Sperm competition - Knowledge

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his mate at this time. There is a lot of energy that is expended when a male is guarding his mate. For instance, in polygynous mate-guarding systems, the energetic costs of males is defending their title as alpha male of their community. Fighting is very costly in regards to the amount of energy used to guard their mate. These bouts can happen more than once which takes a toll on the physical well-being of the male. Another cost of mate-guarding in this type of mating system is the potential increase of the spread of disease. If one male has an STD, he can pass that on to the females that he's copulating with, potentially resulting in a depletion of the harem. This would be an energetic cost towards both sexes for the reason that instead of using the energy for reproduction, they are redirecting it towards ridding themselves of this illness. Some females also benefit from polygyny because extra pair copulations in females increase the genetic diversity with the community of that species. This occurs because the male is not able to watch over all of the females and some will become promiscuous. Eventually, the male will not have proper nutrition, which makes the male unable to produce sperm. For instance, male amphipods will deplete their reserves of glycogen and triglycerides only to have it replenished after the male is done guarding that mate. Also, if the amount of energy intake does not equal the energy expended, then this could be potentially fatal to the male. Males may even have to travel long distances during the breeding season in order to find a female, which significantly drains their energy supply. Studies were conducted to compare the cost of foraging of fish that migrate and animals that are residential. The studies concluded that fish that were residential had fuller stomachs containing higher quality of prey compared to their migrant counterparts. With all of these energy costs that go along with guarding a mate, timing is crucial so that the male can use the minimal amount of energy. This is why it is more efficient for males to choose a mate during their fertile periods. Also, males will be more likely to guard their mate when there is a high density of males in the proximity. Sometimes, organisms put in all this time and planning into courting a mate in order to copulate and she may not even be interested. There is a risk of cuckoldry of some sort, since a rival male can successfully court the female that the male originally courting her could not do.

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of potential males. In other insects, the males will release a pheromone in order to make their mate unattractive to other males, or to mask her scent completely. The male of certain cricket species will court a female loudly, until she accepts his gesture, when he suddenly becomes silent. Some insects, prior to mating, will assume tandem positions to their mate or position themselves in a way to prevent other males from attempting to mate with that female. The male checkerspot butterfly has developed a clever method in order to attract and guard a mate. He will situate himself near an area that possesses valuable resources that the female needs. He will then drive away any males that come near and this will greatly increase his chances of copulation with any female that comes to that area.

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certain species will optimize sperm number and fertility. Amounts of protein and carbohydrate intake were tested for its effects on sperm production and quality in adult fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). Studies showed these flies need to constantly ingest carbohydrates and water to survive, but protein is also required to attain sexual maturity. In addition, The Mediterranean fruit fly, male diet has been shown to affect male mating success, copula duration, sperm transfer, and male participation in leks. These all require a good diet with nutrients for proper gamete production as well as energy for activities, which includes participation in leks.

112: 171: 1823: 440: 315:. Surprisingly, sperm viability was not affected by any change in diet or diet ratios. It is hypothesized that sperm viability is more affected by the genetic makeup, like in the "good sperm hypothesis". These ratios and results are not consistent with many other species and even conflict with some. It seems there cannot be any conclusions on what type of diet is needed to positively influence sperm competition but rather understand that different diets do play a role in determining sperm competition in 143:

will defend his title as the dominant male and he will also be defending the females he mates with and the offspring he sires. The elephant seal falls into this category since he can participate in bloody violent matches in order to protect his community and defend his title as the alpha male. If the alpha male is somehow overthrown by the newcomer, his children will most likely be killed and the new alpha male will start over with the females in the group so that his lineage can be passed on.

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predation and harassment from other males while being able to observe her male counterpart. This will allow her to recognize particular traits that she finds ideal so that she'll be able to find another male that emulates those qualities. In polygynous relationships, the dominant male of the community benefits because he has the best fertilization success. Communities can include 30 up to 100 females and, compared to the other males, will greatly increase his chances of mating success.

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position to the female after copulation. This can last up to several hours allowing him to ward off any rival males giving his sperm a high chance to fertilize that female's egg. These, and other, types of methods have the male playing defense by protecting his mate. Elephant seals are known to engage in bloody battles in order to retain their title as dominant male so that they are able to mate with all the females in their community.

242:) have developed deceptive social cues to combat sperm competition. Focal males will direct sexual attention toward typically non-preferred females when an audience of other males is present. This encourages the males that are watching to attempt to mate with the non-preferred female. This is done in an attempt to decrease mating attempts with the female that the focal male prefers, hence decreasing sperm competition. 585: 54:. Competition can occur when females have multiple potential mating partners. Greater choice and variety of mates increases a female's chance to produce more viable offspring. However, multiple mates for a female means each individual male has decreased chances of producing offspring. Sperm competition is an evolutionary pressure on males, and has led to the development of adaptations to increase male's chance of 20: 87:; a male has a better chance of winning (i.e. fathering offspring) the more tickets he has (i.e. the more sperm he inseminates a female with). However, sperm are not free to produce, and as such males are predicted to produce sperm of a size and number that will maximize their success in sperm competition. By making many spermatozoa, males can buy more "raffle tickets", and it is thought that 518:

include incapacitation of other competing sperm and aggregation of genetically similar spermatozoa into structures that promote effective navigation of the female reproductive tract and hence improve fertilization ability. Such characteristics lead to morphological adaptations that suit the purposes of cooperative methods during competition. For example, spermatozoa possessed by the

223:, ejaculation amount during sequential copulations is reduced; this results in half filled female sperm reserves following a single copulatory event, but allows the male to mate with a larger number of females without exhausting his supply of sperm. To facilitate sperm partitioning, some males have developed complex ways to store and deliver their sperm. In the blue headed wrasse, 545:. Male chimpanzees that live in a structured multi-male, multi-female community, have large testicles to produce more sperm, therefore giving them better odds to fertilize the female. Whereas a community of gorillas consists of one alpha male and two or three females; when the female gorillas are ready to mate, normally only the alpha male is their partner. 526:) possess an apical hook which is used to attach to other spermatozoa to form mobile trains that enhance motility through the female reproductive tract. Spermatozoa that fail to incorporate themselves into mobile trains are less likely to engage in fertilization. Other evidence suggests no link between sperm competition and sperm hook morphology. 623:

specialization became known popularly as "kamikaze sperm" or "killer sperm", but most follow-up studies to this popularized notion have failed to confirm the initial papers on the matter. While there is also currently little evidence of killer sperm in any non-human animals certain snails have an infertile sperm morph ("parasperm") that contains

