4331:
4319:
4379:
4367:
4355:
4343:
186:
178:
4051:. ACRIM found an increase of +0.037%/decade from 1980 to 2000 and a decrease thereafter. PMOD instead presents a steady decrease since 1978. Significant differences can also be seen during the peak of solar cycles 21 and 22. These arise from the fact that ACRIM uses the original TSI results published by the satellite experiment teams while PMOD significantly modifies some results to conform them to specific TSI proxy models. The implications of increasing TSI during the global warming of the last two decades of the 20th century are that solar forcing may be a marginally larger factor in climate change than represented in the
6791:
4272:
exponentially with increasing optical depth, as the sun approaches the horizon there comes a point when absorption dominates projection for the rest of the day. With a relatively high level of absorbers this can be a considerable portion of the late afternoon, and likewise of the early morning. Conversely, in the (hypothetical) total absence of absorption, the optical depth remains zero at all altitudes of the sun, that is, transmittance remains 1, and so only the projection effect applies.
1319:
3980:, established in the 1990s. The new value came from SORCE/TIM and radiometric laboratory tests. Scattered light is a primary cause of the higher irradiance values measured by earlier satellites in which the precision aperture is located behind a larger, view-limiting aperture. The TIM uses a view-limiting aperture that is smaller than the precision aperture that precludes this spurious signal. The new estimate is from better measurement rather than a change in solar output.
3756:
inside the instrument, with a larger view-limiting aperture at the front. Depending on edge imperfections this can directly scatter light into the cavity. This design admits into the front part of the instrument two to three times the amount of light intended to be measured; if not completely absorbed or scattered, this additional light produces erroneously high signals. In contrast, TIM's design places the precision aperture at the front so that only desired light enters.
6797:
7608:
1301:
4754:
4079:
405:
4151:
2648:
4067:
6803:
4768:
7620:
38:
4195:
940:
4602:
46:
2088:
4530:
4704:. In order to measure the cooling power of a passive radiative cooling surface, both the absorbed powers of atmospheric and solar radiations must be quantified. On a clear day, solar irradiance can reach 1000 W/m with a diffuse component between 50 and 100 W/m. On average the cooling power of a passive daytime radiative cooling surface has been estimated at ~100-150 W/m.
933:
233:, is measured at the surface of the Earth at a given location with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun direction. It excludes diffuse solar radiation (radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components). Direct irradiance is equal to the extraterrestrial irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses due to
4268:) of the path of insolation through the atmosphere. For any given short length of the path, the optical depth is proportional to the number of absorbers and scatterers along that length, typically increasing with decreasing altitude. The optical depth of the whole path is then the integral (sum) of those optical depths along the path.
3789:) determines the beam's measured portion. The test instrument's precision aperture is positioned in the same location, without optically altering the beam, for direct comparison to the reference. Variable beam power provides linearity diagnostics, and variable beam diameter diagnoses scattering from different instrument components.
3384:
1296:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\cos(\Theta )=\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )\cos(\beta )&+\sin(\delta )\cos(\varphi )\sin(\beta )\cos(\gamma )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\cos(\beta )\cos(h)\\&-\cos(\delta )\sin(\varphi )\sin(\beta )\cos(\gamma )\cos(h)-\cos(\delta )\sin(\beta )\sin(\gamma )\sin(h)\end{aligned}}}
709:
2643:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{\pi }^{-\pi }Q\,dh&=\int _{h_{o}}^{-h_{o}}Q\,dh\\&=S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\int _{h_{o}}^{-h_{o}}\cos(\Theta )\,dh\\&=S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}{\Bigg }_{h=h_{o}}^{h=-h_{o}}\\&=-2S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\left\end{aligned}}}
4563:
Because solar collectors panels are almost always mounted at an angle towards the Sun, insolation figures must be adjusted to find the amount of sunlight falling on the panel. This will prevent estimates that are inaccurately low for winter and inaccurately high for summer. This also means that the
4035:
In 2014 a new ACRIM composite was developed using the updated ACRIM3 record. It added corrections for scattering and diffraction revealed during recent testing at TRF and two algorithm updates. The algorithm updates more accurately account for instrument thermal behavior and parsing of shutter cycle
3983:
A regression model-based split of the relative proportion of sunspot and facular influences from SORCE/TIM data accounts for 92% of observed variance and tracks the observed trends to within TIM's stability band. This agreement provides further evidence that TSI variations are primarily due to solar
3678:
calibrations drift for reasons including solar degradation of the cavity, electronic degradation of the heater, surface degradation of the precision aperture and varying surface emissions and temperatures that alter thermal backgrounds. These calibrations require compensation to preserve consistent
3379:
and the present. However, current understanding based on various lines of evidence suggests that the lower values for the secular trend are more probable. In particular, a secular trend greater than 2 Wm is considered highly unlikely. Ultraviolet irradiance (EUV) varies by approximately 1.5 percent
4584:
kWh/m/y, compared to 2370 at the equator. In fact, under clear skies a solar panel placed horizontally at the north or south pole at midsummer receives more sunlight over 24 hours (cosine of angle of incidence equal to sin(23.5°) or about 0.40) than a horizontal panel at the equator at the equinox
4389:
Solar radiation maps are built using databases derived from satellite imagery, as for example using visible images from
Meteosat Prime satellite. A method is applied to the images to determine solar radiation. One well validated satellite-to-irradiance model is the SUNY model. The accuracy of this
4297:. A number of commercial firms now exist to provide solar resource data to solar power developers, including 3E, Clean Power Research, SoDa Solar Radiation Data, Solargis, Vaisala (previously 3Tier), and Vortex, and these firms have often provided solar potential maps for free. In January 2017 the
4118:
in a cloudless sky), direct sun is about 1050 W/m, and global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level is about 1120 W/m. The latter figure includes radiation scattered or reemitted by the atmosphere and surroundings. The actual figure varies with the Sun's angle and atmospheric
4280:
Assessment and mapping of solar potential at the global, regional and country levels have been the subject of significant academic and commercial interest. One of the earliest attempts to carry out comprehensive mapping of solar potential for individual countries was the Solar & Wind
Resource
3755:
For ACRIM, NIST determined that diffraction from the view-limiting aperture contributes a 0.13% signal not accounted for in the three ACRIM instruments. This correction lowers the reported ACRIM values, bringing ACRIM closer to TIM. In ACRIM and all other instruments but TIM, the aperture is deep
4675:
Experiments with GISS Model 3 investigated the sensitivity of model performance to the TSI absolute value during the present and pre-industrial epochs, and describe, for example, how the irradiance reduction is partitioned between the atmosphere and surface and the effects on outgoing radiation.
3776:
with controlled light sources. L-1 Standards and
Technology (LASP) designed and built the system, completed in 2008. It was calibrated for optical power against the NIST Primary Optical Watt Radiometer, a cryogenic radiometer that maintains the NIST radiant power scale to an uncertainty of 0.02%
3709:
Measurement stability involves exposing different radiometer cavities to different accumulations of solar radiation to quantify exposure-dependent degradation effects. These effects are then compensated for in the final data. Observation overlaps permits corrections for both absolute offsets and
4271:
When the density of absorbers is layered, that is, depends much more on vertical than horizontal position in the atmosphere, to a good approximation the optical depth is inversely proportional to the projection effect, that is, to the cosine of the zenith angle. Since transmittance decreases
3716:
Long-term radiometer drifts can potentially be mistaken for irradiance variations which can be misinterpreted as affecting climate. Examples include the issue of the irradiance increase between cycle minima in 1986 and 1996, evident only in the ACRIM composite (and not the model) and the low
4221:
In the figure, the angle shown is between the ground and the sunbeam rather than between the vertical direction and the sunbeam; hence the sine rather than the cosine is appropriate. A sunbeam one mile wide arrives from directly overhead, and another at a 30° angle to the horizontal. The
1581:
3759:
Variations from other sources likely include an annual systematics in the ACRIM III data that is nearly in phase with the Sun-Earth distance and 90-day spikes in the VIRGO data coincident with SoHO spacecraft maneuvers that were most apparent during the 2008 solar minimum.
4671:
The impact of the lower 2014 TSI value on climate models is unknown. A few tenths of a percent change in the absolute TSI level is typically considered to be of minimal consequence for climate simulations. The new measurements require climate model parameter adjustments.
3595:
6003:
Stephens, Graeme L.; Li, Juilin; Wild, Martin; Clayson, Carol Anne; Loeb, Norman; Kato, Seiji; L'Ecuyer, Tristan; Jr, Paul W. Stackhouse; Lebsock, Matthew (2012-10-01). "An update on Earth's energy balance in light of the latest global observations".
4552:. In many countries, the figures can be obtained from an insolation map or from insolation tables that reflect data over the prior 30–50 years. Different solar power technologies are able to use different components of the total irradiation. While
4237:. On an annual average, the poles receive less insolation than does the equator, because the poles are always angled more away from the Sun than the tropics, and moreover receive no insolation at all for the six months of their respective winters.
3781:). As of 2011 TRF was the only facility that approached the desired <0.01% uncertainty for pre-launch validation of solar radiometers measuring irradiance (rather than merely optical power) at solar power levels and under vacuum conditions.
2843:
4687:
W/m climate forcing, which suggests a transient climate response of 0.6 °C per W/m. This response is larger by a factor of 2 or more than in the IPCC-assessed 2008 models, possibly appearing in the models' heat uptake by the ocean.
