 5811: 5808: 5802: 5799: 5793: 5790: 5768: 5762: 5756: 5750: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5729: 5723: 5701: 5691: 5681: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5628: 5620: 5614: 5610: 5604: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5548: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5520: 5514: 5508:from the simple 5507: 5498:is pronounced . 5497: 5486:Alemannic German 5479: 5473: 5463: 5455: 5433: 5425: 5420:('he lay'), but 5419: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5372:to word-initial 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5253: 5239: 5233: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5168:; (contrasting) 5133: 5127: 5121: 5115: 5109: 5103: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5063: 5057: 5051: 5045: 5036: 5030: 5024: 5018: 5012: 5006: 5000: 4861: 4854: 4850: 4847: 4841: 4818: 4810: 4793: 4787: 4744: 4725: 4717: 4705: 4699: 4688:'culpable' from 4687: 4681: 4673: 4662: 4646: 4638: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4598: 4588: 4578: 4564: 4554: 4544: 4535:('red-yellow'), 4534: 4524: 4514: 4504: 4497: 4493: 4483: 4469: 4455: 4449:is unimportant. 4448: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4402:and in the same 4386: 4380: 4372: 4360: 4352: 4344: 4336: 4325: 4317: 4314:may occur after 4313: 4305: 4297: 4291: 4287: 4279: 4273: 4269: 4261: 4253: 4245: 4237:of the phoneme. 4232: 4226: 4216: 4204: 4192: 4180: 4172: 4157: 4149: 4141: 4121: 4113: 4105: 4092: 4084: 4052: 4044: 4023: 4017: 4009: 4001: 3991: 3981: 3975: 3965: 3959: 3947: 3941: 3933: 3925: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3882: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3848: 3842: 3838: 3831:. The allophone 3818: 3812: 3806: 3794: 3787: 3781: 3769: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3725: 3722: 3715: 3712: 3705: 3702: 3695: 3692: 3684: 3676: 3668: 3660: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3617: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3593: 3575: 3567: 3557: 3549: 3537: 3529: 3521: 3513: 3474: 3466: 3458: 3447: 3439: 3431: 3423: 3415: 3400: 3387: 3373: 3362: 3351: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3290:lenis consonants 3287: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3252: 3244: 3236: 3198: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3154: 3148: 3140: 3134: 3120: 3112: 3101: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3023: 3009:). According to 3008: 2998: 2990: 2977: 2969: 2961: 2949: 2931: 2927: 2916: 2910: 2905: 2899: 2891: 2870: 2864: 2856: 2840: 2834: 2828: 2817: 2793: 2773: 2765: 2757: 2750: 2743: 2734: 2726: 2718: 2711: 2704: 2697: 2690: 2669: 2657: 2642: 2635: 2628: 2621: 2605: 2594: 2587: 2580: 2570: 2562: 2551: 2544: 2537: 2521: 2510: 2503: 2450: 2449: 2446: 2430: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2399: 2391: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2339: 2333: 2327: 2321: 2315: 2297: 2290: 2274: 2260: 2250: 2235: 2225: 2211: 2201: 2186: 2176: 2161: 2154:he/she/it dries 2151: 2136: 2126: 2112: 2102: 2088: 2078: 2064: 2054: 2040: 2030: 2015: 2005: 1991: 1981: 1966: 1956: 1942: 1932: 1917: 1887: 1886: 1859: 1851: 1843: 1839: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1813: 1805: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1791: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1774: 1760: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1723: 1717: 1711: 1705: 1696: 1691: 1679: 1666: 1642: 1641: 1611: 1607: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1570: 1559: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1500: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1466: 1456: 1453: 1443: 1440: 1430: 1427: 1417: 1414: 1404: 1401: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1365: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1330: 1320: 1311: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1275: 1266: 1262: 1255: 1251: 1241: 1239:[ˈʁɑːtɑ] 1236: 1230: 1226: 1217: 1213: 1205: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1184: 1176: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1138: 1134: 1116: 1108: 1102: 1093: 1085: 1073: 1065: 1061: 1053: 1049: 1037: 1029: 1021: 990: 984: 978: 964: 952: 948: 937: 933: 925: 917: 905: 901: 893: 882: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 847: 839: 833: 825: 821: 813: 802: 794: 786: 780: 772: 764: 758: 750: 742: 736: 728: 720: 714: 701: 692: 675: 669: 661: 647: 639: 631: 620: 612: 601: 593: 585: 577: 569: 558: 550: 539: 531: 525: 517: 511: 503: 495: 489: 481: 475: 467: 461: 453: 438: 434: 430: 426: 418: 407: 400: 380: 370: 360: 352: 344: 330: 323: 313: 305: 298: 291: 284: 270: 259: 250: 175: 171: 143: 109: 100: 76:as well as with 50: 46: 10625: 10624: 10620: 10619: 10618: 10616: 10615: 10614: 10600: 10599: 10598: 10593: 10522: 10476:Scottish Gaelic 10329: 10183:Standard Modern 10123: 9935:Modern Standard 9895: 9840: 9831: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9772: 9767: 9742: 9724: 9706: 9686: 9684:Further reading 9681: 9676: 9658: 9631: 9610: 9551:Trudgill, Peter 9534: 9533: 9528: 9499: 9430: 9409: 9372: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9333: 9315: 9296: 9271: 9248: 9246: 9214: 9187: 9169: 9151: 9068: 9037: 9025: 9005: 8986: 8927: 8925:"Luxembourgish" 8917: 8899: 8867: 8821: 8811: 8771: 8766: 8758: 8754: 8729: 8725: 8715: 8713: 8705: 8704: 8700: 8690: 8688: 8680: 8679: 8675: 8665: 8663: 8655: 8654: 8650: 8641: 8639: 8634: 8633: 8629: 8621: 8617: 8609: 