135:, as some males try to "sneak" matings with females in the territory of other males. In these instances, the males guard their female by keeping her in close enough proximity so that if an opponent male shows up in his territory he will be able to fight off the rival male which will prevent the female from engaging in 259:. The mere display of an armament can suffice to drive away the competition without engaging in a fight, hence saving energy. A male on the offensive side of mate-guarding may terminate the guarding male's chances at a successful insemination by brawling with the guarding male to gain access to the female. In 263:, males release seminal fluids that contain additional toxins like pheromones and modified enzymes that are secreted by their accessory glands intended to destroy the sperm that have already made their way into the female's reproductive tract from a recent copulation. However, this proved to be wrong because 370:, the male copulatory organ breaks off or tears off at the end of copulation and remains within the female to serve as a copulatory plug. This broken genitalia is believed to be an evolutionary response to sperm competition. This damage to the male genitalia means that these males can only mate once. 300:

mating systems. The "good sperm hypothesis" suggests that a male's genetic makeup will determine the level of his competitiveness in sperm competition. When a male has "good sperm" he is able to father more viable offspring than males that do not have the "good sperm" genes. Females may select males

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to impede the female from participating in future copulations. These substances act as an anti-aphrodisiac causing a dejection of subsequent copulations, and also stimulate ovulation and oogenesis. Seminal proteins can have a strong influence on reproduction, sufficient to manipulate female behavior

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Female factors can influence the result of sperm competition through a process known as "sperm choice". Proteins present in the female reproductive tract or on the surface of the ovum may influence which sperm succeeds in fertilizing the egg. During sperm choice, females are able to discriminate and

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Males who have successfully courted a potential mate will attempt to keep them out of sight of other males before copulation. One way organisms accomplish this is to move the female to a new location. Certain butterflies, after enticing the female, will pick her up and fly her away from the vicinity

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Strategic mate-guarding occurs when the male only guards the female during her fertile periods. This strategy can be more effective because it may allow the male to engage in both extra-pair paternity and within-pair paternity. This is also because it is energetically efficient for the male to guard

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Organisms with polygynous mating systems are controlled by one dominant male. In this type of mating system, the male is able to mate with more than one female in a community. The dominant males will reign over the community until another suitor steps up and overthrows him. The current dominant male

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In addition, protein and carbohydrate amounts were shown to have an effect on sperm production and fertility in the speckled cockroach. Holidic diets were used which allowed for specific protein and carbohydrate measurements to be taken, giving it credibility. A direct correlation was seen in sperm

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In post-copulatory mate-guarding males are trying to prevent other males from mating with the female that they have mated with already. For example, male millipedes in Costa Rica will ride on the back of their mate letting the other males know that she's taken. Japanese beetles will assume a tandem

636:, mated females can choose whether or not to lay a fertilized egg (which develops into a daughter) or an unfertilized egg (which develops into a son), therefore females suffer a cost from mating, as repeated matings constrain their ability to allocate sex in their offspring. The behaviour of these 150:

However, there are benefits that are associated with mate-guarding. In a mate-guarding system, both parties, male and female, are able to directly and indirectly benefit from this. For instance, females can indirectly benefit from being protected by a mate. The females can appreciate a decrease in

619:, females mate with multiple males. It benefits the male to attempt to be the last one to mate with a given female. This is because there seems to be a cumulative percentage increase in fertilization for the final male, such that the eggs laid in the last oviposition bout are the most successful. 517:

Evidence exists that illustrates the ability of genetically similar spermatozoa to cooperate so as to ensure the survival of their counterparts thereby ensuring the implementation of their genotypes towards fertilization. Cooperation confers a competitive advantage by several means, some of these

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A notion emerged in 1996 that in some species, including humans, a significant fraction of sperm cannot fertilize the egg; rather these sperm were theorized to stop the sperm from other males from reaching the egg, e.g. by killing them with enzymes or by blocking their access. This type of sperm

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which stores the sperm. During the process of mating the male damselfly will pump his abdomen up and down using his specially adapted penis which acts as a scrub brush to remove the sperm of another male. This method proves quite successful and the male damselfly has been known to remove 90-100

409:, a post-copulatory mechanism of inbreeding avoidance occurs based on competition between sperm of rival males for achieving fertilization. In competitions between sperm from an unrelated male and from a full sibling male, a significant bias in paternity towards the unrelated male was observed. 287:

deposited by the previous male to increase his chances of fertilizing the most eggs. In the latter species, the second male's spermatophore works to essentially push out the last male's spermatophore out of the female's body, although it has been shown that not all previous sperm are completely

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among primates, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males

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Studies show that there is more to determining the competitiveness of the sperm in sperm competition in addition to a male's genetic makeup. A male's dietary intake will also affect sperm competition. An adequate diet consisting of increased amounts of diet and sometimes more specific ratio in

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In vitro fertilization experiments in the mouse, provided evidence of sperm selection at the gametic level. When sperm of sibling and non-sibling males were mixed, a fertilization bias towards the sperm of the non-sibling males was observed. The results were interpreted as egg-driven sperm

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Offensive adaptation behavior differs from defensive behavior because it involves an attempt to ruin the chances of another male's opportunity in succeeding in copulation by engaging in an act that tries to terminate the fertilization success of the previous male. This offensive behavior is

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are frequently observed in insects, reptiles, some mammals, and spiders. Copulatory plugs are inserted immediately after a male copulates with a female, which reduce the possibility of fertilization by subsequent copulations from another male, by physically blocking the transfer of sperm.

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number and overall of food intake. More specifically, optimal sperm production was measured at a 1:2 protein to carbohydrate ratio. Sperm fertility was best at a similar protein to carbohydrate ratio of 1:2. This close alignment largely factors in determining male fertility in

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A strategy common among insects is for males to participate in prolonged copulations. By engaging in prolonged copulations, a male has an increased opportunity to place more sperm within the female's reproductive tract and prevent the female from copulating with other males.

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can produce more sperm required for larger ejaculates, and can be found across the animal kingdom when sperm competition occurs. Males with larger testes have been documented to achieve higher reproductive success rates than males with smaller testes in male

66:, and releasing toxic seminal substances to reduce female re-mating tendencies to cope with sperm competition. Offensive tactics of sperm competition involve direct interference by one male on the reproductive success of another male, for instance by 655:

to prevent the female re-mating, or the application of pheromones that reduce the female's attractiveness. The adaptation of sperm traits, such as length, viability and velocity might be constrained by the influence of cytoplasmic DNA (e.g.

533:. Relationships across species between the frequency of multiple mating by females and male testis size are well documented across many groups of animals. For example, among primates, female gorillas are relatively monogamous, so 271:" idea, some males can remove sperm from previous males by ejaculating new sperm into the female; hindering successful insemination opportunities of the previous male. An example of this behavior is seen in the beetle species 575:

provides a striking example of an adaptation to sperm competition. Female black-winged damselflies are known to mate with several males over the span of only a few hours and therefore possess a receptacle known as a

202:, uses copulatory plugs to enable males to control the sperm reserve space females have available. This behavior ensures males with higher mating success at the expense of female control of sperm (sperm selection). 3470:

Otronen, M.; Siva-Jothy, M. T. (1991-08-01). "The effect of postcopulatory male behaviour on ejaculate distribution within the female sperm storage organs of the fly, Dryomyza anilis (Diptera : Dryomyzidae)".