3792:
The Glory/TIM and PICARD/PREMOS flight instrument absolute scales are now traceable to the TRF in both optical power and irradiance. The resulting high accuracy reduces the consequences of any future gap in the solar irradiance record.
3355:
1694:
3736:
Disagreement among overlapping observations indicates unresolved drifts that suggest the TSI record is not sufficiently stable to discern solar changes on decadal time scales. Only the ACRIM composite shows irradiance increasing by
4564:
amount of sunlight falling on a solar panel at high latitude is not as low compared to one at the equator as would appear from just considering insolation on a horizontal surface. Horizontal insolation values range from 800 to 950
1436:
4592:
Photovoltaic panels are rated under standard conditions to determine the Wp (peak watts) rating, which can then be used with insolation, adjusted by factors such as tilt, tracking and shading, to determine the expected output.
1864:
928:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}C&=h\\c&=\Theta \\a&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi -\varphi \\b&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi -\delta \\\cos(\Theta )&=\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\cos(h)\end{aligned}}}
3184:
3784:
TRF encloses both the reference radiometer and the instrument under test in a common vacuum system that contains a stationary, spatially uniform illuminating beam. A precision aperture with an area calibrated to 0.0031%
5815:
1 percent of the sun's energy is emitted at ultraviolet wavelengths between 200 and 300 nanometers, the decrease in this radiation from 1 July 1981 to 30 June 1985 accounted for 19 percent of the decrease in the total
3086:
154:, and cross-cycle changes. Irradiance on the Earth's surface additionally depends on the tilt of the measuring surface, the height of the Sun above the horizon, and atmospheric conditions. Solar irradiance affects
2093:
3455:
4209:
Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's
4882:
341:
3399:
have caused radiance variations of as much as 25% (locally; global average changes are much smaller) over long periods. The most recent significant event was an axial tilt of 24° during boreal summer near the
3448:
for a particular time of year, and particular latitude, is a useful application in the theory of
Milankovitch cycles. For example, at the summer solstice, the declination δ is equal to the obliquity
2982:
677:
4226:
of a 30° angle is 1/2, whereas the sine of a 90° angle is 1. Therefore, the angled sunbeam spreads the light over twice the area. Consequently, half as much light falls on each square mile.
257:. The irradiance above the atmosphere also varies with time of year (because the distance to the Sun varies), although this effect is generally less significant compared to the effect of losses on DNI.
3720:
Despite the fact that ACRIM I, ACRIM II, ACRIM III, VIRGO and TIM all track degradation with redundant cavities, notable and unexplained differences remain in irradiance and the modeled influences of
1939:
4612:
The projection effect can be used to design buildings that are cool in summer and warm in winter, by providing vertical windows on the equator-facing side of the building (the south face in the
945:
714:
4849:
Brun, P., Zimmermann, N.E., Hari, C., Pellissier, L., Karger, D.N. (preprint): Global climate-related predictors at kilometre resolution for the past and future. Earth Syst. Sci. Data
Discuss.
2909:
3446:
2081:
2028:
3236:
2655:
1353:
1747:
3744:
Recommendations to resolve the instrument discrepancies include validating optical measurement accuracy by comparing ground-based instruments to laboratory references, such as those at
3654:. This technique measures the electrical heating needed to maintain an absorptive blackened cavity in thermal equilibrium with the incident sunlight which passes through a precision
4330:
3713:
Uncertainties of individual observations exceed irradiance variability (~0.1%). Thus, instrument stability and measurement continuity are relied upon to compute real variations.
3276:
350:
is the total radiation received on a surface with defined tilt and azimuth, fixed or Sun-tracking. GTI can be measured or modeled from GHI, DNI, DHI. It is often a reference for
267:
is the radiation at the Earth's surface from light scattered by the atmosphere. It is measured on a horizontal surface with radiation coming from all points in the sky excluding
1614:
6683:
3375:
was about 0.1% (peak-to-peak). In contrast to older reconstructions, most recent TSI reconstructions point to an increase of only about 0.05% to 0.1% between the 17th century
6648:- browse or download maps and GIS data layers (global or per country) of the long-term averages of solar irradiation data (published by the World Bank, provided by Solargis)]
5369:
3632:
4644:
runoff use observations of insolation. This permits estimation of the rate at which water is released from a melting snowpack. Field measurement is accomplished using a
1761:
3706:. Pre-launch ground calibrations relied on component rather than system-level measurements since irradiance standards at the time lacked sufficient absolute accuracies.
509:
4886:
3091:
450:
W/m. This represents the power per unit area of solar irradiance across the spherical surface surrounding the Sun with a radius equal to the distance to the Earth (1
4245:
At a lower angle, the light must also travel through more atmosphere. This attenuates it (by absorption and scattering) further reducing insolation at the surface.
1433:. The solar flux density (insolation) onto a plane tangent to the sphere of the Earth, but above the bulk of the atmosphere (elevation 100 km or greater) is:
4318:
53:(TOA); the bottom image shows the annual insolation reaching the Earth's surface after passing through the atmosphere. The two images use the same color scale.
2991:
6156:
3662:. Accuracy uncertainties of < 0.01% are required to detect long term solar irradiance variations, because expected changes are in the range 0.05–0.15
511:, meaning that the solar radiation arriving at the top of the atmosphere, averaged over the entire surface of the Earth, is simply divided by four to get 340
5156:
3650:
The space-based TSI record comprises measurements from more than ten radiometers and spans three solar cycles. All modern TSI satellite instruments employ
3380:
from solar maxima to minima, for 200 to 300 nm wavelengths. However, a proxy study estimated that UV has increased by 3.0% since the
Maunder Minimum.
6692:
5710:"Placing limits on long-term variations in quiet-Sun irradiance and their contribution to total solar irradiance and solar radiative forcing of climate"
4972:
4378:
4040:, respectively. The net effect of these corrections decreased the average ACRIM3 TSI value without affecting the trending in the ACRIM Composite TSI.
5022:
Gueymard, Christian A. (March 2009). "Direct and indirect uncertainties in the prediction of tilted irradiance for solar engineering applications".
3642:
N when eccentricity is large. For the next 100,000 years, with variations in eccentricity being relatively small, variations in obliquity dominate.
5989:
5485:
4683:
observations to quantify climate response processes to radiative forcing on decadal time scales. The observed 0.1% irradiance increase imparts 0.22
4560:
is only able to operate efficiently with direct irradiation, thus making these systems suitable only in locations with relatively low cloud cover.
4162:, increasing the object's temperature. Humanmade or natural systems, however, can convert part of the absorbed radiation into another form such as
6353:
569:
5170:
49:
The shield effect of Earth's atmosphere on solar irradiation. The top image is the annual mean solar irradiation (or insolation) at the top of
1869:
1576:{\displaystyle Q={\begin{cases}S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\cos(\Theta )&\cos(\Theta )>0\\0&\cos(\Theta )\leq 0\end{cases}}}
4290:
6050:
Scafetta, Nicola; Willson, Richard C. (April 2014). "ACRIM total solar irradiance satellite composite validation versus TSI proxy models".
4620:): this maximizes insolation in the winter months when the Sun is low in the sky and minimizes it in the summer when the Sun is high. (The
3745:
4366:
290:
5441:
4354:
4342:
2873:
5500:
4043:
Differences between ACRIM and PMOD TSI composites are evident, but the most significant is the solar minimum-to-minimum trends during
161:
The study and measurement of solar irradiance have several important applications, including the prediction of energy generation from
6322:
4727:
4664:. A non-zero average global net radiation at the top of the atmosphere is indicative of Earth's thermal disequilibrium as imposed by
3768:
TIM's high absolute accuracy creates new opportunities for measuring climate variables. TSI Radiometer
Facility (TRF) is a cryogenic
277:
is the total irradiance from the Sun on a horizontal surface on Earth. It is the sum of direct irradiance (after accounting for the
2922:
4158:
Part of the radiation reaching an object is absorbed and the remainder reflected. Usually, the absorbed radiation is converted to
5957:
360:
is the total irradiance from the Sun at the surface of Earth at a given location with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun.
5651:
Yeo, K. L.; Solanki, S. K.; Krivova, N. A.; Rempel, M.; Anusha, L. S.; Shapiro, A. I.; Tagirov, R. V.; Witzke, V. (2020-10-16).
5159:. SP 811 - The NIST Guide for the use of International System of Units (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology.
7301:
6729:
4735:
3682:
For various reasons, the sources do not always agree. The Solar
Radiation and Climate Experiment/Total Irradiance Measurement (
3590:{\displaystyle {\frac {R_{o}}{R_{E}}}=1+e\cos(\theta -\varpi )=1+e\cos \left({\frac {\pi }{2}}-\varpi \right)=1+e\sin(\varpi )}
234:
6629:
5469:
5353:
4679:
Assessing the impact of long-term irradiance changes on climate requires greater instrument stability combined with reliable
4294:
535:
and orbital parameters. This applies to any unidirectional beam incident to a rotating sphere. Insolation is essential for
41:
Global distribution of incoming shortwave solar radiation averaged over the years 1981–2010 from the CHELSA-BIOCLIM+ data set
4286:
4023:
W/m. This difference between the new lower TIM value and earlier TSI measurements corresponds to a climate forcing of −0.8
3599:
For this summer solstice calculation, the role of the elliptical orbit is entirely contained within the important product
185:
177:
6306:
5059:"Best Practices Handbook for the Collection and Use of Solar Resource Data for Solar Energy Applications: Second Edition"
4828:
3699:
5773:
Lean, J. (14 April 1989). "Contribution of
Ultraviolet Irradiance Variations to Changes in the Sun's Total Irradiance".