8605: 8597: 8593: 8585: 8581: 8573: 8569: 8561: 8557: 8549: 8545: 8537: 8533: 8525: 8521: 8513: 8506: 8498: 8494: 8486: 8482: 8474: 8470: 8462: 8458: 8450: 8439: 8431: 8424: 8417: 8400: 8396: 8389: 8375: 8371: 8362: 8360: 8356: 8355: 8351: 8343: 8339: 8330: 8326: 8318: 8311: 8302: 8298: 8282:is devoiced in 8268: 8267: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8243: 8236: 8228: 8217: 8209: 8205: 8189: 8185: 8177: 8173: 8162: 8158: 8151: 8135: 8131: 8123: 8119: 8111: 8107: 8095: 8088: 8076: 8072: 8060: 8056: 8044: 8040: 8028: 8024: 8016: 8012: 8004: 8000: 7992: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7958: 7949: 7947: 7936: 7932: 7924: 7920: 7912: 7908: 7900: 7891: 7883: 7876: 7868: 7864: 7856: 7852: 7844: 7840: 7832: 7828: 7820: 7816: 7808: 7799: 7791: 7784: 7776: 7765: 7757: 7742: 7734: 7730: 7722: 7711: 7703: 7696: 7688: 7675: 7667: 7663: 7651: 7642: 7630: 7623: 7615: 7604: 7596: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7556: 7552: 7544: 7540: 7528: 7524: 7512: 7508: 7500: 7496: 7479: 7475: 7463: 7459: 7447: 7443: 7435: 7426: 7418: 7414: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7386: 7377: 7373: 7365: 7354: 7346: 7342: 7334: 7330: 7322: 7318: 7309: 7305: 7296: 7292: 7279: 7270: 7266:is low central. 7245: 7236: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7213: 7205: 7198: 7190: 7186: 7178: 7171: 7163: 7154: 7146: 7139: 7129: 7127: 7123: 7122: 7118: 7110: 7106: 7098: 7094: 7086: 7077: 7044: 7040: 7032: 7028: 7020: 7013: 7005: 7001: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6954: 6946: 6939: 6931: 6927: 6919: 6915: 6907: 6898: 6890: 6886: 6878: 6874: 6864: 6862: 6853: 6852: 6848: 6840: 6833: 6825: 6792: 6784: 6749: 6740: 6695: 6689:Staffeldt (2010 6682: 6675: 6652: 6648: 6642:Sonderstellung. 6635: 6634: 6630: 6619: 6615: 6614: 6610: 6597: 6596: 6592: 6574: 6570: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6521: 6508: 6501: 6496: 6495: 6487: 6485: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6479: 6470: 6467: 6460: 6454: 6444: 6421: 6328: 6078:variably rhotic 6022: 5962: 5938:Standard German 5783:Standard German 5775: 5751:('whole') from 5490:Standard German 5482:Austro-Bavarian 5474:('important'), 5461: 5431: 5392: 5387: 5358: 5338: 5314:cardinal vowels 5306: 5301: 5294: 5283:stressed vowels 5263: 5146: 5141: 4862: 4851: 4845: 4842: 4831: 4819: 4808: 4768: 4732: 4555:('intention'), 4525:('to resign'), 4447:/ʔ,m,n,ŋ,l,r,h/ 4396: 4363:hypercorrection 4326:predominating. 4235:underlying form 4183:Standard German 4158:is likely (see 4095:Old High German 4027:phonemicization 3951:The diminutive 3948:: vs. vs. ). 3884: 3754: 3704:/dɪftɔnˈɡiːrən/ 3380:an approximant 3284:The obstruents 3218:region and the 3088:describe it as 3074:describe it as 2922:palato-alveolar 2739: 2686: 2653: 2617: 2576: 2533: 2481: 2467: 2438: 2425:, so that e.g. 2400:for the latter. 2384:open-mid front 2382:mid-centralized 1797: 1793: 1783: 1779: 1753: 1625: 1620: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1277: 1263:, and use only 1125:length contrast 860:, namely front 680:follows in the 445: 170: 150: 123:Deutschlandfunk 82:German dialects 66:German language 58: 57: 56: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10623: 10613: 10612: 10595: 10594: 10592: 10591: 10586: 10581: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10561: 10556: 10551: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10530: 10528: 10524: 10523: 10521: 10520: 10515: 10514: 10513: 10503: 10498: 10493: 10488: 10483: 10481:Serbo-Croatian 10478: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10458: 10453: 10452: 10451: 10446: 10438: 10433: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10337: 10335: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10316: 10315: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10196: 10195: 10190: 10185: 10177: 10176: 10175: 10170: 10162: 10157: 10156: 10155: 10150: 10142: 10137: 10131: 10129: 10125: 10124: 10122: 10121: 10116: 10111: 10110: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10084: 10079: 10074: 10069: 10059: 10058: 10057: 10052: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10023: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10007: 10002: 9997: 9989: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9969: 9964: 9959: 9958: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9929: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9903: 9901: 9897: 9896: 9894: 9893: 9892: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9856: 9851: 9845: 9842: 9841: 9830: 9829: 9822: 9815: 9807: 9801: 9800: 9793: 9792:External links 9790: 9788: 9787: 9782: 9770: 9766:978-3110003253 9765: 9749:Siebs, Theodor 9745: 9741:978-3823362913 9740: 9727: 9723:978-0028646015 9722: 9709: 9705:978-3862885626 9704: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9679: 9674: 9661: 9656: 9643: 9634: 9630:978-3110168020 9629: 9614: 9608: 9587: 9578: 9547: 9519: 9492: 9490:, Cologne: Ahn 9484:Siebs, Theodor 9480: 9458: 9441:(4): 323–334, 9423: 9412: 9407: 9394: 9383:(3): 339–348, 9365: 9345: 9336: 9332:978-3476021410 9331: 9318: 9313: 9300: 9294: 9274: 9269: 9254: 9236: 9218: 9212: 9198:Maddieson, Ian 9190: 9185: 9172: 9168:978-3323001404 9167: 9154: 9149: 9136: 9108: 9096: 9061: 9052:(2): 122–127, 9041: 9028: 9023: 9008: 9003: 8990: 8977: 8960:(4): 345–365, 8949: 8920: 8915: 8902: 8897: 8882: 8870: 8866:978-0253202949 8865: 8849: 8814: 8809: 8795: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8764: 8752: 8723: 8698: 8673: 8648: 8627: 