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is a defensive behavioral trait that occurs in response to sperm competition; males try to prevent other males from approaching the female (and/or vice versa) thus preventing their mate from engaging in further

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that have these superior "good sperm" genes because it means that their offspring will be more viable and will inherit the "good sperm" genes which will increase their fitness levels when their sperm competes.

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differentially use the sperm from different males. One instance where this is known to occur is inbreeding; females will preferentially use the sperm from a more distantly related male than a close relative.

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Hendrichs, J., Cooley, S. S., and Prokopy, R. J. (1992). Post-feeding bubbling behaviour in fluidfeeding Diptera: Concentration of crop contents by oral evaporation. Physiol. Entomol. 17: 153-161.

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and colleagues concluded that one evolutionary purpose of the thrusting motion characteristic of intense intercourse is for the penis to “upsuck” another man's semen before depositing its own.

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with very small sperm (because of the energy trade-off between sperm size and number). Alternatively, a male may evolve faster sperm to enable his sperm to reach and fertilize the female's

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Chapman, Ben B; Eriksen, Anders; Baktoft, Henrik; Jakob, Brodersen; Nilsson, P. Anders; Hulthen, Kaj; Brönmark, Christer; Hansson, Lars- Anders; Grønkjær, Peter; Skov, Christian (2013).

431:) appear to use post-copulatory mechanisms to avoid producing inbred offspring. When mated to both a sibling and an unrelated male, females bias paternity towards the unrelated male. 3373: 331:

morphology of many species. For example, the shape of the human penis may have been selectively shaped by sperm competition. The human penis may have been selected to displace

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Rasotto, M.B; Shapiro, D. Y. (1998). "Morphology of gonoducts and male genital papilla, in the bluehead wrasse: implications and correlates on the control of gamete release".

229:, the sperm duct is sectioned into several small chambers that are surrounded by a muscle that allows the male to regulate how much sperm is released in one copulatory event. 335:

implanted in the female reproductive tract by a rival male. Specifically, the shape of the coronal ridge may promote displacement of seminal fluid from a previous mating via

422:) were mated with males of four different degrees of genetic relatedness in competition experiments. Sperm competitive ability was negatively correlated with relatedness. 572: 405:

mechanisms operating prior to mating have been described. However, inbreeding avoidance mechanisms that operate subsequent to copulation are less well known. In

484:. However, it is difficult to understand the interplay between female and male reproductive shape and structure that occurs within the female reproductive tract 398:

deleterious recessive mutations. Outcrossing between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.

363:. In cichlid fish, it has been found that increased sperm competition can lead to evolved larger sperm numbers, sperm cell sizes, and sperm swimming speeds. 3895: 514:, are known to exhibit polyandrous sexual selection. Males will invest more in ejaculation when competitors are in the immediate environment of the female. 2850: 3344: 219:

Another strategy, known as sperm partitioning, occurs when males conserve their limited supply of sperm by reducing the quantity of sperm ejected. In

394:), and as a result species have evolved mechanisms to avoid inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely to the expression of 3976: 3136: 2993:

Simmons LW, Beveridge M, Wedell N, Tregenza T (2006). "Postcopulatory inbreeding avoidance by female crickets only revealed by molecular markers".

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Harcourt, A.H., Harvey, P.H., Larson, S.G., & Short, R.V. 1981. Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates, Nature 293: 55-57

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showing the tail brush still present, which later develops into part of the body of the parasperm. It is produced when sperm competition occurs.

4603: 129:. Precopulatory and postcopulatory mate-guarding occurs in insects, lizards, birds and primates. Mate-guarding also exists in the fish species 3151: 660:); mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother only and it is thought that this could represent a constraint in the evolution of sperm. 4568: 3412: 4267: 447: 3200:

Weigensberg, I; D.J. Fairbairn (1994). "Conflicts of interest between the sexes: a study of mating interactions in a semiaquatic bug".

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Schulte-Hostedde, AI; Millar, John S. (2004). "Intraspecific variation of testis size and sperm length in the yellow-pine chipmunk".

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Hasselquist, D; Bensch, Staffan (1991). "Trade-off between mate guarding and mate attraction in the polygynous great reed warbler".

4021: 3689:"Effects of cytoplasmic genes on sperm viability and sperm morphology in a seed beetle: implications for sperm competition theory?" 3520:"No evidence for killer sperm or other selective interactions between human spermatozoa in ejaculates of different males in vitro" 1588:

Adolph, S.C.; Gerber, M.A. (1995). "Mate guarding. Mating success and body size in the tropical millipede Nyssodesimus python".

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in which the sperm of different males sometimes compete for increased reproductive success. Species of crickets, specifically

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Wedell, Nina; Gage, Matthew J.G.; Parker, Geoffrey A. (2002). "Sperm competition, male prudence and sperm-limited females".

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Fitzpatrick, John; Montgomerie, Robert; Desjardins, Julie; Stiver, Kelly; Kolm, Niclas; Balshine, Sigal (January 2009).

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2323:"Effects of Post-Teneral Nutrition on Reproductive Success of Male Mediterranean Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)" 4802: 4011: 2039: 679: 3962: 3926: 3835: 1433: 2429: 2339: 2322: 4754: 4471: 4466: 4282: 3747: 2731:"Extra-pair paternity and egg hatchability in tree swallows: evidence for the genetic compatibility hypothesis" 1403: 1247: 4655: 1300:

Scharf, I; Peter, F; Martin, O. Y. (2013). "Reproductive Trade-Off and Direct Costs for Males in arthropods".

283:. In the former, the second male to mate with a female is able to use his hook-like genitalia to dislodge the 4797: 4238: 3938: 3568: 2539: 2136:"Impact of sexually antagonistic genital morphologies on female reproduction and wild population demography" 4591: 3843: 1199:"Sexually transmitted diseases in polygynous mating systems: prevalence and impact on reproductive success" 694: 443: 4697: 2946:"Sperm competitive ability and genetic relatedness in Drosophila melanogaster: similarity breeds contempt" 1064:

Slavsgold, H (1994). "Polygyny in birds: the role of competition between females for male parental care".

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facilitated by the presence of certain traits, which are called armaments. An example of an armament are

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Other means of sperm competition could include improving the sperm itself or its packaging materials (

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Buckland-Nicks, John (1998). "Prosobranch parasperm: Sterile germ cells that promote paternity?".

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or by physically removing another male's sperm prior to mating with a female. For an example, see

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between males and females. Males have evolved several defensive tactics including: mate-guarding,

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Freeman, Scott; Herron, Jon C.; (2007). Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.

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Firman RC, Simmons LW (2015). "Gametic interactions promote inbreeding avoidance in house mice".