7651:
4282:
457:). This means that the approximately circular disc of the Earth, as viewed from the Sun, receives a roughly stable 1361
4390:
model is well evaluated. In general, solar irradiance maps are accurate, especially for Global
Horizontal Irradiance.
3409:
3387:
Variations in Earth's orbit, resulting changes in solar energy flux at high latitude, and the observed glacial cycles.
7412:
7203:
7073:
4697:
4134:, not a standard value for actual insolation. Sometimes this unit is referred to as a Sol, not to be confused with a
166:
5318:
2035:
1993:
7208:
7083:
4293:
and other similar institutes, many of which are available on the Global Atlas for Renewable Energy provided by the
3687:
544:
17:
5442:
Board on Global Change, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council. (1994).
3207:
1324:
7593:
7273:
1714:
5294:
5269:
7646:
7143:
6749:
4215:
3691:
5220:
4912:. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment
408:
Spherical triangle for application of the spherical law of cosines for the calculation the solar zenith angle
7624:
7417:
7291:
6828:
4609:
In construction, insolation is an important consideration when designing a building for a particular site.
3686:/TIM) TSI values are lower than prior measurements by the Earth Radiometer Budget Experiment (ERBE) on the
536:
6386:
6211:
4700:, which has been proposed as a method of reversing local and global temperature increases associated with
3391:
Some variations in insolation are not due to solar changes but rather due to the Earth moving between its
7178:
7168:
31:
7438:
7148:
6933:
6910:
6873:
6722:
6368:
6196:
4680:
351:
5603:
6975:
5955:
4305:, using data provided by Solargis, to provide a single source for high-quality solar data, maps, and
4055:
3988:
3748:(NIST); NIST validation of aperture area calibrations uses spares from each instrument; and applying
3402:
2838:{\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}={\frac {S_{o}}{\pi }}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\left}
73:
5982:
5095:
3602:
1451:
7661:
7521:
7123:
7043:
6990:
6925:
5652:
4782:
4739:
4557:
3651:
3371:
Total solar irradiance (TSI) changes slowly on decadal and longer timescales. The variation during
563:
6621:
Grand Phases On The Sun: The case for a mechanism responsible for extended solar minima and maxima
5110:
4973:"What is the Difference between Horizontal and Tilted Global Solar Irradiance? - Kipp & Zonen"
7229:
7188:
7158:
7153:
7013:
6759:
6754:
4759:
4713:
4201:: One sunbeam one mile wide shines on the ground at a 90° angle, and another at a 30° angle. The
3392:
6702:
6654:
updated every 10–15 minutes. Recent, live, historical and forecast, free for public research use
5057:
Sengupta, Manajit; Habte, Aron; Gueymard, Christian; Wilbert, Stefan; Renne, Dave (2017-12-01).
481:
271:(radiation coming from the sun disk). There would be almost no DHI in the absence of atmosphere.
7588:
7268:
7198:
7173:
7163:
7138:
7133:
7088:
7078:
7053:
7048:
7038:
7033:
7025:
6883:
6833:
5443:
3247:
2985:
559:
389:
241:. Losses depend on time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the
147:
4139:
446:
The average annual solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is about 1361
7656:
7612:
7474:
7443:
7263:
7193:
7128:
7118:
7103:
7093:
7063:
7058:
6715:
6517:
Willson, Richard C.; H.S. Hudson (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle".
5969:
5399:
Willson, Richard C.; H.S. Hudson (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle".
5082:
4037:
3695:
3659:
254:
242:
65:
50:
6387:"The criteria to achieving sub-ambient radiative cooling and its limits in tropical daytime"
6152:
6073:
5573:
4908:
4119:
circumstances. Ignoring clouds, the daily average insolation for the Earth is approximately
4114:
on a clear day. When 1361 W/m is arriving above the atmosphere (when the Sun is at the
4094:
Average annual solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1361
3350:{\displaystyle Q\approx S_{0}\left(1+0.034\cos \left(2\pi {\frac {n}{365.25}}\right)\right)}
515:
W/m. In other words, averaged over the year and the day, the Earth's atmosphere receives 340
7213:
7183:
7113:
7108:
7098:
7068:
7008:
6820:
6697:
6585:
6526:
6437:
6398:
6223:
6124:
6069:
6013:
5928:
5842:
5782:
5721:
5674:
5625:
5569:
5539:
5515:
5408:
5281:
5250:
5133:
5031:
4556:
panels are able to convert to electricity both direct irradiation and diffuse irradiation,
1689:{\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}=-{\frac {1}{2\pi }}{\int _{\pi }^{-\pi }Q\,dh}}
111:
per square metre, J/m) during that time period. This integrated solar irradiance is called
6330:
4130:
panel, partly depends on the angle of the sun relative to the panel. One Sun is a unit of
8:
7568:
7342:
7258:
6985:
6899:
6893:
6848:
6668:
4661:
4617:
4613:
4553:
4313:
Maps of GHI potential by region and country (Note: colors are not consistent across maps)
3396:
552:
532:
475:
6589:
6530:
6441:
6402:
6354:"Looking across the water: Climate-adaptive buildings in the United States & Europe"
6227:
6171:
6128:
6017:
5932:
5846:
5786:
5725:
5678:
5629:
5519:
5412:
5285:
5254:
5195:
5035:
4036:
data. These corrected a component of the quasi-annual spurious signal and increased the
165:, the heating and cooling loads of buildings, climate modeling and weather forecasting,
7396:
6980:
6888:
6542:
6496:
6455:
6093:
6059:
5860:
5806:
5750:
5709:
5664:
5615:
5531:
5479:
5424:
4298:
1386: = 23.4398°, longitude of perihelion of ϖ = 282.895°, eccentricity
700:
278:
135:
6608:
5961:
5956:
James Hansen, Makiko Sato, Pushker Kharecha and Karina von Schuckmann (January 2012).
4605:
Insolation variation by month; 1984–1993 averages for January (top) and April (bottom)
7558:
7516:
7422:
7322:
6948:
6625:
6500:
6475:"Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications"
6459:
6257:
6239:
6111:
Coddington, O.; Lean, J. L.; Pilewskie, P.; Snow, M.; Lindholm, D. (22 August 2016).
6085:
6029:
5798:
5755:
5737:
5690:
5465:
5386:
5349:
5299:
5070:
4823:
4633:
4234:
1415:
1371:
is the latitude of the Earth. The calculation assumed conditions appropriate for 2000
520:
454:
224:
217:
162:
5864:
5810:
5558:"Reconstruction of solar total irradiance since 1700 from the surface magnetic flux"
5535:
4997:
4944:
3395:, or changes in the latitudinal distribution of radiation. These orbital changes or
1859:{\displaystyle \sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\cos(h_{o})=0}
7563:
6943:
6657:
6593:
6546:
6534:
6486:
6445:
6410:
6406:
6231:
6132:
6097:
6077:
6021:
5936:
5850:
5790:
5745:
5729:
5714:
Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
5682:
5633:
5577:
5523:
5457:
5449:
5428:
5416:
5341:
5289:
5062:
5039:
4657:
4249:
2083:
is nearly constant over the course of a day, and can be taken outside the integral
238:
205:
155:
6235:
6212:"Verification of the SUNY direct normal irradiance model with ground measurements"
6197:"Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) | Open Energy Information"
5043:
3179:{\displaystyle {\frac {R_{o}}{R_{E}}}={\frac {1+e\cos(\theta -\varpi )}{1-e^{2}}}}
531:
The distribution of solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere is determined by
6673:
6619:
6310:
6258:"Determining your solar power requirements and planning the number of components"
5917:"A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance"
5794:
5582:
5557:
5322:
4665:
3376:
61:
6790:
6678:
6645:
6450:
6425:
5637:
1355:, the theoretical daily-average irradiation at the top of the atmosphere, where
354:, while photovoltaic modules are mounted on the fixed or tracking constructions.
7296:
6971:
6878:
4701:
4159:
4048:
4044:
3372:
1421:
385:
213:
104:
6304:
6271:
6137:
6112:
6081:
5058:
4256:
or fraction of insolation reaching the surface decreases exponentially in the
7640:
7479:
7337:
7332:
7327:
6998:
6953:
6863:
6838:
6243:
6089:
6033:
5741:
5694:
5335:
5303:
5157:"NIST Guide to the SI, Appendix B.8: Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically"
4808:
4773:
4537:
4257:
4253:
4202:
4167:
4087:
4083:
3992:
2860:
1390: = 0.016704. Contour labels (green) are in units of W m.
1312:
209:
5461:
1318:
7537:
7500:
7376:
7368:
7306:
6853:
6738:
5802:
5759:
5733:
4696:
Measuring a surface's capacity to reflect solar irradiance is essential to
4230:
4179:
4171:
4127:
3725:
89:
5345:
5270:"Long-Term Variations of Daily Insolation and Quaternary Climatic Changes"
3383:
7542:
7363:
6904:
6811:
6796:
6210:
Nonnenmacher, Lukas; Kaur, Amanpreet; Coimbra, Carlos F.M. (2014-01-01).