8615: 8603: 8591: 8579: 8567: 8555: 8543: 8531: 8527:Lintfert (2010 8519: 8515:Lintfert (2010 8504: 8500:Lintfert (2010 8492: 8480: 8468: 8456: 8437: 8422: 8415: 8403:Wiese, Richard 8394: 8387: 8369: 8349: 8337: 8324: 8309: 8296: 8261: 8249: 8234: 8215: 8203: 8197:, as cited in 8183: 8171: 8156: 8149: 8129: 8117: 8105: 8086: 8070: 8054: 8038: 8022: 8010: 7998: 7983: 7971: 7956: 7930: 7928::225, 233–234) 7918: 7906: 7889: 7874: 7862: 7850: 7838: 7826: 7814: 7797: 7782: 7763: 7740: 7728: 7709: 7694: 7673: 7661: 7640: 7621: 7602: 7583: 7571: 7567:Wängler (1961) 7550: 7538: 7522: 7506: 7494: 7490:Wängler (1961) 7473: 7457: 7441: 7424: 7412: 7399: 7384: 7371: 7352: 7340: 7328: 7316: 7303: 7290: 7268: 7234: 7222: 7211: 7196: 7184: 7169: 7152: 7137: 7116: 7104: 7092: 7075: 7038: 7026: 7011: 6999: 6979: 6967: 6952: 6937: 6925: 6913: 6896: 6884: 6872: 6846: 6831: 6790: 6747: 6693: 6673: 6646: 6628: 6608: 6590: 6568: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6527: 6520: 6517: 6507: 6504: 6500: 6497: 6486: 6480: 6468: 6463: 6462: 6461: 6452: 6451: 6450: 6443: 6440: 6420: 6417: 6327: 6324: 6323: 6322: 6301: 6284: 6267: 6242: 6233:met–mat merger 6217: 6192: 6167: 6150: 6119: 6098: 6081: 6052: 6041:respectively ( 6021: 6018: 6008:(phonemically 5990:(from English 5961: 5958: 5774: 5771: 5582:('sheep') and 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5357: 5354: 5346:onset position 5337: 5334: 5304: 5299: 5292: 5285:expand in the 5262: 5259: 5226:rounded vowels 5212:, followed by 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5136: 5135: 5096: 5069: 5038: 4956: 4955: 4945: 4935: 4927:final stress: 4917: 4916: 4902: 4896: 4884:final stress: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4864: 4863: 4822: 4820: 4813: 4807: 4804: 4767: 4764: 4759:coda devoicing 4755:neutralization 4747:phonetic voice 4731: 4730:Coda devoicing 4728: 4726:) and lenis . 4700:(, such as in 4630:syllable onset 4601:Mangold (2005) 4545:('dropping'), 4395: 4392: 4365:effects where 4126:words such as 4067:Middle English 3753: 3744: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3740: 3726: 3716: 3706: 3700:diphthongieren 3696: 3619: 3559: 3541: 3540: 3539: 3505: 3406: 3391: 3390: 3389: 3378: 3375: 3364: 3346: 3307: 3297: 3288:are voiceless 3286:/b,d,ɡ,z,ʒ,dʒ/ 3282: 3227: 3226: 3225: 3224: 3223: 3205: 3204: 3203: 3169: 3168: 3167: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3156: 3124: 3123: 3122: 3096:Mangold (2005) 3082:Mangold (2005) 3079: 3069: 3048: 3047: 3046: 3013:it is often a 2981: 2980: 2979: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2936: 2912: 2901: 2886: 2885: 2884: 2851:denti-alveolar 2836: 2830: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2811: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2767: 2758: 2751: 2744: 2736: 2735: 2728: 2719: 2712: 2705: 2698: 2691: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2636: 2629: 2622: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2606: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2588: 2581: 2573: 2572: 2563: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2545: 2538: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2522: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2504: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2475: 2470: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2437: 2434: 2433: 2432: 2402: 2401: 2357: 2356: 2304:Mangold (1990) 2279: 2278: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2226: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2202: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2177: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2127: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2103: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2079: 2069: 2067: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2055: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2010: 2009: 2006: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1961: 1960: 1957: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1912: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1894: 1891: 1846: 1845: 1830:Mangold (2005) 1776: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1747: 1719: 1713: 1707: 1698: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1670: 1668: 1661: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1648: 1645: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1598: 1565: 1522: 1495: 1276: 1270: 1269: 1268: 1257: 1141:checked vowels 1121: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1095: 1012: 968: 967: 966: 913: 912: 911: 884: 835: 806: 805: 804: 782: 760: 738: 716: 627: 626: 625: 608: 607: 606: 594:than cardinal 565: 564: 563: 543: 542: 541: 527: 513: 491: 477: 463: 444: 441: 411: 410: 408: 401: 394: 392: 390: 384: 383: 381: 374: 372: 363: 361: 354: 345: 338: 332: 331: 324: 317: 315: 306: 299: 292: 285: 278: 272: 271: 264: 262: 260: 253: 251: 244: 242: 236: 235: 232: 229: 226: 223: 220: 217: 212: 206: 205: 200: 194: 193: 188: 183: 178: 169: 166: 149: 146: 51:⟩, see 27: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10622: 10611: 10608: 10607: 10605: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10580: 10577: 10575: 10572: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10555: 10552: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10531: 10529: 10525: 10519: 10516: 10512: 10509: 10508: 10507: 10504: 10502: 10499: 10497: 10494: 10492: 10489: 10487: 10484: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10450: 10447: 10445: 