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Evolution to increase ejaculate volume in the presence of sperm competition has a consequence on

207: 121: 2127: 4578: 4223: 4201: 4134: 4124: 4119: 1723:"Genes Regulated by Mating, Sperm, or Seminal Proteins in Mated Female Drosophila melanogaster" 456: 427: 279: 225: 131: 4638: 2499:

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is referred to in academic literature as "sperm-blocking", using basketball as a metaphor.

603: 489: 469: 451: 402: 360: 297: 126: 55: 1660:"A nonspecific fatty acid within the bumblebee mating plug prevents females from remating" 1106:

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mating plugs, in addition to providing a physical barrier to further copulations, contain

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males release toxic seminal fluids, known as ACPs (accessory gland proteins), from their

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Shackelford, T.K; Goetz, Aaron T. (2007). "Adaptation to sperm competition in humans".

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2259: 2226: 2202: 2198: 2155: 2116: 2067: 2063: 1994: 1867: 1811: 1752: 1716: 1699: 1694: 1659: 1640: 1409: 1384: 1282: 1253: 1228: 1123: 1047: 1008: 1000: 948: 938: 899: 845: 795: 657: 549: 311: 256: 4650: 4363: 3922: 3864: 3722: 3603: 3500: 3236: 3221: 3030: 2592: 2006: 1962: 1949: 1764: 1574: 1460: 1329: 1183: 1085: 911: 739: 4707: 4433: 4346: 4262: 4196: 4107: 4001: 3852: 3799: 3791: 3700: 3667: 3657: 3646:"Sperm blocking is not a male adaptation to sperm competition in a parasitoid wasp" 3626: 3583: 3539: 3531: 3480: 3396: 3298: 3271: 3251: 3209: 3174: 3102: 3053: 3010: 2979: 2957: 2918: 2865: 2810: 2771: 2742: 2681: 2637: 2619: 2580: 2520: 2485: 2473: 2445: 2425: 2375: 2367: 2334: 2286: 2249: 2241: 2194: 2147: 2106: 2098: 2059: 1984: 1937: 1902: 1857: 1849: 1801: 1791: 1742: 1689: 1679: 1630: 1620: 1562: 1518: 1510: 1448: 1432:

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of sperm in many species occurs in many variations to accommodate or combat (see

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2633: 2608:"Female promiscuity promotes the evolution of faster sperm in cichlid fishes" 2406:." Sperm competition and the evolution of animal mating systems (1984): 1-60. 2206: 2071: 1004: 627:, leading to speculation that they might be able to degrade a rival's sperm. 565: 332: 284: 192:, which reduces re-mating tendencies of females. A species of Sonoran desert 189: 67: 4719: 4385: 3836:"Psychological and physiological adaptations to sperm competition in humans" 3662: 2701:

Christenson, T.E (1989). "Sperm depletion in the golden orb-weaving spider,

2686: 2669: 2624: 2224: 2040:"Drosophila melanogaster seminal fluid can protect the sperm of other males" 1119: 952: 529:

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4171: 4092: 3914: 3795: 3714: 3686: 3595: 3553: 3535: 3515: 3408: 3312: 3263: 3213: 3186: 3122: 3065: 3022: 2971: 2930: 2879: 2783: 2762:

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seminal fluid can actually protect the sperm of other males. Based on the "

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1523: 1127: 27: 4156: 4075: 4065: 4060: 3813: 1625: 684: 577: 505: 316: 100: 63: 4478: 3255: 3178: 1835: 4438: 4080: 3896:"Female remating, sperm competition and sexual selection in Drosophila" 3672: 3484: 3114: 3081: 2298: 1532: 1175: 933: 519: 477: 387: 162: 4680: 4310: 2922: 2870: 2605: 2175:"Sperm competition in the Namib Desert beetle, Onymacris unguicularis" 2151: 1345:"A Foraging Cost of Migration for a Partially Migratory Cyprinid Fish" 4378: 4213: 3044:

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females mate with many male partners. Females of many species of

373: 327:

One evolutionary response to sperm competition is the variety in

252: 3643: 3284: 1434:"Mate-guarding courtship behaviour: Tactics in a changing world" 584: 541:, which in turn have smaller testes than the highly promiscuous 19: 4218: 3687:

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538: 406: 328: 3444: 2133: 1838:"Strategic allocation of ejaculates by male Adelie penguins" 1431: 842:

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for numerous sperm has contributed to the evolution of

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Sacki, Yoriko; Kruse, Kip C; Switzer, Paul V (2005).

464:

It has been found that because of female choice (see

3834:

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3077: 3075: 2761: 504:have a specialized sperm-storage organ called the 3771: 3469: 3237:"Exceptional sperm cooperation in the wood mouse" 1717:McGraw, Lisa A.; Gibson, Greg; Clark, Andrew G.; 1606: 1545: 1299: 1161: 488:mating that allows for the competition of sperm. 4789: 3082:Pitnick, S, Markow, T, & Spicer, G. (1999). 2851:"Postcopulatory inbreeding avoidance in guppies" 2848: 2501:"The human penis as a semen displacement device" 2463: 2023:Fox, Stanley; McCoy, Kelly; Baird, Troy (2003). 1778:Clark, Nathaniel L.; Swanson, Willie J. (2005). 1245: 3072: 2549:, International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality 2276: 1664:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1478: 871: 606:female, the male dunnock pecks at the female's 3616: 3567:Swallow, John G; Wilkinson, Gerald S. (2002). 2844: 2842: 2459: 2457: 2455: 1919: 1884: 1197:Thrall, PH; Antonovics, J; Dobson, AP (2000). 1157: 1155: 974: 390:ordinarily has negative fitness consequences ( 374:Female choice for males with competitive sperm 296:The "good sperm hypothesis" is very common in 79:Sperm competition is often compared to having 3970: 2900: 2022: 1427: 1425: 1101: 1099: 1097: 1095: 1025: 3783:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 3445:Barrie Heather & Hugh Robertson (2005). 3135:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2986: 2937: 2894: 2755: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2694: 1587: 1059: 1057: 598:A similar strategy has been observed in the 322: 3984: 3447:The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand 3347:. In R.I.M. Dunbar & L. Burnett (ed.). 2839: 2798: 2700: 2663: 2661: 2466:Current Directions in Psychological Science 2452: 1152: 3977: 3963: 3772:Olsson, M.; Madsen, T.; Shine, R. 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Before mating with the 583: 438: 245: 169: 161: 110: 106: 26: 18: 2561: 1878: 1139: 1137: 923: 921: 858: 839: 746: 4790: 3449:(Revised ed.). Auckland: Viking. 2538:Susan M. Block, Ph.D. (June 2, 2015). 2409: 2270: 2213: 2078: 2037: 1913: 1829: 1710: 1481:The evolution of insect mating systems 1249:An introduction to behavioural ecology 833: 712: 3958: 3372:Birkhead, T.R.; Hunter, F.M. (1990). 3043: 1920:Schöfl, G; Taborsky, Michael (2002). 1771: 927: 806: 1651: 1401: 1272: 1148:. 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Sperm competition results in a 3706:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01189.x 3304:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02219.x 3015:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.03035.x 2478:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00473.x 2064:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01509.x 1821: 1479:Thornhill, R; Alcock, J (1983). 1048:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00212.x 680:Sociobiological theories of rape 581:percent of the competing sperm. 561:but frequent sperm competition. 3693:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 3680: 3637: 3610: 3560: 3507: 3463: 3438: 3429: 3365: 3327: 3291:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 3278: 3228: 3193: 3143: 3037: 2599: 2531: 2492: 2396: 2347: 2314: 2305: 2166: 2031: 1956: 1600: 1581: 1539: 1487: 1395: 1336: 1293: 1275:Society of Fertility Supplement 1266: 1239: 1190: 977:Journal of Theoretical Biology 968: 959: 934:Sperm Wars: The Science of Sex 844:. Princeton University Press. 706: 291: 1: 3939:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 3631:10.1016/S0968-4328(97)00064-4 2815:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7 2525:10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00016-3 1453:10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.08.007 827:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02533-8 792:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01000-8 700: 444:Scanning electron microscopic 3875:Princeton University Press, 3844:Review of General Psychology 3401:10.1016/0169-5347(90)90047-H 2505:Evolution and Human Behavior 2199:10.1016/0022-1910(91)90012-o 2179:Journal of Insect Physiology 1797:10.1371/journal.pgen.0010035 1370:10.1371/journal.pone.0061223 1252:. London: Wiley- Blackwell. 1144:Boyd, R; Silk, J.B. (2009). 695:Sperm competition in mammals 7: 4177:semelparity and iteroparity 3742:. Sixth Edition. 429–519. 875:; Pizzari, Tommaso (2002). 663: 10: 4829: 3058:10.1016/j.tree.2004.10.011 1555:Journal of Insect Behavior 997:10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.01.019 4577: 4537: 4492: 4457: 4414: 4281: 4268:Non-reproductive behavior 3992: 3857:10.1037/1089-2680.9.3.228 3816:. New York: Harper, 2010. 3588:10.1017/S1464793101005851 2585:10.1007/s00265-003-0707-z 1990:10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.067 1942:10.1007/s00265-002-0524-9 1748:10.1016/j.cub.2004.08.028 1613:Journal of Insect Science 1567:10.1007/s10905-011-9289-1 1408:. New York: Basic Books. 1322:10.1007/s11692-012-9213-4 537:have smaller testes than 323:Evolutionary consequences 3871:Simmons, Leigh W. 2001. 4803:Evolutionary psychology 3986:Animal sexual behaviour 3745:Eberhard, William 1996 2748:10.1093/beheco/10.3.304 2625:10.1073/pnas.0809990106 1926:) serves mate-guarding" 1590:Southwestern Naturalist 1120:10.1163/156853972x00167 690:Human sperm competition 685:Polygamy in house mouse 630:In the parasitoid wasp 419:Drosophila melanogaster 265:Drosophila melanogaster 208:Drosophila melanogaster 175:Drosophila melanogaster 4135:traumatic insemination 3796:10.1098/rspb.1997.0065 3536:10.1098/rspb.1999.0929 3514:Moore, HD; Martin, M; 3343:Low, Bobbi S. (2007). 3214:10.1006/anbe.1994.1314 2729:Kempenaers, B (1999). 2573:Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol 2372:10.1098/rspb.2014.2144 2246:10.1098/rspb.2003.2443 2103:10.1098/rspb.1999.0843 2025:Lizard Social Behavior 1854:10.1098/rspb.2000.1176 1685:10.1073/pnas.061027998 1494:Alexander, RD (1962). 1215:10.1098/rspb.2000.1178 595: 573:black-winged damselfly 553:compared to exclusive 461: 457:Fusitriton oregonensis 428:Teleogryllus oceanicus 280:Onymacris unguicularis 226:Thalassoma bifasciatum 177: 167: 132:Neolamprologus pulcher 118: 116:Neolamprologus pulcher 32: 24: 4263:Interspecies breeding 3663:10.1093/beheco/arx156 2687:10.1093/beheco/arj037 2091:Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 2038:Holman, Luke (2009). 840:Simmons, L.W (2001). 587: 476:) the morphology and 442: 392:inbreeding depression 361:yellow pine chipmunks 246:Offensive adaptations 173: 165: 139:with the rival male. 137:extra-pair copulation 114: 107:Defensive adaptations 30: 22: 4798:Evolutionary biology 4777:Short-beaked echidna 4517:side-blotched lizard 4034:sexual ornamentation 3738:Alcock, John 1998. 2668:Fromhage, L (2006). 2327:Florida Entomologist 1626:10.1673/031.005.1801 1302:Evolutionary Biology 1164:Behav Ecol Sociobiol 649:prolonged copulation 416:Female fruit flies ( 403:inbreeding avoidance 269:last male precedence 56:reproductive success 16:Reproductive process 4604:Homosexual behavior 4569:Homosexual behavior 4424:Spawning strategies 4224:Bateman's principle 4044:sexy son hypothesis 4022:hormonal motivation 4017:reproductive system 4007:Sexual reproduction 3530:(1436): 2343–2350. 3393:1990TEcoE...5...48B 3256:10.1038/nature00832 3179:10.1002/jez.b.21164 3171:2008JEZB..310..148P 3007:2006MolEc..15.3817S 2915:2015EcolL..18..937F 2517:2003EHumB..24..277G 2240:(1527): 1933–1938. 