5941:
5916:
5912:
5855:
5830:
5686:
5316:
5111:"Uncertainties in Transposition and Decomposition Models: Lesson Learned"
4721:
4645:
4549:
4541:
4163:
4099:
4071:
3749:
3741:
W/m between 1986 and 1996; this change is also absent in the model.
3675:
2988:ϖ is defined relative to the March equinox, so for the elliptical orbit:
2864:
378:
246:
201:
151:
139:
131:
6473:
Chen, Meijie; Pang, Dan; Chen, Xingyu; Yan, Hongjie; Yang, Yuan (2022).
4850:
3081:{\displaystyle R_{E}={\frac {R_{o}(1-e^{2})}{1+e\cos(\theta -\varpi )}}}
7484:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7386:
7381:
7003:
6915:
6843:
6663:
6554:
6491:
6474:
4793:
4730:
is a concern for space travel. For example, the American space agency,
4717:
4302:
4261:
4103:
4078:
3769:
3635:
2916:
1594:
404:
143:
81:
77:
6686:, software to compute solar insolation of each date/location of earth
5074:
7391:
6938:
6538:
6025:
5420:
4866:
Solar Electricity Handbook: A Simple, Practical Guide to Solar Energy
4813:
4637:
4577:
4399:
Conversion factor (multiply top row by factor to obtain side column)
4111:
4066:
3987:
Instrument inaccuracies add a significant uncertainty in determining
420:
6802:
6687:
5066:
4753:
4150:
3638:
index, whose variation dominates the variations in insolation at 65°
336:{\displaystyle {\text{GHI}}={\text{DHI}}+{\text{DNI}}\times \cos(z)}
6598:
6573:
5669:
5620:
5527:
5337:
Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes: Duffie/Solar Engineering 4e
4818:
4787:
4641:
4621:
4533:
3721:
3703:
3655:
3266: = 180° is exactly the time of the September equinox and
691:
are arc lengths, in radians, of the sides of a spherical triangle.
548:
413:
250:
100:
6064:
5453:
4090:, is used to measure Direct Normal Irradiance (or beam irradiance)
3991:. The energy imbalance has been variously measured (during a deep
3956:
The most probable value of TSI representative of solar minimum is
695:
is the angle in the vertex opposite the side which has arc length
6291:
5247:
Heavenly Mathematics: The Forgotten Art of Spherical Trigonometry
4767:
4106:, leaving maximum normal surface irradiance at approximately 1000
3717:
irradiance levels in the PMOD composite during the 2008 minimum.
540:
93:
4927:
3270: = 270° is exactly the time of the December solstice.
6707:
4885:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from
4798:
4569:
4529:
4211:
4183:
4175:
4115:
3773:
937:
This equation can be also derived from a more general formula:
6145:
5602:
Chatzistergos, Theodosios; Krivova, N. A.; Yeo, K. L. (2023).
4194:
4019:
W/m. SORCE/TIM's lower TSI value reduces this discrepancy by 1
6385:
Han, Di; Fei, Jipeng; Li, Hong; Ng, Bing Feng (August 2022).
6169:
5501:"Modeling the Sun's magnetic field and irradiance since 1713"
4601:
4548:
Solar irradiation figures are used to plan the deployment of
4205:
sunbeam distributes its light energy over twice as much area.
4052:
3683:
2977:{\displaystyle \sin(\delta )=\sin(\varepsilon )\sin(\theta )}
2852:
374:
108:
45:
5056:
2919:. (Note: The correct formula, valid for any axial tilt, is
1955:, then the sun does not set and the sun is already risen at
672:{\displaystyle \cos(c)=\cos(a)\cos(b)+\sin(a)\sin(b)\cos(C)}
37:
6574:"The effects of sunspots and faculae on the solar constant"
6175:
6110:
5295:
10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<2362:LTVODI>2.0.CO;2
4803:
4731:
4580:. But a properly tilted panel at 50° latitude receives 1860
4223:
4131:
3262: = 90° is exactly the time of the June solstice,
3246:. Because of the elliptical orbit, and as a consequence of
1569:
399:
370:
216:
is a conventional measure of mean TSI at a distance of one
204:
over all wavelengths per unit area incident on the Earth's
85:
6651:
4883:"Educational Brief - Solar Radiation and the Earth System"
3258: = 0° is exactly the time of the March equinox,
6775:
5819:(19% of the 1/1366 total decrease is 1.4% decrease in UV)
4306:
4154:
Solar irradiance spectrum above atmosphere and at surface
706:, the following applies to the spherical law of cosines:
388:
is an alternative unit of insolation. One Langley is one
69:
5448:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 36.
5155:
Thompson, Ambler; Taylor, Barry N. (February 17, 2022).
4264:(the two notions differing only by a constant factor of
4178:. The proportion of reflected radiation is the object's
3273:
A simplified equation for irradiance on a given day is:
1934:{\displaystyle \cos(h_{o})=-\tan(\varphi )\tan(\delta )}
6209:
5650:
5601:
5555:
2851:
be the conventional polar angle describing a planetary
6170:
Michael Allison & Robert Schmunk (5 August 2008).
5556:
Krivova, N. A.; Balmaceda, L.; Solanki, S. K. (2007).
4229:
This projection effect is the main reason why Earth's
1725:
797:
762:
193:
There are several measured types of solar irradiance.
6002:
3605:
3458:
3412:
3279:
3254:
does not progress uniformly with time. Nevertheless,
3210:
3094:
2994:
2925:
2876:
2658:
2091:
2038:
1996:
1872:
1764:
1717:
1617:
1439:
1327:
943:
712:
572:
558:
Distribution is based on a fundamental identity from
484:
381:
industry is kilowatt hours per square metre (kWh/m).
377:(W/m = Wm). The unit of insolation often used in the
293:
30:"Insolation" redirects here. Not to be confused with
5608:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
5604:"Long-term changes in solar activity and irradiance"
4922:
4920:
4749:
4015:. Estimates from space-based measurements range +3–7
3658:
of calibrated area. The aperture is modulated via a
1394:
The separation of Earth from the Sun can be denoted
461:
W/m at all times. The area of this circular disc is
6426:"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling"
5334:Duffie, John A.; Beckman, William A. (2013-04-10).
1711:becomes positive. This could occur at sunrise when
6698:insol: R package for insolation on complex terrain
6516:
5398:
4998:"RReDC Glossary of Solar Radiation Resource Terms"
4945:"RReDC Glossary of Solar Radiation Resource Terms"
4027:W/m, which is comparable to the energy imbalance.
3626:
3589:
3440:
3349:
3230:
3178:
3080:
2976:
2903:
2837:
2642:
2075:
2022:
1933:
1858:
1741:
1688:
1575:
1347:
1295:
927:
671:
503:
335:
6289:
5499:Wang, Y.-M.; Lean, J. L.; Sheeley, N. R. (2005).
4939:
4937:
4935:
4917:
2904:{\displaystyle \delta =\varepsilon \sin(\theta )}
2426:
2337:
7638:
5340:. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4061:
3652:active cavity electrical substitution radiometry
3441:{\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\mathrm {day} }}
103:over a given time period in order to report the
6472:
6117:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
6049:
5498:
4289:. Other examples include global mapping by the
1382: = 1367 W m, obliquity of
5154:
4932:
2076:{\displaystyle {\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}}
2023:{\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}=0}
519:W/m from the Sun. This figure is important in
6723:
6606:
5828:
5435:
5333:
5244:
4712:Insolation is the primary variable affecting
4624:through the sky spans 47° through the year).
4536:carries radiant energy in the wavelengths of
4291:National Aeronautics and Space Administration
3752:corrections from the view-limiting aperture.
3731:
1359:is the polar angle of the Earth's orbit, and
6618:Yaskell, Steven Haywood (31 December 2012).
5707:
5484:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4145:
3746:National Institute of Science and Technology
3669:
3231:{\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}}
3204:from a consensus of observations or theory,
1348:{\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}}
3968:, lower than the earlier accepted value of
1742:{\displaystyle \Theta ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi }
6730:
6716:
6674:Yesterday's Australian Solar Radiation Map
6384:
5831:"The solar spectral irradiance since 1700"
5171:"Part 3: Calculating Solar Angles - ITACA"
4876:
4874:
4281:Assessment (SWERA) project, funded by the
3763:
107:emitted into the surrounding environment (
80:range of the measuring instrument. Solar
6693:NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy
6597:
6559:U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 0095-00
6490:
6449:
6136:
6063:
5988:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5949:
5940:
5854:
5749:
5708:Lockwood, Mike; Ball, William T. (2020).
5668:
5619:
5581:
5392:
5293:
4860:
4858:
4728:Solar activity and irradiance measurement
3694:(SoHO) and the ACRIM instruments on the
2274:
2166:
2117:
1678:
1363: = 0 at the March equinox, and
442:is relative longitude of subsolar point).
181:Global Map of Global Horizontal Radiation
6113:"A Solar Irradiance Climate Data Record"
5910:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5896:
5894:
5385:Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment,
5370:"Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes"
5108:
5021:
4600:
4528:
4193:
4149:
4077:
4065:
3382:
1317:
403:
400:Irradiation at the top of the atmosphere
184:
176:
44:
36:
27:Measurement of electromagnetic radiation
6617:
5892:
5890:
5888:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5880:
5878:
5876:
5874:
4871:
4275:
1367: = 90° at the June solstice;
14:
7639:
7302:Financial incentives for photovoltaics
6571:
6423:
6159:from the original on October 29, 2013.
5267:
4926:World Bank. 2017. Global Solar Atlas.