10442: 10441: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10338: 10336: 10332: 10326: 10325:Luxembourgish 10323: 10321: 10318: 10314: 10313:Maastrichtian 10311: 10310: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10215: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10194: 10191: 10189: 10186: 10184: 10181: 10180: 10178: 10174: 10171: 10169: 10166: 10165: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10154: 10151: 10149: 10146: 10145: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10132: 10130: 10126: 10120: 10117: 10115: 10112: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10073: 10070: 10068: 10065: 10064: 10063: 10060: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10047: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9992: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9932: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9904: 9902: 9898: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9861: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9854:Orthographies 9852: 9850: 9847: 9846: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9828: 9823: 9821: 9816: 9814: 9809: 9808: 9805: 9799: 9796: 9795: 9785: 9779: 9775: 9771: 9768: 9762: 9757: 9756: 9750: 9746: 9743: 9737: 9733: 9728: 9725: 9719: 9715: 9710: 9707: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9689: 9688: 9677: 9675:0-19-824040-6 9671: 9667: 9662: 9659: 9657:83-214-0284-4 9653: 9649: 9644: 9640: 9635: 9632: 9626: 9622: 9621: 9615: 9611: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9588: 9584: 9579: 9576: 9572: 9568: 9564: 9560: 9556: 9552: 9548: 9544: 9538: 9527: 9526: 9520: 9517: 9513: 9509: 9505: 9498: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9472: 9468: 9464: 9459: 9456: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9436: 9429: 9424: 9420: 9419: 9413: 9410: 9408:83-01-14503-X 9404: 9400: 9395: 9391: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9371: 9366: 9353: 9352: 9346: 9342: 9337: 9334: 9328: 9324: 9319: 9316: 9310: 9306: 9301: 9297: 9295:3-411-20916-X 9291: 9286: 9285: 9279: 9275: 9272: 9266: 9262: 9261: 9255: 9244: 9243: 9237: 9234: 9230: 9226: 9225: 9219: 9215: 9213:0-631-19815-6 9209: 9205: 9204: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9188: 9182: 9178: 9173: 9170: 9164: 9160: 9155: 9152: 9150:0-521-65236-7 9146: 9142: 9137: 9134: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9118: 9114: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9094: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9067: 9062: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9042: 9036: 9035: 9029: 9026: 9020: 9016: 9015: 9009: 9006: 9004:0-7190-6689-1 9000: 8996: 8991: 8985: 8984: 8978: 8975: 8971: 8967: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8950: 8946: 8941: 8937: 8933: 8926: 8921: 8918: 8912: 8908: 8903: 8900: 8894: 8890: 8889: 8883: 8879: 8875: 8871: 8868: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8850: 8847: 8843: 8839: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8820: 8815: 8812: 8810:3-11-016575-9 8806: 8802: 8796: 8792: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8774: 8773: 8761: 8756: 8733: 8727: 8712: 8708: 8702: 8687: 8683: 8677: 8662: 8658: 8652: 8637: 8631: 8624: 8619: 8612: 8607: 8600: 8595: 8588: 8583: 8576: 8571: 8564: 8559: 8552: 8547: 8540: 8535: 8528: 8523: 8516: 8511: 8509: 8501: 8496: 8489: 8484: 8477: 8472: 8465: 8460: 8453: 8448: 8446: 8444: 8442: 8434: 8429: 8427: 8418: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8398: 8390: 8388:3-11-010980-8 8384: 8380: 8373: 8359: 8353: 8346: 8341: 8334: 8328: 8321: 8316: 8314: 8306: 8300: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8273: 8265: 8258: 8253: 8246: 8245:Mangold (2005 8241: 8239: 8231: 8230:Mangold (2005 8226: 8224: 8222: 8220: 8212: 8207: 8200: 8196: 8195:Kohler (1990) 8192: 8191:Kohler (1977) 8187: 8180: 8175: 8167: 8160: 8152: 8150:9783825284916 8146: 8142: 8141: 8133: 8127: 8121: 8115: 8114:Kohler (1990) 8109: 8098: 8093: 8091: 8079: 8074: 8063: 8062:Mangold (2005 8058: 8047: 8042: 8031: 8026: 8019: 8014: 8007: 8002: 7995: 7990: 7988: 7980: 7975: 7968: 7967:Mangold (2005 7963: 7961: 7945: 7941: 7934: 7927: 7922: 7915: 7910: 7903: 7898: 7896: 7894: 7886: 7881: 7879: 7871: 7866: 7859: 7854: 7847: 7842: 7835: 7830: 7823: 7818: 7811: 7806: 7804: 7802: 7794: 7789: 7787: 7779: 7774: 7772: 7770: 7768: 7760: 7759:Mangold (2005 7755: 7753: 7751: 7749: 7747: 7745: 7737: 7736:Mangold (2005 7732: 7725: 7720: 7718: 7716: 7714: 7706: 7701: 7699: 7691: 7690:Mangold (2005 7686: 7684: 7682: 7680: 7678: 7670: 7669:Mangold (2005 7665: 7654: 7649: 7647: 7645: 7633: 7628: 7626: 7618: 7617:Mangold (2005 7613: 7611: 7609: 7607: 7599: 7594: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7580: 7575: 7568: 7564: 7554: 7547: 7542: 7531: 7526: 7515: 7510: 7503: 7498: 7491: 7487: 7477: 7466: 7461: 7450: 7445: 7438: 7437:Mangold (2005 7433: 7431: 7429: 7421: 7420:Mangold (2005 7416: 7409: 7403: 7396: 7391: 7389: 7381: 7375: 7368: 7363: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7349: 7344: 7338:, p. 26. 7337: 7332: 7325: 7320: 7313: 7307: 7300: 7294: 7283: 7277: 7275: 7273: 7249: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7231: 7226: 7220: 7215: 7208: 7203: 7201: 7194:, p. 97. 7193: 7188: 7182:, p. 17. 7181: 7176: 7174: 7167:, p. 11. 7166: 7161: 7159: 7157: 7149: 7144: 7142: 7126: 7120: 7113: 7108: 7101: 7096: 7089: 7084: 7082: 7080: 7072: 7064: 7048: 7042: 7035: 7030: 7023: 7018: 7016: 7008: 7003: 6988: 6983: 6977: 6971: 6964: 6959: 6957: 6949: 6944: 6942: 6934: 6929: 6922: 6917: 6910: 6905: 6903: 6901: 6894:, p. 39. 