2191:1991JInsP..37...17D 2097:(1430): 1759–1764. 2056:2009FuEco..23..180H 1981:2008CBio...18.1138P 1924:Pyrrhocoris apterus 1899:1998JFBio..52..716R 1848:(1452): 1541–1545. 1739:2004CBio...14.1509M 1719:Wolfner, Mariana F. 1676:2001PNAS...98.3926B 1361:2013PLoSO...861223C 1314:2013EvBio..40..169S 1209:(1452): 1555–1563. 1066:American Naturalist 1040:2001EcolL...4..159K 989:2010JThBi.264...24Y 784:1997TEcoE..12..154S 714:Parker, Geoffrey A. 675:Strategic pluralism 670:Concealed ovulation 633:Nasonia vitripennis 524:Apodemus sylvaticus 511:Gryllus bimaculatus 199:Drosophila mettleri 73:Gryllus bimaculatus 52:sexual reproduction 23:Stained human sperm 4552:Breeding behaviour 4273:Fisher's principle 4098:sexual intercourse 4039:handicap principle 3948:2011-05-13 at the 3943:http://www.els.net 3650:Behavioral Ecology 3485:10.1007/BF00164292 2735:Behavioral Ecology 2366:(1802): 20142144. 2044:Functional Ecology 1176:10.1007/BF00172170 1146:How Humans Evolved 937:. Harper Collins. 719:Biological Reviews 651:, deposition of a 596: 591:Prunella modularis 482:reproductive tract 462: 450:lancet (infertile 446:image of immature 368:Nephila fenestrate 343:. A 2003 study by 341:sexual intercourse 274:Carabus insulicola 178: 168: 119: 33: 25: 4785: 4784: 4599:Lordosis behavior 4479:Frog reproduction 4429:Polyandry in fish 4209:Sexual dimorphism 4130:sperm competition 4049:Fisherian runaway 4029:Courtship display 3790:(1380): 455–459. 3250:(6894): 174–177. 2923:10.1111/ele.12471 2871:10.1111/jeb.12545 2152:10.1111/evo.13603 2146:(11): 2449–2461. 1975:(15): 1138–1141. 1733:(16): 1509–1514. 1402:Buss, DM (2016). 772:Trends Ecol. Evol 658:mitochondrial DNA 550:sexual dimorphism 435:Empirical support 425:Female crickets ( 312:Nauphoeta cinerea 99:first. Dozens of 36:Sperm competition 31:Human spermatozoa 4820: 4808:Sexual selection 4755:ringtailed lemur 4614:African wild dog 4587:Sexual selection 4547:Sexual selection 4467:Sexual selection 4108:pseudocopulation 4002:Sexual selection 3979: 3972: 3965: 3956: 3955: 3933: 3931: 3925:. Archived from 3900: 3868: 3840: 3809: 3807: 3727: 3726: 3708: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3665: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3573: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3547: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3423: 3417: 3411:. Archived from 3378: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3306: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3241: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3202:Animal Behaviour 3197: 3191: 3190: 3156: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3134: 3126: 3101:(6): 1804–1822. 3092: 3079: 3070: 3069: 3041: 3035: 3034: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2965: 2941: 2935: 2934: 2898: 2892: 2891: 2873: 2855: 2846: 2837: 2836: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2726: 2715: 2714: 2703:Nephila clavipes 2698: 2692: 2691: 2689: 2665: 2656: 2655: 2645: 2627: 2618:(4): 1128–1132. 2603: 2597: 2596: 2568: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2544: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2461: 2450: 2449: 2424:(3): 1057–1060. 2413: 2407: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2383: 2351: 2345: 2344: 2342: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2303: 2302: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2257: 2231: 2222: 2211: 2210: 2170: 2164: 2163: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2114: 2082: 2076: 2075: 2035: 2029: 2028: 2020: 2011: 2010: 1992: 1960: 1954: 1953: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1882: 1876: 1875: 1865: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1819: 1809: 1799: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1750: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1697: 1687: 1670:(7): 3926–3928. 1655: 1649: 1648: 1638: 1628: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1585: 1579: 1578: 1552: 1543: 1537: 1536: 1526: 1500: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1476: 1465: 1464: 1441:Animal Behaviour 1438: 1429: 1420: 1419: 1399: 1393: 1392: 1382: 1372: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1297: 1291: 1290: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1243: 1237: 1236: 1226: 1194: 1188: 1187: 1159: 1150: 1149: 1141: 1132: 1131: 1103: 1090: 1089: 1061: 1052: 1051: 1023: 1017: 1016: 972: 966: 963: 957: 956: 925: 916: 915: 881: 869: 856: 855: 837: 831: 830: 810: 804: 803: 767: 744: 743: 710: 466:sexual selection 345:Gordon G. Gallup 337:thrusting action 216:and physiology. 213:accessory glands 181:Copulatory plugs 4828: 4827: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4788: 4787: 4786: 4781: 4760:sexual swelling 4656:European badger 4573: 4533: 4488: 4453: 4410: 4277: 4246:Sexual conflict 4187:hermaphroditism 3988: 3983: 3950:Wayback Machine 3929: 3903:Genet. Mol. Res 3898: 3838: 3740:Animal Behavior 3735: 3733:Further reading 3730: 3685: 3681: 3642: 3638: 3615: 3611: 3571: 3565: 3561: 3512: 3508: 3468: 3464: 3457: 3443: 3439: 3434: 3430: 3421: 3419: 3415: 3376: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3283: 3279: 3239: 3233: 3229: 3198: 3194: 3154: 3148: 3144: 3128: 3127: 3107:10.2307/2640442 3090: 3080: 3073: 3042: 3038: 3001:(12): 3817–24. 2991: 2987: 2942: 2938: 2899: 2895: 2864:(12): 2585–94. 2853: 2847: 2840: 2825: 2803: 2799: 2776:10.1038/nrg2664 2764:Nat. Rev. Genet 2760: 2756: 2727: 2718: 2699: 2695: 2666: 2659: 2604: 2600: 2569: 2562: 2552: 2550: 2547:Wiley-Blackwell 2542: 2536: 2532: 2497: 2493: 2462: 2453: 2414: 2410: 2402:Parker, G. A. " 2401: 2397: 2352: 2348: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2275: 2271: 2229: 2223: 2214: 2171: 2167: 2132: 2128: 2083: 2079: 2036: 2032: 2021: 2014: 1969:Current Biology 1961: 1957: 1918: 1914: 1883: 1879: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1776: 1772: 1727:Current Biology 1715: 1711: 1656: 1652: 1605: 1601: 1586: 1582: 1550: 1544: 1540: 1515:10.2307/2406178 1498: 1492: 1488: 1477: 1468: 1436: 1430: 1423: 1416: 1400: 1396: 1341: 1337: 1298: 1294: 1271: 1267: 1260: 1244: 1240: 1195: 1191: 1160: 1153: 1142: 1135: 1104: 1093: 1062: 1055: 1028:Ecology Letters 1024: 1020: 973: 969: 964: 960: 945: 926: 919: 884:Nat. Rev. Genet 879: 870: 859: 852: 838: 834: 811: 807: 768: 747: 711: 707: 703: 666: 653:copulatory plug 616:Dryomyza anilis 588:Male dunnocks ( 474:sexual conflict 437: 385: 376: 325: 294: 248: 166:Indian mealmoth 109: 60:sexual conflict 17: 12: 11: 5: 4826: 4816: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4724: 4723: 4722: 4712: 4711: 4710: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4684: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4642: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4583: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4549: 4543: 4541: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4498: 4496: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4475: 4474: 4463: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4420: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4388: 4383: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4366: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4339: 4338: 4337: 4327: 4326: 4325: 4324: 4323: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4287: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4206: 4205: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4056:Mating systems 4053: 4052: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4026: 4025: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3982: 3981: 3974: 3967: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3934: 3932:on 2018-11-08. 