4855:
4736:Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment
4540:. Radiant energy may be developed for
3200:from astrodynamical calculations and S
6711:
6669:European Commission- Interactive Maps
6045:
6043:
5597:
5595:
5593:
4851:https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2022-212
4295:International Renewable Energy Agency
2870:as a function of orbital position is
1403:and the mean distance can be denoted
285:) and diffuse horizontal irradiance:
189:Global Map of Direct Normal Radiation
7619:
6413:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
6172:"Technical Notes on Mars Solar Time"
5871:
5772:
4967:
4965:
4880:
4627:
4287:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
4240:
4189:
4030:
3951:
1307:is an angle from the horizontal and
476:the Earth is approximately spherical
474:is the radius of the Earth. Because
6572:Foukal, Peter; et al. (1977).
6466:
6417:
5829:Fligge, M.; Solanki, S. K. (2000).
5274:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
5196:"Insolation in The Azimuth Project"
4829:List of cities by sunshine duration
4651:
4074:, used to measure global irradiance
3710:validation of instrumental drifts.
3700:Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
3238:can be calculated for any latitude
438:is latitude of subsolar point, and
261:Diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI)
24:
6658:Recent Total Solar Irradiance data
6378:
6040:
5590:
4283:United Nations Environment Program
4056:general circulation climate models
3432:
3429:
3426:
3363:is a number of a day of the year.
2268:
1718:
1554:
1524:
1507:
957:
830:
744:
275:Global horizontal irradiance (GHI)
25:
7673:
7413:Building-integrated photovoltaics
6679:Solar Radiation using Google Maps
6639:
6153:"Introduction to Solar Radiation"
5445:Solar Influences on Global Change
5221:"Declination Angle - PVEducation"
4962:
4790:(photosynthesis-irradiance curve)
4698:passive daytime radiative cooling
4691:
426:from knowledge of the hour angle
167:passive daytime radiative cooling
7618:
7607:
7606:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6737:
6367:(2004–11): 50–56. Archived from
6351:
4766:
4752:
4377:
4365:
4353:
4341:
4329:
4317:
3866:
3860:
3843:
3837:
3688:Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
3406:. Obtaining a time series for a
699:. Applied to the calculation of
169:applications, and space travel.
6652:Solcast - solar irradiance data
6510:
6345:
6315:
6298:
6288:Converted to yearly basis from
6282:
6264:
6250:
6203:
6189:
6163:
6104:
5996:
5822:
5766:
5701:
5644:
5549:
5492:
5379:
5362:
5327:
5310:
5261:
5238:
5213:
5188:
5163:
5148:
5126:
5102:
5061:: NREL/TP–5D00–68886, 1411856.
5050:
4393:
4309:layers covering all countries.
4248:Attenuation is governed by the
3452:. The distance from the Sun is
392:per square centimetre or 41,840
6411:10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109281
6292:"Optimum Tilt of Solar Panels"
6052:Astrophysics and Space Science
5653:"The Dimmest State of the Sun"
5249:. Princeton University Press.
5015:
4990:
4901:
4843:
4524:
4216:effect of Sun angle on climate
4126:The output of, for example, a
3692:Solar Heliospheric Observatory
3645:
3627:{\displaystyle e\sin(\varpi )}
3621:
3615:
3584:
3578:
3513:
3501:
3152:
3140:
3072:
3060:
3040:
3021:
2971:
2965:
2956:
2950:
2938:
2932:
2898:
2892:
2827:
2814:
2805:
2799:
2790:
2784:
2772:
2766:
2757:
2751:
2628:
2615:
2606:
2600:
2591:
2585:
2573:
2567:
2558:
2552:
2420:
2414:
2405:
2399:
2390:
2384:
2372:
2366:
2357:
2351:
2271:
2265:
1928:
1922:
1913:
1907:
1892:
1879:
1847:
1834:
1825:
1819:
1810:
1804:
1792:
1786:
1777:
1771:
1557:
1551:
1527:
1521:
1510:
1504:
1286:
1280:
1271:
1265:
1256:
1250:
1241:
1235:
1223:
1217:
1208:
1202:
1193:
1187:
1178:
1172:
1163:
1157:
1138:
1132:
1123:
1117:
1108:
1102:
1093:
1087:
1075:
1069:
1060:
1054:
1045:
1039:
1030:
1024:
1008:
1002:
993:
987:
978:
972:
960:
954:
918:
912:
903:
897:
888:
882:
870:
864:
855:
849:
833:
827:
666:
660:
651:
645:
636:
630:
618:
612:
603:
597:
585:
579:
358:Global normal irradiance (GNI)
348:Global tilted irradiance (GTI)
330:
324:
212:to the incoming sunlight. The
150:of distance from the Sun, the
130:Irradiance may be measured in
13:
1:
7418:Passive solar building design
6829:Passive solar building design
6688:Solar Resource Data and Tools
6236:10.1016/j.solener.2013.11.010
5268:Berger, AndréL (1978-12-01).
5044:10.1016/j.solener.2008.11.004
4928:https://globalsolaratlas.info
4837:
4062:Irradiance on Earth's surface
1589:over a day is the average of
526:
369:The SI unit of irradiance is
6703:Online insolation calculator
5921:Geophysical Research Letters
5835:Geophysical Research Letters
5795:10.1126/science.244.4901.197
5657:Geophysical Research Letters
5245:Van Brummelen, Glen (2012).
5136:. U. S. Department of Energy
4596:
3419:
3366:
3217:
2665:
2003:
1990:, the sun does not rise and
1624:
1334:
537:numerical weather prediction
198:Total solar irradiance (TSI)
7:
6451:10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010
6323:"How Do Solar Panels Work?"
5638:10.1016/j.jastp.2023.106150
5387:Total Solar Irradiance Data
5109:Gueymard, Chris A. (2015).
4745:
4656:Irradiance plays a part in
4616:, or the north face in the
4585:(average cosine equal to 1/
4336:Latin America and Caribbean
3984:surface magnetic activity.
3797:Difference relative to TRF
146:. Irradiance in space is a
10:
7678:
6934:Concentrator photovoltaics
6911:Photovoltaic power station
6874:Concentrator photovoltaics
6610:Sunspots and Their Effects
6361:The Construction Specifier
6290:Charles R. Landau (2017).
5958:"Earth's Energy Imbalance"
5583:10.1051/0004-6361:20066725
5562:Astronomy and Astrophysics
4681:global surface temperature
4285:and carried out by the US
3805:Irradiance, view-limiting
3732:Persistent inconsistencies
1593:over one rotation, or the
1375:A.D.: a solar constant of
504:{\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}}
99:Solar irradiance is often
29:
7652:Meteorological quantities
7602:
7581:
7551:
7530:
7509:
7493:
7467:
7431:
7405:
7362:
7355:
7315:
7284:
7251:
7242:
7222:
7024:
6976:artificial photosynthesis
6962:
6924:
6862:
6819:
6810:
6787:
6768:
6745:
6138:10.1175/bams-d-14-00265.1
6082:10.1007/s10509-013-1775-9
5508:The Astrophysical Journal
5321:November 5, 2012, at the
4740:Solar Irradiance Monitors
4146:Absorption and reflection
4102:as they pass through the
3670:Intertemporal calibration
3403:Holocene climatic optimum
352:photovoltaic power plants
74:electromagnetic radiation
7522:Solar water disinfection
6991:Thermoelectric generator
6613:. New York: McGraw Hill.
6391:Building and Environment
5389:(retrieved 16 July 2015)
5134:"Solar Radiation Basics"
4707:
4558:concentrated solar power
4098:W/m. The Sun's rays are
3815:Difference attributable
564:spherical law of cosines
364:
225:Direct normal irradiance
172:
7230:Solar Shade Control Act
7014:Space-based solar power
6664:San Francisco Solar Map
6624:. Trafford Publishing.
6424:Munday, Jeremy (2019).
6155:. Newport Corporation.
6074:2014Ap&SS.350..421S
5574:2007A&A...467..335K
4907:C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
4760:Renewable energy portal
4738:(SORCE) satellite with
4714:equilibrium temperature
3764:TSI Radiometer Facility
3393:perihelion and aphelion
2986:longitude of perihelion
1707:be the hour angle when
7594:Solar power by country
7269:Thermal energy storage
6884:Nanocrystal solar cell
6834:Solar air conditioning
6607:Stetson, H.T. (1937).
6309:July 14, 2014, at the
5977:Cite journal requires
5960:. NASA. Archived from
5734:10.1098/rspa.2020.0077
5200:www.azimuthproject.org
5090:Cite journal requires
4640:, numerical models of
4622:Sun's north–south path
4606:
4545:
4206:
4155:
4091:
4075:
3989:Earth's energy balance
3810:Irradiance, precision
3628:
3591:
3442:
3388:
3351:
3232:
3180:
3082:
2978:
2905:
2859: = 0 at the
2839:
2644:
2077:
2024:
1935:
1860:
1743:
1690:
1577:
1391:
1349:
1297:
929:
673:
560:spherical trigonometry
505:
443:
430:and solar declination
390:thermochemical calorie
337:
190:
182:
54:
42:
7647:Atmospheric radiation
7475:Salt evaporation pond
7444:Hybrid solar lighting
7264:Phase-change material
6578:Astrophysical Journal
6555:"The Sun and Climate"
5346:10.1002/9781118671603
4783:Earth's energy budget
4604:
4532:
4233:are much colder than
4197:
4153:
4081:
4069:
4038:signal-to-noise ratio
3696:Solar Maximum Mission
3690:(ERBS), VIRGO on the
3629:
3592:
3443:
3386:
3352:
3233:
3181:
3083:
2979:
2906:
2840:
2645:
2078:
2025:
1936:
1861:
1744:
1691:
1578:
1350:
1321:
1298:
930:
674:
506:
407:
338:
269:circumsolar radiation
265:diffuse sky radiation
243:solar elevation angle
188:
180:
158:and animal behavior.