6893: 6888: 6881: 6876: 6861:. 3 June 2009 6860: 6850: 6844:, p. 34. 6843: 6838: 6836: 6828: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6811: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6787: 6782: 6780: 6778: 6776: 6774: 6772: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6744: 6743:Mangold (2005 6738: 6736: 6734: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6720: 6718: 6716: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6698: 6690: 6686: 6680: 6678: 6669: 6663: 6657: 6650: 6643: 6638: 6632: 6625: 6618: 6612: 6605: 6600: 6594: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6572: 6564: 6558: 6552: 6546: 6539: 6535: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6516: 6514: 6503: 6494: 6492: 6466: 6449: 6439: 6436: 6426: 6416: 6413: 6407: 6401: 6394: 6389:or sometimes 6386: 6378: 6370: 6362: 6354: 6346: 6341: 6335: 6319: 6314: 6313:happy-tensing 6302: 6298: 6285: 6281: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6243: 6239: 6234: 6218: 6214: 6193: 6189: 6183: 6177: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6121:word-initial 6120: 6116: 6100:word-initial 6099: 6095: 6082: 6079: 6074: 6063: 6053: 6049: 6044: 6028: 6027: 6026: 6017: 6006: 5993: 5988: 5967: 5957: 5954: 5948: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5923: 5909: 5907: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5884:(however the 5879: 5870: 5866: 5858: 5849: 5845: 5837: 5828: 5824: 5816: 5807: 5798: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5770: 5767: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5731: 5730:('to have'). 5728: 5722: 5716: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5700: 5698: 5690: 5688: 5680: 5678: 5656:, as well as 5638: 5636: 5632: 5627: 5626: 5619: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5586: 5580: 5550: 5547: 5542: 5525: 5519: 5511: 5504: 5499: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5478: 5472: 5467: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5445: 5444:syllable coda 5441: 5437: 5434:represents a 5429: 5424: 5418: 5412: 5408:('war'), but 5406: 5397: 5385:Sound changes 5382: 5380: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5353: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5333: 5315: 5310: 5302: 5295: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5258: 5255: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5232: 5227: 5200:produced are 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5132: 5126: 5120: 5114: 5108: 5107:ˈum•schreiben 5102: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5081: 5075: 5070: 5067: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4978:-ei, ion, -al 4974: 4972: 4967: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4901: 4897: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4882: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4860: 4857: 4849: 4839: 4835: 4829: 4828: 4823:This section 4821: 4817: 4812: 4811: 4803: 4801: 4800:Luxembourgish 4797: 4792: 4788:becomes and 4786: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4763: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4739: 4737: 4736:syllable coda 4727: 4723: 4715: 4709: 4704: 4697: 4691: 4686: 4679: 4671: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4650: 4644: 4633: 4631: 4626: 4622: 4620: 4612: 4602: 4597: 4595: 4589:('to drop'), 4587: 4585: 4577: 4575: 4568: 4563: 4561: 4553: 4551: 4543: 4541: 4533: 4531: 4523: 4521: 4513: 4511: 4499: 4492: 4487: 4486:syllable coda 4482: 4477: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4450: 4443: 4429: 4405: 4401: 4391: 4388: 4385: 4378: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4350: 4342: 4337:as unrounded 4334: 4327: 4323: 4311: 4303: 4296: 4285: 4278: 4270:occurs after 4267: 4259: 4251: 4244: 4238: 4236: 4231: 4225: 4220: 4214: 4208: 4202: 4196: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4170: 4163: 4161: 4155: 4147: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4119: 4111: 4104: 4099: 4096: 4090: 4082: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4042: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4028: 4022: 4015: 4007: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3946: 3939: 3931: 3923: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3900: 3897: 3891: 3880: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3854: 3847: 3836: 3830: 3827:occurring in 3826: 3822: 3817: 3811: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3793: 3786: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3768: 3758: 3752: 3748: 3731: 3727: 3721: 3717: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3697: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3677:. It becomes 3674: 3666: 3658: 3650: 3626: 3620: 3613: 3599: 3591: 3585: 3584: 3580: 3573: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3547: 3542: 3535: 3527: 3519: 3511: 3506: 3503: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3464: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3445: 3437: 3429: 3421: 3413: 3407: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3371: 3365: 3360: 3354: 3353: 3347: 3328: 3308: 3302: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3260: 3256: 3250: 3242: 3234: 3228: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3188: 3176: 3170: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3153: 3146: 3139: 3133: 3128: 3127:Kohler (1999) 3125: 3118: 3113:or voiceless 3110: 