3909:(3): 178–215. 3891: 3869: 3851:(3): 228–248. 3831: 3817: 3810: 3769: 3758: 3743: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3699:(1): 358–368. 3679: 3656:(1): 253–263. 3636: 3625:(4): 267–280. 3609: 3582:(2): 153–182. 3559: 3506: 3462: 3456:978-0143020400 3455: 3437: 3428: 3364: 3358:978-0198568308 3357: 3335: 3326: 3297:(4): 856–862. 3277: 3227: 3208:(4): 893–901. 3192: 3165:(2): 148–159. 3142: 3071: 3036: 2985: 2956:(9): 1789–95. 2936: 2893: 2838: 2823: 2797: 2770:(11): 783–96. 2754: 2741:(3): 304–311. 2716: 2693: 2680:(3): 353–357. 2657: 2598: 2579:(3): 272–277. 2560: 2530: 2491: 2451: 2408: 2395: 2346: 2313: 2304: 2269: 2212: 2165: 2126: 2077: 2050:(1): 180–186. 2030: 2012: 1955: 1936:(5): 426–433. 1912: 1893:(4): 716–725. 1877: 1828: 1770: 1709: 1650: 1599: 1580: 1561:(2): 183–196. 1538: 1524:2027.42/137461 1509:(4): 443–467. 1486: 1466: 1421: 1414: 1394: 1335: 1308:(2): 169–184. 1292: 1265: 1258: 1238: 1189: 1170:(3): 187–193. 1151: 1133: 1091: 1078:10.1086/285596 1053: 1034:(2): 159–165. 1018: 967: 958: 943: 917: 896:10.1038/nrg774 890:(4): 262–273. 857: 851:978-0691059884 850: 832: 821:(7): 313–320. 805: 778:(4): 154–159. 745: 726:(4): 525–567. 704: 702: 699: 698: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 665: 662: 638:kamikaze-sperm 480:of the female 436: 433: 384: 381: 375: 372: 333:seminal fluids 324: 321: 293: 290: 247: 244: 108: 105: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4825: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4721: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4713: 4709: 4706: 4705: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4698:Spotted hyena 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4576: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4536: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4504: 4503: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4468: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4404:penis fencing 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4374:apophallation 4372: 4371: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4328: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4293: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4283:Invertebrates 4280: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4244: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4211: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4182:opportunistic 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4148: 4145: 4141: 4140:penile spines 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4117: 4116: 4115:Fertilisation 4113: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4103:Pelvic thrust 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4086: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4071:mate guarding 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4054: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4009: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3980: 3975: 3973: 3968: 3966: 3961: 3960: 3957: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3940: 3935: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3892: 3890: 3889:0-691-05987-X 3886: 3882: 3881:0-691-05988-8 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3845: 3837: 3832: 3829: 3828:0-387-28036-7 3825: 3822: 3818: 3815: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3784: 3779: 3777: 3770: 3767: 3766:0-13-227584-8 3763: 3759: 3757: 3756:0-691-01084-6 3753: 3750: 3749: 3744: 3741: 3737: 3736: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3563: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3524:Proc Biol Sci 3521: 3517: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3466: 3458: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3432: 3418:on 2014-08-17 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3375: 3368: 3360: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3196: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3146: 3138: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3087: 3078: 3076: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2940: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2909:(9): 937–43. 2908: 2904: 2897: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2858:J. Evol. Biol 2852: 2845: 2843: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2824:9780120176243 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2749: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2697: 2688: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2664: 2662: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2565: 2548: 2541: 2534: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2495: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2412: 2405: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2350: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2308: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2273: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2217: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2169: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2130: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2081: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2027:. p. 49. 2026: 2019: 2017: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1959: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1925: 1916: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1832: 1824: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1784:PLOS Genetics 1781: 1774: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1713: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1654: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1595: 1591: 1584: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1549: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1497: 1490: 1482: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1435: 1428: 1426: 1417: 1415:9780465093304 1411: 1407: 1406: 1398: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1355:(5): e61223. 