66:surface power density
48:
40:
7009:Solar thermal rocket
6660:updated every Monday
6272:"Heliostat Concepts"
5942:10.1029/2010GL045777
5856:10.1029/2000GL000067
5687:10.1029/2020GL090243
5545:on December 2, 2012.
4301:was launched by the
4276:Solar potential maps
4170:, as in the case of
3995:of 2005–2010) to be
3825:Residual irradiance
3812:aperture overfilled
3807:aperture overfilled
3603:
3456:
3410:
3277:
3208:
3092:
2992:
2984:.) The conventional
2923:
2874:
2656:
2089:
2036:
1994:
1870:
1762:
1715:
1615:
1437:
1325:
941:
710:
570:
482:
478:, it has total area
291:
200:is a measure of the
68:) received from the
7569:Solar water heating
7343:Solar water heating
7259:Grid energy storage
6986:Solar updraft tower
6905:Photovoltaic module
6900:Photovoltaic effect
6849:Solar water heating
6590:1977ApJ...215..952F
6531:1991Natur.351...42W
6442:2019Joule...3.2057M
6403:2022BuEnv.22109281H
6228:2014SoEn...99..246N
6129:2016BAMS...97.1265C
6018:2012NatGe...5..691S
5933:2011GeoRL..38.1706K
5915:(14 January 2011).
5847:2000GeoRL..27.2157F
5787:1989Sci...244..197L
5726:2020RSPSA.47600077L
5679:2020GeoRL..4790243Y
5630:2023JASTP.25206150C
5520:2005ApJ...625..522W
5413:1991Natur.351...42W
5286:1978JAtS...35.2362B
5255:2012hmfa.book.....V
5225:www.pveducation.org
5036:2009SoEn...83..432G
4662:weather forecasting
4618:southern hemisphere
4614:northern hemisphere
4554:solar photovoltaics
4550:solar power systems
4400:
4121:6 kWh/m = 21.6 MJ/m
3798:
3772:that operates in a
3397:Milankovitch cycles
3248:Kepler's second law
2727:
2712:
2528:
2513:
2470:
2332:
2317:
2258:
2224:
2209:
2162:
2113:
2070:
2055:
1674:
1495:
1480:
553:Milankovitch cycles
7397:Solar-powered pump
6981:Solar-pumped laser
6894:Photovoltaic array
6889:Organic solar cell
6867:and related topics
6646:Global Solar Atlas
6492:10.1002/eom2.12153
6333:on 15 October 2004
5720:(2238): 20200077.
4868:(2012), pp. 41–42.
4607:
4546:
4398:
4324:Sub-Saharan Africa
4299:Global Solar Atlas
4252:, namely that the
4235:equatorial regions
4207:
4156:
4092:
4076:
3796:
3624:
3587:
3438:
3389:
3347:
3228:
3188:With knowledge of
3176:
3078:
2974:
2901:
2835:
2713:
2698:
2640:
2638:
2514:
2499:
2423:
2318:
2303:
2227:
2210:
2195:
2131:
2096:
2073:
2056:
2041:
2020:
1931:
1856:
1739:
1734:
1686:
1657:
1573:
1568:
1481:
1466:
1392:
1345:
1293:
1291:
925:
923:
806:
771:
701:solar zenith angle
669:
539:and understanding
533:Earth's sphericity
501:
444:
333:
279:solar zenith angle
253:content and other
191:
183:
163:solar power plants
55:
51:Earth's atmosphere
43:
7634:
7633:
7577:
7576:
7559:Solar combisystem
7517:Soil solarization
7423:Urban heat island
7351:
7350:
7323:Electric aircraft
7238:
7237:
6949:Solar power tower
6631:978-1-4669-6300-9
6006:Nature Geoscience
5841:(14): 2157–2160.
5781:(4901): 197–200.
5471:978-0-309-05148-4
5355:978-1-118-67160-3
5280:(12): 2362–2367.
4977:www.kippzonen.com
4864:Michael Boxwell,
4824:Sunshine duration
4634:civil engineering
4628:Civil engineering
4522:
4521:
4241:Absorption effect
4199:Projection effect
4190:Projection effect
4031:2014 reassessment
3952:2011 reassessment
3949:
3948:
3820:Measured optical
3817:to scatter error
3666:W/m per century.
3547:
3481:
3422:
3335:
3225:
3220:
3174:
3117:
3076:
2728:
2694:
2673:
2668:
2529:
2333:
2225:
2071:
2011:
2006:
1758:as a solution of
1733:
1654:
1632:
1627:
1597:progressing from
1496:
1416:astronomical unit
1342:
1337:
805:
770:
547:. Application to
521:radiative forcing
313:
305:
297:
218:astronomical unit
208:. It is measured
113:solar irradiation
16:(Redirected from
7669:
7622:
7621:
7610:
7609:
7564:Solar controller
7360:
7359:
7249:
7248:
6944:Parabolic trough
6817:
6816:
6805:
6799:
6793:
6781:Solar irradiance
6732:
6725:
6718:
6709:
6708:
6635:
6614:
6603:
6601:
6568:
6566:
6565:
6550:
6539:10.1038/351042a0
6505:
6504:
6494:
6470:
6464:
6463:
6453:
6436:(9): 2057–2060.
6421:
6415:
6414:
6382:
6376:
6375:
6373:
6358:
6349:
6343:
6342:
6340:
6338:
6329:. Archived from
6319:
6313:
6302:
6296:
6295:
6286:
6280:
6279:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6254:
6248:
6247:
6207:
6201:
6200:
6193:
6187:
6186:
6184:
6182:
6167:
6161:
6160:
6149:
6143:
6142:
6140:
6123:(7): 1265–1282.
6108:
6102:
6101:
6067:
6047:
6038:
6037:
6026:10.1038/ngeo1580
6000:
5994:
5993:
5986:
5980:
5975:
5973:
5965:
5953:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5908:
5869:
5868:
5858:
5826:
5820:
5818:
5770:
5764:
5763:
5753:
5705:
5699:
5698:
5672:
5648:
5642:
5641:
5623:
5599:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5553:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5538:. Archived from
5505:
5496:
5490:
5489:
5483:
5475:
5462:2060/19950005971
5439:
5433:
5432:
5421:10.1038/351042a0
5396:
5390:
5383:
5377:
5376:
5374:
5366:
5360:
5359:
5331:
5325:
5314:
5308:
5307:
5297:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5242:
5236:
5235:
5233:
5231:
5217:
5211:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5192:
5186:
5185:
5183:
5181:
5175:www.itacanet.org
5167:
5161:
5160:
5152:
5146:
5145:
5143:
5141:
5130:
5124:
5123:
5121:
5120:
5115:
5106:
5100:
5099:
5093:
5088:
5086:
5078:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5019:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5008:
4994:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4983:
4969:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4941:
4930:
4924:
4915:
4914:. Washington, DC
4905:
4899:
4898:
4896:
4894:
4889:on 25 April 2016
4881:Stickler, Greg.
4878:
4869:
4862:
4853:
4847:
4776:
4771:
4770:
4762:
4757:
4756:
4686:
4658:climate modeling
4652:Climate research
4589:or about 0.32).
4588:
4583:
4575:
4567:
4401:
4397:
4381:
4369:
4357:
4345:
4333:
4321:
4267:
4250:Beer-Lambert Law
4122:
4109:
4097:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4008:
4002:
4000:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3858:Glory/TIM flight
3835:SORCE/TIM ground
3799:
3795:
3740:
3665:
3641:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3559:
3555:
3548:
3540:
3482:
3480:
3479:
3470:
3469:
3460:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3423:
3415:
3356:
3354:
3353:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3336:
3328:
3295:
3294:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3213:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3155:
3123:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3106:
3105:
3096:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3043:
3039:
3038:
3020:
3019:
3009:
3004:
3003:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2914:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2744:
2743:
2729:
2726:
2721:
2711:
2706:
2697:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2661:
2649:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2626:
2545:
2544:
2530:
2527:
2522:
2512:
2507:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2430:
2429:
2341:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2316:
2311:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2284:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2208:
2203:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2176:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2112:
2104:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2054:
2049:
2040:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2007:
1999:
1989:
1977:
1976:
1964:
1963:
1954:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1891:
1890:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1846:
1845:
1757:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1726:
1710:
1706:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1673:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1642:
1634:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1620:
1610:
1603:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1497:
1494:
1489:
1479:
1474:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1432:
1419:
1412:, approximately
1411:
1402:
1374:
1354:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1330:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1144:
934:
932:
931:
926:
924:
807:
798:
772:
763:
705:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
676:
675:
670:
518:
514:
510:
508:
507:
502:
500:
499:
473:
469:
465:
460:
453:
449:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
418:
412:for observer at
411:
395:
342:
340:
339:
334:
314:
311:
306:
303:
298:
295:
206:upper atmosphere
156:plant metabolism
121:solar insolation
58:Solar irradiance
21:
18:Solar insolation
7677:
7676:
7672:
7671:
7670:
7668:
7667:
7666:
7662:Solar phenomena
7637:
7636:
7635:
7630:
7598:
7573:
7547:
7526:
7505:
7489:
7463:
7427:
7401:
7366:
7347:
7311:
7280:
7244:
7234:
7218:
7020:
6964:
6958:
6920:
6866:
6858:
6806:
6800:
6794:
6785:
6764:
6741:
6736:
6642:
6632:
6563:
6561:
6553:
6513:
6508:
6471:
6467:
6422:
6418:
6383:
6379:
6371:
6356:
6350:
6346:
6336:
6334:
6321:
6320:
6316:
6311:Wayback Machine
6303:
6299:
6287:
6283:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6256:
6255:
6251:
6208:
6204:
6195:
6194:
6190:
6180:
6178:
6168:
6164:
6151:
6150:
6146:
6109:
6105:
6048:
6041:
6012:(10): 691–696.