3104: 3103: 3097: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3087: 3086:Kohler (1999) 3083: 3080: 3077: 3073: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3052: 3051: 3049: 3036: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3005: 2996: 2988: 2982: 2975: 2967: 2956: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2934: 2933: 2923: 2920: 2917:are strongly 2913: 2902: 2897: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2877:Irish English 2875:, as in most 2874: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2819: 2816: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2792: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2738: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2717: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2703: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2607: 2604: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2532: 2530: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2505: 2502: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2451: 2448: 2443: 2429: 2419: 2413: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2397: 2389: 2383: 2379: 2378:Kohler (1999) 2359: 2358: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2288: 2283: 2282: 2276: 2273: 2272: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2232: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2208: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2012: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2003: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1988: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1963: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1939: 1938: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1914: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1901:Phonetically 1900: 1898:Phonemically 1897: 1896: 1888: 1882: 1877: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1835: 1831: 1822: 1809: 1803: 1789: 1777: 1773: 1771: 1764: 1763: 1762: 1759: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1727: 1726:interjections 1720: 1714: 1708: 1702: 1701: 1693: 1688: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1673: 1669: 1662: 1659: 1654: 1651: 1647:Ending point 1643: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1603: 1599: 1579: 1574: 1566: 1563: 1555: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1508: 1504: 1496: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1465: 1463: 1452: 1450: 1439: 1437: 1426: 1424: 1413: 1411: 1400: 1398: 1374: 1372: 1364: 1362: 1339: 1337: 1329: 1327: 1319: 1317: 1310: 1308: 1267:in its place. 1258: 1248: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1235: 1225: 1224: 1211: 1200: 1193: 1180: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1158: 1142: 1137:/ɪ,ʏ,ʊ,ɛ,œ,ɔ/ 1130: 1126: 1114: 1107: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1083: 1077: 1071: 1059: 1047: 1041: 1035: 1027: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1006: 1002: 999: 995: 989: 983: 977: 972: 969: 962: 956: 946: 940: 939: 931: 923: 914: 909: 899: 891: 885: 880: 874: 873: 870:/i,y,u,e,ø,o/ 853: 845: 836: 831: 819: 810: 809: 807: 800: 792: 783: 778: 770: 761: 756: 748: 739: 734: 726: 717: 713: 712: 705: 700: 699: 691: 690: 683: 682:syllable coda 679: 674: 667: 660: 658: 654: 645: 637: 628: 623: 622: 618: 609: 604: 603: 599: 591: 583: 575: 566: 561: 560: 556: 547: 546: 544: 537: 528: 523: 514: 509: 501: 492: 487: 478: 473: 464: 459: 450: 449: 448:Close vowels 447: 446: 440: 422: 406: 402: 399: 395: 389: 386: 385: 382: 379: 375: 373: 369: 364: 362: 359: 355: 351: 346: 343: 339: 337: 334: 333: 329: 325: 322: 318: 316: 312: 307: 304: 300: 297: 293: 290: 286: 283: 279: 277: 274: 273: 269: 265: 263: 258: 254: 252: 249: 245: 243: 241: 238: 237: 233: 230: 227: 224: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 207: 204: 199: 195: 192: 187: 182: 176: 162: 158: 154: 145: 142: 141: 140:Bühnendeutsch 135: 131: 130: 125: 124: 119: 118: 113: 108: 106: 99: 94: 90: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 54: 42: 38: 36: 32: 22: 10579:West Frisian 10366:Massachusett 10167: 9879:Prepositions 9848: 9773: 9754: 9731: 9713: 9695: 9665: 9647: 9638: 9619: 9591: 9582: 9558: 9554: 9524: 9507: 9503: 9487: 9469:(1): 33–58, 9466: 9462: 9438: 9434: 9417: 9398: 9380: 9376: 9358:, retrieved 9350: 9340: 9322: 9304: 9283: 9278:Mangold, Max 9259: 9249:February 29, 9247:, retrieved 9241: 9223: 9202: 9176: 9158: 9140: 9119:(1): 48–50, 9116: 9112: 9103: 9076: 9072: 9049: 9045: 9033: 9013: 8994: 8982: 8957: 8953: 8938:(1): 67–74, 8935: 8931: 8906: 8887: 8877: 8856: 8829: 8825: 8800: 8781: 8777: 8760:Kohler (1999 8755: 8732:Kohler (1999 8726: 8714:. Retrieved 8710: 8701: 8689:. Retrieved 8685: 8676: 8664:. Retrieved 8660: 8651: 8640:. Retrieved 8630: 8618: 8606: 8594: 8582: 8570: 8558: 8546: 8534: 8522: 8495: 8483: 8471: 8459: 8406: 8397: 8378: 8372: 8361:. Retrieved 8352: 8340: 8327: 8299: 8264: 8252: 8206: 8186: 8174: 8165: 8159: 8139: 8132: 8126:Wiese (1996) 8120: 8108: 8073: 8057: 8041: 8025: 8013: 8008::49, 92, 97) 8001: 7974: 7948:. Retrieved 7943: 7933: 7921: 7914:Kohler (1999 7909: 7902:Kohler (1999 7865: 7853: 7841: 7829: 7817: 7731: 7664: 7574: 7553: 7541: 7525: 7509: 7504::90, 94, 96) 7497: 7476: 7460: 7444: 7415: 7402: 7374: 7343: 7331: 7319: 7306: 7293: 7282:Kohler (1999 7225: 7214: 7187: 7180:Wiese (1996) 7128:. Retrieved 7119: 7107: 7095: 7041: 7029: 7002: 6982: 6970: 6928: 6916: 6909:Kohler (1999 6887: 6875: 6863:. Retrieved 6849: 6786:Kohler (1999 6687::16–17) and 6649: 6640: 