1354: 1350: 1346: 1339: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1296: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1269: 1261: 1259:9781444339499 1255: 1251: 1250: 1242: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1203:Proc Biol Sci 1200: 1193: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1158: 1156: 1147: 1140: 1138: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1102: 1100: 1098: 1096: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1060: 1058: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1022: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 971: 962: 954: 950: 946: 944:0-7881-6004-4 940: 936: 935: 930: 924: 922: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 878: 874: 873:Birkhead, T.R 868: 866: 864: 862: 853: 847: 843: 836: 828: 824: 820: 816: 809: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 766: 764: 762: 760: 758: 756: 754: 752: 750: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 720: 715: 709: 705: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 667: 661: 659: 654: 650: 646: 641: 639: 635: 634: 628: 626: 620: 618: 617: 611: 609: 605: 601: 593: 592: 586: 582: 579: 574: 569: 567: 566:spermatophore 562: 560: 556: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 527: 525: 521: 515: 513: 512: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 459: 458: 453: 449: 445: 441: 432: 430: 429: 423: 421: 420: 414: 410: 408: 404: 399: 397: 393: 389: 380: 371: 369: 364: 362: 357: 353: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 320: 318: 314: 313: 306: 302: 299: 289: 286: 285:spermatophore 282: 281: 276: 275: 270: 266: 262: 258: 257:status signal 254: 243: 241: 240: 234: 230: 228: 227: 222: 217: 214: 210: 209: 203: 201: 200: 195: 191: 190:linoleic acid 187: 182: 176: 172: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 138: 134: 133: 128: 123: 122:Mate-guarding 117: 113: 104: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 74: 69: 68:mate guarding 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 29: 21: 4745:olive baboon 4693:Hippopotamus 4681:domestic cat 4629:domestic dog 4557:golden eagle 4524:Crocodilians 4172:polygynandry 4129: 4093:cloacal kiss 3937: 3927:the original 3906: 3902: 3872: 3848: 3842: 3820: 3787: 3781: 3776:Vipera berus 3775: 3746: 3739: 3696: 3692: 3682: 3653: 3649: 3639: 3622: 3618: 3612: 3579: 3575: 3562: 3527: 3523: 3516:Birkhead, TR 3509: 3479:(1): 33–37. 3476: 3472: 3465: 3446: 3440: 3431: 3420:. Retrieved 3413:the original 3387:(2): 48–52. 3384: 3380: 3367: 3348: 3338: 3329: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3247: 3243: 3230: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3162: 3158: 3145: 3131:cite journal 3098: 3094: 3085: 3052:(1): 46–53. 3049: 3045: 3039: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2906: 2902: 2896: 2861: 2857: 2806: 2800: 2767: 2763: 2757: 2738: 2734: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2696: 2677: 2673: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2576: 2572: 2551:. Retrieved 2533: 2508: 2504: 2494: 2469: 2465: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2398: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2330: 2326: 2316: 2307: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2237: 2233: 2182: 2178: 2168: 2143: 2139: 2129: 2094: 2090: 2080: 2047: 2043: 2033: 2024: 1972: 1968: 1958: 1933: 1929: 1923: 1915: 1890: 1887:J. Fish Biol 1886: 1880: 1845: 1841: 1831: 1787: 1783: 1773: 1730: 1726: 1712: 1667: 1663: 1653: 1616: 1612: 1602: 1593: 1589: 1583: 1558: 1554: 1541: 1506: 1502: 1489: 1480: 1444: 1440: 1404: 1397: 1352: 1348: 1338: 1305: 1301: 1295: 1278: 1274: 1268: 1248: 1241: 1206: 1202: 1192: 1167: 1163: 1145: 1111: 1107: 1069: 1065: 1031: 1027: 1021: 983:(1): 24–36. 980: 976: 970: 961: 932: 929:Baker, Robin 887: 883: 841: 835: 818: 814: 808: 775: 771: 723: 717: 708: 642: 637: 631: 629: 621: 614: 612: 597: 589: 570: 563: 547: 528: 523: 516: 509: 485: 463: 455: 426: 424: 417: 415: 411: 400: 386: 377: 367: 365: 354:size. Large 349: 326: 310: 307: 303: 295: 278: 272: 264: 260: 249: 237: 235: 231: 224: 220: 218: 206: 204: 197: 193: 179: 174: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 130: 120: 115: 78: 71: 64:mating plugs 35: 34: 4484:Salamanders 4364:Echinoderms 4347:sea anemone 4330:Cephalopods 4234:cannibalism 4157:promiscuity 4076:mating plug 4066:mating call 4061:mate choice 3673:10023/16648 3435:Alcock 1998 2707:J. Arachnol 2674:Behav. Ecol 2333:: 165–170. 2285:: 507–533. 1596:(1): 56–61. 1281:: 309–325. 1114:(1): 1–26. 613:In the fly 604:polyandrous 578:spermatheca 506:spermatheca 490:Polyandrous 452:sperm morph 317:mate choice 298:polyandrous 292:Mate choice 205:Similarly, 127:copulations 101:adaptations 40:spermatozoa 4792:Categories 4459:Amphibians 4439:Salmon run 4369:Gastropods 4291:Arthropods 4256:intralocus 4251:interlocus 4229:bimaturism 4088:Copulation 4081:lek mating 3422:2014-01-27 3086:Drosophila 2903:Ecol. Lett 2713:: 115–118. 2511:(4): 277. 2185:(1): 1–8. 1790:(3): e35. 701:References 645:ejaculates 548:Regarding 520:wood mouse 500:and other 478:physiology 470:morphology 396:homozygous 388:Inbreeding 261:Drosophila 221:Drosophila 194:Drosophila 4726:Primates 4715:Pinnipeds 4703:Marsupial 4634:gray wolf 4394:earthworm 4379:love dart 4352:jellyfish 4321:butterfly 4214:anisogamy 4202:synchrony 4192:cuckoldry 4162:polyandry 4012:evolution 3493:1432-0762 3321:205433208 3095:Evolution 2995:Mol. Ecol 2950:Evolution 2634:0027-8424 2540:"Cuckold" 2472:: 47–50. 2418:Evolution 2207:0022-1910 2072:0269-8463 1619:(8): 18. 1503:Evolution 1447:: 25–33. 1108:Behaviour 1072:: 59–94. 1005:0022-5193 625:lysozymes 571:The male 494:arthropod 448:parasperm 401:Numerous 288:removed. 186:Bumblebee 93:anisogamy 89:selection 46:the same 44:fertilize 4750:mandrill 4708:kangaroo 4651:Elephant 4562:seabirds 4494:Reptiles 4444:Seahorse 4342:Cnidaria 4306:scorpion 4239:coercion 4197:seasonal 4167:polygyny 4152:monogamy 4125:external 4120:internal 3946:Archived 3923:36236503 3915:14963827 3865:37941662 3723:11987808 3715:17210029 3604:14169522 3596:12056745 3554:10643078 3518:(1999). 3501:38711170 3409:21232320 3313:21306461 3264:12110888 3222:53199207 3187:17358014 3123:28565462 3066:16701340 3031:23022844 3023:17032276 2972:12389723 2931:26154782 2880:25387854 2784:19834483 2652:19164576 2593:25202442 2438:10937281 2390:25608881 2264:14561307 2160:30238547 2121:10577160 2007:16611113 1999:18674912 1950:19526835 1872:11007330 1816:16170411 1765:17056259 1757:15324670 1721:(2004). 1704:11274412 1645:16341250 1575:16322822 1461:27908768 1389:23723967 1349:PLOS ONE 1330:14120264 1287:17644971 1233:11007332 1184:25256043 1086:84467229 1013:20097207 953:37369431 931:(1996). 912:10841073 904:11967551 800:21238013 740:85156929 664:See also 559:monogamy 555:polygyny 535:gorillas 239:Poecilia 4767:Raccoon 4740:gorilla 4676:cheetah 4661:Felidae 4646:Dolphin 4639:red fox 4579:Mammals 4529:Tuatara 4507:lizards 4399:epitoky 4335:octopus 3994:General 3805:1688262 3545:1690463 3389:Bibcode 3272:4413444 3167:Bibcode 3115:2640442 3003:Bibcode 2980:2140754 2911:Bibcode 2833:3324702 2643:2633556 2553:July 3, 2513:Bibcode 2486:6179167 2446:6261882 2381:4344140 2299:2097007 2255:1691464 2187:Bibcode 2112:1690205 2052:Bibcode 1977:Bibcode 1895:Bibcode 1863:1690704 1807:1201370 1735:Bibcode 1672:Bibcode 1636:1307579 1533:2406178 1380:3665772 1357:Bibcode 1310:Bibcode 1224:1690713 1128:5062032 1036:Bibcode 985:Bibcode 780:Bibcode 600:dunnock 543:bonobos 498:mollusk 407:guppies 339:during 253:antlers 81:tickets 50:during 4772:Rodent 4735:bonobo 4720:walrus 4619:coyote 4512:snakes 4449:Sharks 4390:Worms 4386:Sponge 4316:insect 4311:beetle 4301:spider 4219:oogamy 3921: 3913: 3887: 3879: 3863: 3826: 3802: 3764: 3754: 3721: 3713: 3619:Micron 3602: 3594: 3552: 3542: 3499: 3491: 3453: 3407: 3355: 3319: 3311: 3270: 3262: 3244:Nature 3220: 3185: 3121: 3113: 3064: 3029: 3021: 2978: 2970: 2929: 2888:934203 2886: 2878: 2831: 2821: 2792:771357 2790: 2782: 2650: 2640: 2632: 2591: 2484: 2444: 2436: 2388: 2378: 2297: 2262: 2252: 2205: 2158: 2119: 2109: 2070: 2005: 1997: 1948: 1870: 1860: 1814: 1804: 1763: 1755: 1702: 1692: 1643: 1633: 1573: 1531: 1459: 1412: 1387: 1377: 1328: 1285: 1256: 1231: 1221: 1182: 1126: 1084: 1011: 1003: 951: 941: 910: 902: 848: 798: 738: 608:cloaca 539:humans 531:testes 356:testes 352:testis 85:raffle 4813:Semen 4730:human 4688:Fossa 4671:tiger 4624:dingo 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