6001:
5997:
5987:
5978:
5976:
5967:
5966:
5954:
5950:
5913:Lean, Judith L.
5909:
5872:
5827:
5823:
5771:
5767:
5706:
5702:
5649:
5645:
5600:
5591:
5554:
5550:
5542:
5503:
5497:
5493:
5477:
5476:
5472:
5440:
5436:
5397:
5393:
5384:
5380:
5372:
5368:
5367:
5363:
5356:
5332:
5328:
5323:Wayback Machine
5315:
5311:
5266:
5262:
5243:
5239:
5229:
5227:
5219:
5218:
5214:
5204:
5202:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5179:
5177:
5169:
5168:
5164:
5153:
5149:
5139:
5137:
5132:
5131:
5127:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5107:
5103:
5091:
5089:
5080:
5079:
5067:10.2172/1411856
5055:
5051:
5020:
5016:
5006:
5004:
4996:
4995:
4991:
4981:
4979:
4971:
4970:
4963:
4953:
4951:
4943:
4942:
4933:
4925:
4918:
4906:
4902:
4892:
4890:
4879:
4872:
4863:
4856:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4835:
4772:
4765:
4758:
4751:
4748:
4734:, launched its
4710:
4694:
4684:
4666:climate forcing
4654:
4630:
4599:
4586:
4581:
4576:kWh/(kWp·y) in
4573:
4568:kWh/(kWp·y) in
4565:
4527:
4396:
4385:
4382:
4373:
4370:
4361:
4358:
4349:
4346:
4337:
4334:
4325:
4322:
4278:
4265:
4243:
4192:
4148:
4120:
4107:
4095:
4086:, mounted on a
4064:
4045:solar cycles 21
4033:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4006:
4004:
3998:
3996:
3975:
3971:
3969:
3963:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3904:PREMOS-3 flight
3881:PREMOS-1 ground
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3766:
3738:
3734:
3672:
3663:
3648:
3639:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3539:
3538:
3534:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3425:
3424:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3377:Maunder Minimum
3369:
3327:
3320:
3316:
3300:
3296:
3290:
3286:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3222:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3124:
3122:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3044:
3034:
3030:
3015:
3011:
3010:
3008:
2999:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2912:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2821:
2817:
2739:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2722:
2717:
2707:
2702:
2696:
2685:
2681:
2679:
2670:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2637:
2636:
2622:
2618:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2523:
2518:
2508:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2487:
2472:
2471:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2442:
2438:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2336:
2335:
2327:
2322:
2312:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2219:
2214:
2204:
2199:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2173:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2124:
2105:
2100:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2065:
2060:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2008:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1979:
1974:
1972:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1944:
1886:
1882:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1841:
1837:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1750:
1724:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1646:
1641:
1629:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1605:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1585:The average of
1567:
1566:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1513:
1490:
1485:
1475:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1446:
1438:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1395:
1381:
1372:
1339:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1308:
1304:
1290:
1289:
1142:
1141:
1011:
944:
942:
939:
938:
922:
921:
836:
818:
817:
796:
789:
783:
782:
761:
754:
748:
747:
737:
731:
730:
720:
713:
711:
708:
707:
703:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
571:
568:
567:
545:climatic change
529:
516:
512:
495:
491:
483:
480:
479:
471:
463:
462:
458:
451:
447:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
416:
409:
402:
393:
367:
310:
302:
294:
292:
289:
288:
175:
142:absorption and
136:Earth's surface
84:is measured in
72:in the form of
64:per unit area (
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7675:
7665:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7632:
7631:
7629:
7628:
7616:
7603:
7600:
7599:
7597:
7596:
7591:
7585:
7583:
7579:
7578:
7575:
7574:
7572:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7555:
7553:
7549:
7548:
7546:
7545:
7540:
7534:
7532:
7528:
7527:
7525:
7524:
7519:
7513:
7511:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7503:
7497:
7495:
7491:
7490:
7488:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7471:
7469:
7465:
7464:
7462:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7435:
7433:
7429:
7428:
7426:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7409:
7407:
7403:
7402:
7400:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7373:
7371:
7357:
7353:
7352:
7349:
7348:
7346:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7319:
7317:
7313:
7312:
7310:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7297:Feed-in tariff
7294:
7292:Cost by source
7288:
7286:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7278:
7277:
7276:
7266:
7261:
7255:
7253:
7246:
7240:
7239:
7236:
7235:
7233:
7232:
7226:
7224:
7220:
7219:
7217:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7204:United Kingdom
7201:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7074:Czech Republic
7071:
7066:
7061:
7056:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7036:
7030:
7028:
7022:
7021:
7019:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6995:Space-related
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6972:Solar chemical
6968:
6966:
6960:
6959:
6957:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6930:
6928:
6922:
6921:
6919:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6902:
6897:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6879:Floating solar
6876:
6870:
6868:
6860:
6859:
6857:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6825:
6823:
6814:
6808:
6807:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6783:
6778:
6772:
6770:
6766:
6765:
6763:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6746:
6743:
6742:
6735:
6734:
6727:
6720:
6712:
6706:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6655:
6649:
6641:
6640:External links
6638:
6637:
6636:
6630:
6615:
6604:
6599:10.1086/155431
6569:
6551:
6525:(6321): 42–4.
6512:
6509:
6507:
6506:
6465:
6416:
6377:
6374:on 2009-03-18.
6344:
6314:
6297:
6281:
6263:
6249:
6202:
6188:
6162:
6144:
6103:
6058:(2): 421–442.
6039:
5995:
5979:|journal=
5964:on 2012-02-04.
5948:
5870:
5821:
5765:
5700:
5643:
5589:
5548:
5528:10.1086/429689
5491:
5470:
5434:
5407:(6321): 42–4.
5391:
5378:
5361:
5354:
5326:
5309:
5260:
5237:
5212:
5187:
5162:
5147:
5125:
5101:
5092:|journal=
5049:
5030:(3): 432–444.
5014:
5002:rredc.nrel.gov
4989:
4961:
4949:rredc.nrel.gov
4931:
4916:
4910:Abiotic factor
4900:
4870:
4854:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4833:
4832:
4831:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4785:
4779:
4778:
4777:
4763:
4747:
4744:
4709:
4706:
4702:global warming
4693:
4692:Global cooling
4690:
4653:
4650:
4629:
4626:
4598:
4595:
4572:to up to 2,900
4526:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4516:
4513:
4510:
4507:
4504:
4500:
4499:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4484:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4463:sun hours/day
4460:
4459:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4412:sun hours/day
4410:
4407:
4404:
4395:
4392:
4387:
4386:
4383:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4316:
4314:
4277:
4274:
4266:ln(10) = 2.303
4242:
4239:
4191:
4188:
4168:chemical bonds
4160:thermal energy
4147:
4144:
4063:
4060:
4032:
4029:
4013:+0.85 W/m
3953:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3940:
3937:
3934:
3931:
3928:
3927:VIRGO-2 ground
3924:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3891:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3855:
3854:
3851:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3839:
3836:
3832:
3831:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3765:
3762:
3733:
3730:
3679:measurements.