6631: 6623: 6611: 6602: 6593: 6585: 6581: 6571: 6538: 6509: 6502: 6488: 6445: 6437: 6422: 6340:nasal vowels 6329: 6023: 5991: 5963: 5942:Upper German 5931: 5919: 5903: 5823:Swiss German 5776: 5732: 5712: 5705: 5703: 5702:(instead of 5696: 5686: 5682:(instead of 5676: 5639: 5598: 5551: 5500: 5457: 5393: 5359: 5339: 5289:, while the 5264: 5256: 5170:short vowels 5147: 5119:umˈschreiben 4986: 4981: 4977: 4975: 4970: 4968: 4963: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4938: 4932: 4928: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4899: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4870: 4867: 4852: 4846:January 2023 4843: 4832:Please help 4827:verification 4824: 4779: 4778:rather than 4775: 4769: 4766:Coda voicing 4740: 4733: 4707: 4682:(such as in 4634: 4627: 4623: 4613: 4593: 4583: 4573: 4559: 4549: 4539: 4529: 4519: 4515:('kasbah'), 4509: 4500: 4488:(such as in 4451: 4444: 4428:fortis–lenis 4397: 4389: 4328: 4280:'book') and 4239: 4164: 4131: 4127: 4114:rather than 4097: 4062: 4058: 4036: 4025: 3984:front vowels 3950: 3901: 3789: 3764: 3763: 3750: 3746: 3582: 3578: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3476: 3402: 3355:a fricative 3327:Wiese (1996) 3301:intervocalic 3299:In Austria, 3066:front vowels 3058:post-palatal 3028: 3011:Lodge (2009) 3003: 2924:sibilants . 2439: 2406:Wiese (1996) 2292:Wiese (1996) 2285: 2270: 2245: 2221: 2196: 2171: 2146: 2122: 2098: 2073: 2049: 2025: 2001: 1976: 1952: 1927: 1910:Translation 1907:Orthography 1881:Kohler (1999 1869:Kohler (1999 1847: 1808:Wiese (1996) 1769: 1754: 1561: 1553: 1513:rather than 1503:sound change 1497:The phoneme 1461: 1448: 1435: 1422: 1418:'Danes' and 1409: 1396: 1370: 1360: 1335: 1331:'bears' and 1325: 1315: 1306: 1278: 1256:(see above). 1244: 1222: 1201: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1122: 1015: 1008: 1004: 971:Wiese (1996) 808:Open vowels 710: 697: 693:('pillow'), 688: 656: 652: 414: 168:Monophthongs 157:Monophthongs 127: 121: 115: 92: 86: 61: 59: 47:and ⟨ 29: 10309:Limburgish 10200:Greenlandic 10077:New Zealand 10010:Northern Wu 9869:Determiners 9849:Phonologies 9834:Phonologies 9531:, Groningen 8909:, Metzler, 8211:Hall (2022) 8199:Wiese (1996 8179:Wiese (1996 8046:Wiese (1996 7994:Wiese (1996 7946:(in German) 7846:Lodge (2009 7367:Wiese (1996 7348:Wiese (1996 7286:/aɪ̯aʊ̯ɔɪ̯/ 7248:Wiese (1996 7088:Wiese (1996 7047:Lodge (2009 6948:Wiese (1996 6921:Wiese (1996 6827:Lodge (2009 6685:Wiese (1996 5718:the suffix 5477:Wichtigkeit 5438:, becoming 5398:is that of 5287:vowel space 5267:vowel space 5139:Acquisition 5101:umschreiben 5064:, and most 4966:analysis. 4939:Mitsuˈbishi 4665:approximant 4615:/b,d,ɡ,z,ʒ/ 4217:is used in 4207:front vowel 4124:Old English 3637:instead of 3538:altogether. 3335:/ʊ,uː,ɔ,oː/ 2915:/tʃ,dʒ,ʃ,ʒ/ 2845:alveolar , 1828:. However, 1758:Fremdwörter 1660:Near-close 1567:The use of 1444:'to pray', 1321:'honor' or 545:Mid vowels 112:Max Mangold 10569:Vietnamese 10440:Ripuarian 10431:Portuguese 10341:Macedonian 10320:Lithuanian 10230:Hindustani 10067:Australian 10020:Historical 9967:Belarusian 9864:Adjectives 8769:References 8642:2022-03-20 8416:0198299508 8363:2013-05-15 8285:Möwe, Löwe 8078:Hall (2003 7950:2024-04-18 7836::225, 229) 7232::151, 175) 7148:Noack 2023 6865:28 January 6548:) discuss 6491:media help 6025:setting): 6005:Journalist 6002:, so that 5934:diphthongs 5635:allophonic 5518:(er) fährt 5428:Low German 5414:('wars'); 5246:continuant 5231:Schokolade 5186:consonants 5182:affricates 5178:fricatives 4958:A list of 4949:Hiˈroshima 4802:language. 4209:, because 4195:back vowel 4181:in modern 3994:diminutive 3908:fricatives 3825:allophones 3788:'I'), and 3694:/dɪfˈtɔnɡ/ 3424:, but not 3220:Westerwald 2919:labialized 2881:velarized 2871:is always 2436:Consonants 2298:and that " 1890:Diphthong 1632:Diphthongs 1618:Diphthongs 1229:/ˈraːdaːr/ 1179:allophones 955:Low German 908:Low German 704:Luxembourg 10559:Ukrainian 10466:Sardinian 10444:Colognian 10401:Old Saxon 10386:Norwegian 10351:Maldivian 10295:Latgalian 10240:Icelandic 10235:Hungarian 10114:Esperanto 10000:Cantonese 9977:Bulgarian 9950:Levantine 9922:Afrikaans 9575:145148233 9516:1803-408X 9510:: 83–96, 9360:March 21, 9280:(1990) . 9133:249402465 9073:Phonology 8826:Phonology 8784:: 14–24, 8347::264–265) 7024::342–344) 7009::412–415) 6318:Whisk(e)y 6188:Backstage 6094:Whisk(e)y 5987:Dschungel 5966:loanwords 5960:Loanwords 5956:'love'). 5865:Ripuarian 5510:fricative 5503:affricate 5440:voiceless 5436:fricative 5423:wir lagen 5394:A common 5131:umˈfahren 4984:, etc.) 4890:Krokoˈdil 4780:devoicing 4772:Rhineland 4751:fortition 4685:sträflich 4635:The pair 4619:voiceless 4565:('wooden 4478:(such as 4464:(such as 4458:aspirated 4316:/ʊ,ɔ,aʊ̯/ 4061:'light', 3976:'dog' to 3904:loanwords 3738:/ˈɡanɡɛs/ 3734:/ˈɡanɡəs/ 3724:/ˈanɡloː/ 3714:/ˈɛnɡlɪʃ/ 3690:Diphthong 3608:/ʊ,ɔ,aʊ̯/ 3488:glitschen 3451:Although 3255:aspirated 2839:/t,d,l,n/ 2682:Fricative 2613:Affricate 2442:affricate 2355:precedes. 1674:Open-mid 1530:Alemannic 1528:and some 1526:Ripuarian 1468:/ˈzeːɡən/ 1455:/ˈdeːnən/ 1442:/ˈbeːtən/ 1429:/ˈzɛːɡən/ 1416:/ˈdɛːnən/ 1403:/ˈbɛːtən/ 1347:/ˈbɛːrən/ 1157:loanwords 1129:tenseness 1076:Franconia 864:and back 421:allophone 276:Close-mid 198:Unrounded 74:phonetics 70:phonology 10604:Category 10456:Romanian 10265:Japanese 10223:Biblical 10210:Hawaiian 10205:Gujarati 10168:Standard 10160:Galician 10148:Parisian 10119:Estonian 10050:Standard 9995:Mandarin 9991:Chinese 9955:Tunisian 9940:Egyptian 9912:Acehnese 9884:Pronouns 9859:Grammars 9751:(1969), 9694:(2014), 9537:citation 9486:(1898), 9455:18006444 9200:(1996). 9102:(1977), 9093:45924018 8974:16087187 8876:(1979), 8855:(1982), 8730:Source: 8405:(2000). 8269:written 7872::74, 85) 7726::67, 76) 7619::50, 52) 7439::47, 49) 7310:Source: 7297:Source: 7246:Source: 7045:e.g. by 6691::passim) 6582:Die Zeit 6519:See also 6303:English 6286:English 6269:English 6244:English 6219:English 6213:Homepage 6194:English 6152:English 6083:English 6054:English 6048:Thriller 6029:English 5844:Bavarian 5766:er singt 5760:er sinkt 5631:phonemic 5608:schärfer 5605:or vs. 5275:stressed 5271:babbling 5194:syllable 5150:babbling 4989:prefixes 4943:Ikeˈbana 4933:Samuˈrai 4921:Japanese 4914:ˈMonitor 4906:ˈPinguin 4886:Eleˈfant 4877:Examples 4791:darf ich 4708:hovelîch 4647:remains 4567:jalousie 4243:ach-Laut 4205:after a 4193:after a 4130:(modern 4032:phonemes 4018:, as in 3989:Frauchen 3979:Hündchen 3963:ich-Laut 3896:ach-Laut 3872:manchmal 3869:'fear', 3792:ach-Laut 3767:Ich-Laut 3751:ach-Laut 3747:Ich-Laut 3710:Englisch 3629:and use 3583:ach-Laut 3579:ich-Laut 3501:Zschopau 3496:toponyms 3492:hutschen 3259:sibilant 3216:Wetterau 2904:/ts,s,z/ 2468:alveolar 2461:Alveolar 2057:holiday 1984:dignity 1893:Example 1844:instead. 1826:/oːˈkeː/ 1765:, as in 1751:Phonetic 1728:such as 1623:Phonemic 1602:idiolect 1544:or with 1197:/ˈoːpaː/ 998:adapting 894:or even 678:sonorant 676:). If a 673:entsetzt 336:Open-mid 93:de facto 45:/ / 41:Help:IPA 10584:Yiddish 10549:Turkish 10534:Tagalog 10518:Swedish 10506:Spanish 10491:Slovene 10461:Russian 10421:Persian 10391:Occitan 10371:Medumba 10361:Marathi 10305:Latvian 10285:Kurdish 10275:Konkani 10260:Italian 10245:Ingrian 10214:Hebrew 10188:Ancient 10173:Bernese 10164:German 10144:French 10140:Finnish 10135:Faroese 10062:English 10032:Cornish 10027:Chukchi 10005:Hokkien 9987:Catalan 9982:Burmese 9972:Bengali 9962:Avestan 9931:Arabic 9836:of the 8846:5939288 8716:7 April 8691:7 April 8666:7 April 8020::83–84) 7916::86–87) 7707::51–52) 7692::51–52) 7581::14–24) 6586:Stimmt. 6315:) e.g. 6260:) e.g. 6235:) e.g. 6045:) e.g. 5927:/vaɪ̯s/ 5911:/hɛɪ̯s/ 5896:Yiddish 5861:/vaɪ̯s/ 5852:/hɔɐ̯s/ 5831:/hei̯s/ 5819:/vaɪ̯s/ 5810:/haɪ̯s/ 5792:/hei̯s/ 5715:mergers 5602:Schäfer 5546:Tropfen 5539:with a 5471:wichtig 5442:in the 5309:formant 5224:, with 5174:liquids 5154:Phoneme 5144:General 4929:Shoˈgun 4910:ˈRisiko 4785:mit uns 4776:voicing 4743:/b,d,ɡ/ 4703:höflich 4653:devoice 4609:/p,t,k/ 4605:/b,d,ɡ/ 4562:alousie 4454:/p,t,k/ 4432:/tʃ–dʒ/ 4318:, with 4272:/uː,oː/ 4075:Yiddish 4063:dochter 4057:, e.g. 4021:rauchen 3796:is the 3771:is the 3484:diutisc 3477:deutsch 3341:and/or 3323:/ŋ,k,ɡ/ 3317:and/or 3304:/b,d,ɡ/ 3279:/p,t,k/ 2847:laminal 2841:can be 2783:Lateral 2529:Plosive 2488:Glottal 2473:Palatal 2319:Schwert 1343:/ˈɛːrə/ 1204:/a(ː)r/ 203:Rounded 186:Central 134:Hanover 33:in the 10564:Uyghur 10496:Somali 10486:Slovak 10426:Polish 10416:Pashto 10411:Ottawa 10396:Ojibwe 10381:Nepali 10376:Navajo 10290:Kyrgyz 10280:Korean 10218:Modern 10179:Greek 10153:Quebec 10107:Middle 10046:Dutch 10042:Danish 9945:Hejazi 9917:Adyghe 9907:Abkhaz 9780: 9763: 9738: 9720: 9702: 9672: 9654: 9627: 9606: 9573: 9514: 9453: 9405: 9329: 9311: 9292: 9267: 9210: 9183: 9165: 9147: 9131: 9091: 9021: 9001: 8972: 8913: 8895: 8863: 8844: 8807: 8413: 8385: 8147: 7130:1 June 7069:) and 6665:, and 6419:Sample 6412:Orange 6406:Parfüm 6400:Ballon 6280:Cutter 6238:Backup 6176:Airbag 5992:jungle 5882:/viːs/ 5873:/heːs/ 5840:/viːs/ 5801:/wiːs/ 5625:Aachen 5618:Archen 5585:scharf 5564:(i.e. 5556:after 5417:er lag 5411:Kriege 5396:merger 5366:velars 5350:schwas 5336:Nasals 5220:, and 5208:, and 5198:vowels 5166:vowels 5164:, and 5162:nasals 5092:durch- 5089:, and 5080:unter- 4953:ˈOsaka 4894:Kaˈmel 4806:Stress 4796:sandhi 4649:voiced 4474:of an 4290:/a,aː/ 4288:after 4224:Chemie 4219:onsets 3968:umlaut 3953:suffix 3912:onsets 3890:Furcht 3866:Furcht 3730:Ganges 3604:/a,aː/ 3602:after 3475:(e.g. 3273:, and 3152:treten 3138:treten 2873:clear 2843:apical 2807:Rhotic 2688:Fortis 2619:Fortis 2535:Fortis 2483:Uvular 2456:Labial 2423:/a,aː/ 2418:Lehrer 2337:Furcht 2204:north 1652:Front 1074:). In 1005:Roller 1001:a play 985:, and 886:Front 231:short 225:short 219:short 148:Vowels 49: 10574:Welsh 10554:Ubykh 10539:Tamil 10501:Sotho 10471:Scots 10406:Oromo 10356:Māori 10346:Malay 10300:Latin 10270:Kiowa 10255:Irish 10250:Inuit 10193:Koine 10037:Czech 9889:Verbs 9874:Nouns 9571:S2CID 9529:(PDF) 9500:(PDF) 9451:S2CID 9437:, 4, 9431:(PDF) 9373:(PDF) 9355:(PDF) 9129:S2CID 9089:S2CID 9069:(PDF) 9038:(PDF) 8987:(PDF) 8928:(PDF) 8842:S2CID 8822:(PDF) 8625::108) 8613::362) 8601::331) 8589::323) 8529::160) 8517::138) 8502::159) 8478::264) 8454::263) 8435::261) 8322::233) 8259::190) 8201::210) 8181::217) 8124:e.g. 8112:e.g. 7996::271) 7860::225) 7657:/s,z/ 7636:/s,z/ 7600::341) 7534:/t,d/ 7518:/t,n/ 7469:/t,n/ 7453:/l,n/ 7397::342) 7382::20). 7369::198) 7260:/ɔʏ̯/ 7256:/aʊ̯/ 7252:/aɪ̯/ 7090::254) 7036::412) 6974:E.g. 6935::413) 6923::256) 6745::37). 6620:(PDF) 6531:Notes 6395:] 6391:[ 6387:] 6383:[ 6379:] 6375:[ 6371:] 6367:[ 6363:] 6359:[ 6355:] 6351:[ 6347:] 6343:[ 6297:Shirt 6294:e.g. 6288:/ɜːr/ 6277:e.g. 6185:or , 6163:Chips 6160:e.g. 6146:Spray 6143:or , 6140:Steak 6137:e.g. 6115:Sound 6112:e.g. 6091:e.g. 6070:e.g. 6064:] 6060:[ 6031:/θ,ð/ 5998:with 5953:Liebe 5836:wiiss 5827:heiss 5763:from 5727:haben 5692:) or 5685:Bräut 5675:Bräut 5613:/aːx/ 5579:Schaf 5568:> 5524:Pferd 5466:Siebs 5405:Krieg 5342:Dutch 5158:stops 5104:. 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