3671:
3668:
3647:
3644:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3608:
3586:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3574:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3546:
3543:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3478:
3474:
3468:
3464:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3421:
3418:
3373:solar cycle 21
3368:
3365:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3331:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3282:
3219:
3216:
3201:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3121:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3100:
3074:
3071:
3068:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2733:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2667:
2664:
2634:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2339:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2019:
2016:
2005:
2002:
1970:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1754:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1703:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1637:
1626:
1623:
1570:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1445:
1442:
1429:
1422:solar constant
1408:
1399:
1379:
1336:
1333:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
947:
946:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
837:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
819:
816:
813:
810:
804:
801:
795:
792:
790:
788:
785:
784:
781:
778:
775:
769:
766:
760:
757:
755:
753:
750:
749:
746:
743:
740:
738:
736:
733:
732:
729:
726:
723:
721:
719:
716:
715:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
528:
525:
498:
494:
490:
487:
401:
398:
366:
363:
362:
361:
355:
345:
344:
343:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
309:
301:
272:
258:
231:beam radiation
221:
214:solar constant
174:
171:
117:solar exposure
105:radiant energy
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7674:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7644:
7642:
7627:
7626:
7617:
7615:
7614:
7605:
7604:
7601:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7589:Photovoltaics
7587:
7586:
7584:
7580:
7570:
7567:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7556:
7554:
7552:Water heating
7550:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7535:
7533:
7529:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7514:
7512:
7508:
7502:
7499:
7498:
7496:
7492:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7480:Solar furnace
7478:
7476:
7473:
7472:
7470:
7466:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7436:
7434:
7430:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7414:
7411:
7410:
7408:
7404:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7374:
7372:
7370:
7365:
7361:
7358:
7354:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7338:Solar vehicle
7336:
7334:
7333:Solar balloon
7331:
7329:
7328:Electric boat
7326:
7324:
7321:
7320:
7318:
7314:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7289:
7287:
7283:
7275:
7272:
7271:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7256:
7254:
7250:
7247:
7241:
7231:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7221:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7209:United States
7207:
7205:
7202:
7200:
7197:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7067:
7065:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7031:
7029:
7027:
7023:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6999:Magnetic sail
6997:
6996:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6973:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6961:
6955:
6954:Solar tracker
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6931:
6929:
6927:
6923:
6917:
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:(solar panel)
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6896:(and systems)
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6869:
6865:
6864:Photovoltaics
6861:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6839:Solar chimney
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6826:
6824:
6822:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6809:
6804:
6798:
6792:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6773:
6771:
6767:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6747:
6744:
6740:
6733:
6728:
6726:
6721:
6719:
6714:
6713:
6710:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6659:
6656:
6653:
6650:
6647:
6644:
6643:
6633:
6627:
6623:
6622:
6616:
6612:
6611:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6570:
6560:
6556:
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6515:
6514:
6502:
6498:
6493:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6469:
6461:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6400:
6397:(1): 109281.
6396:
6392:
6388:
6381:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6355:
6348:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6318:
6312:
6308:
6305:
6301:
6293:
6285:
6277:
6273:
6267:
6259:
6253:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6206:
6198:
6192:
6177:
6173:
6166:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6139:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6107:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6044:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6023:
6019:
6015:
6011:
6007:
5999:
5991:
5984:
5971:
5963:
5959:
5952:
5943:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5927:(1): L01706.
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5907:
5905:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5881:
5879:
5877:
5875:
5866:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5825:
5817:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5769:
5761:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5704:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5647:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5584:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5568:(1): 335–46.
5567:
5563:
5559:
5552:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5514:(1): 522–38.
5513:
5509:
5502:
5495:
5487:
5481:
5473:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5454:10.17226/4778
5451:
5447:
5446:
5438:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5395:
5388:
5382:
5371:
5365:
5357:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5338:
5330:
5324:
5320:
5317:
5313:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5241:
5226:
5222:
5216:
5201:
5197:
5191:
5176:
5172:
5166:
5158:
5151:
5135:
5129:
5112:
5105:
5097:
5084:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5053:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5003:
4999:
4993:
4978:
4974:
4968:
4966:
4950:
4946:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4929:
4923:
4921:
4913:
4911:
4904:
4888:
4884:
4877:
4875:
4867:
4861:
4859:
4852:
4846:
4842:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4809:Power density
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4780:
4775:
4774:Energy portal
4769:
4764:
4761:
4755:
4750:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4705:
4703:
4699:
4689:
4682:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4649:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4625:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4610:
4603:
4594:
4590:
4579:
4571:
4561:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4543:
4539:
4538:visible light
4535:
4531:
4517:
4514:
4511:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4494:
4491:
4488:
4485:
4482:
4481:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4445:
4443:kW·h/(m·day)
4442:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4431:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4409:kW·h/(m·day)
4408:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4391:
4380:
4375:
4368:
4363:
4356:
4351:
4344:
4339:
4332:
4327:
4320:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4273:
4269:
4263:
4259:
4258:optical depth
4255:
4254:transmittance
4251:
4246:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4231:polar regions
4227:
4225:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4152:
4143:
4141:
4140:one solar day
4137:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4117:
4113:
4105:
4101:
4089:
4088:solar tracker
4085:
4084:pyrheliometer
4080:
4073:
4068:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4039:
4028:
4009:0.17 W/m
4001:0.15 W/m
3994:
3993:solar minimum
3990:
3985:
3981:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3915:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3856:
3852:
3849:
3846:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3794:
3790:
3788:
3782:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3718:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3677:
3667:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3643:
3637:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3597:
3581:
3575:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3563:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3549:
3544:
3541:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3476:
3472:
3466:
3462:
3451:
3416:
3405:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3385:
3381:
3378:
3374:
3364:
3362:
3357:
3343:
3338:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3310:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3297:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3280:
3271:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3214:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3157:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3119:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3098:
3069:
3066:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2987:
2968:
2962:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2926:
2918:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2861:March equinox
2858:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2831:
2822:
2818:
2811:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2676:
2662:
2650:
2632:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2432:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2286:
2278:
2275:
2262:
2259:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2178:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2126:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2084:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2031:
2017:
2014:
2000:
1987:
1983:
1969:
1959:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1925:
1919:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1873:
1853:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1765:
1753:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1721:
1702:
1696:
1682:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1635:
1621:
1608:
1601:
1596:
1583:
1563:
1560:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1518:
1515:
1501:
1498:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1443:
1440:
1428:
1423:
1417:
1407:
1398:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1331:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1313:azimuth angle
1283:
1277:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1135:
1129:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1005:
999:
996:
990:
984:
981:
975:
969:
966:
963:
951:
948:
935:
915:
909:
906:
900:
894:
891:
885:
879:
876:
873:
867:
861:
858:
852:
846:
843:
840:
838:
824:
821:
814:
811:
808:
802:
799:
793:
791:
786:
779:
776:
773:
767:
764:
758:
756:
751:
741:
739:
734:
727:
724:
722:
717:
702:
663:
657:
654:
648:
642:
639:
633:
627:
624:
621:
615:
609:
606:
600:
594:
591:
588:
582:
576:
573:
565:
561:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
524:
522:
496:
492:
488:
485:
477:
468:
456:
422:
415:
406:
397:
391:
387:
382:
380:
376:
372:
359:
356:
353:
349:
346:
327:
321:
318:
315:
307:
299:
287:
286:
284:
280:
276:
273:
270:
266:
262:
259:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
226:
222:
219:
215:
211:
210:perpendicular
207:
203:
199:
196:
195:
194:
187:
179:
170:
168:
164:
159:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
52:
47:
39:
33:
19:
7657:Solar System
7623:
7611:
7538:Desalination
7531:Desalination
7510:Disinfection
7501:Solar cooker
7468:Process heat
7369:horticulture
7356:Applications
7316:Applications
7307:Net metering
7243:Distribution
7179:South Africa
7169:Saudi Arabia
6965:and proposed
6963:Experimental
6926:Concentrated
6854:Thermal mass
6780:
6739:Solar energy
6620:
6609:
6581:
6577:
6562:. Retrieved
6558:
6522:
6518:
6511:Bibliography
6482:
6478:
6468:
6433:
6429:
6419:
6394:
6390:
6380:
6369:the original
6364:
6360:
6352:Nall, D. H.
6347:
6335:. Retrieved
6331:the original
6326:
6317:
6300:
6284:
6275:
6266:
6252:
6219:
6216:Solar Energy
6215:
6205:
6191:
6179:. Retrieved
6165:
6147:
6120:
6116:
6106:
6055:
6051:
6009:
6005:
5998:
5970:cite journal
5962:the original
5951:
5924:
5920:
5911:Kopp, Greg;
5838:
5834:
5824:
5814:
5778:
5774:
5768:
5717:
5713:
5703:
5660:
5656:
5646:
5611:
5607:
5565:
5561:
5551:
5540:the original
5511:
5507:
5494:
5444:
5437:
5404:
5400:
5394:
5381:
5364:
5336:
5329:
5312:
5277:
5273:
5263:
5246:
5240:
5228:. Retrieved
5224:
5215:
5203:. Retrieved
5199:
5190:
5178:. Retrieved
5174:
5165:
5150:
5138:. Retrieved
5128:
5117:. Retrieved
5104:
5083:cite journal
5052:
5027:
5024:Solar Energy
5023:
5017:
5005:. Retrieved
5001:
4992:
4980:. Retrieved
4976:
4952:. Retrieved
4948:
4909:
4903:
4891:. Retrieved
4887:the original
4865:
4845:
4726:
4711:
4695:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4655:
4631:
4611:
4608:
4591:
4562:
4547:
4503:kWh/(kWp·y)
4418:kWh/(kWp·y)
4394:Applications
4388:
4384:South Africa
4279:
4270:
4247:
4244:
4228:
4220:
4208:
4198:
4180:reflectivity
4172:photovoltaic
4157:
4135:
4128:photovoltaic
4125:
4093:
4042:
4034:
3986:
3982:
3978:1.3 W/m
3966:0.5 W/m
3955:
3830:Uncertainty
3822:power error
3791:
3786:
3783:
3778:
3767:
3758:
3754:
3743:
3735:
3719:
3715:
3712:
3708:
3681:
3673:
3649:
3598:
3449:
3401:
3390:
3370:
3360:
3358:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3243:
3239:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3187:
2867:
2856:
2848:
2846:
2651:
2085:
2032:
1985:
1981:
1967:
1957:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1751:
1700:
1697:
1606:
1599:
1584:
1426:
1405:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
936:
557:
551:is known as
530:
466:
445:
383:
368:
357:
347:
282:
274:
268:
264:
260:
230:
223:
197:
192:
160:
129:
124:
120:
116:
112:
98:
90:square metre
57:
56:
7543:Solar still
7439:Daylighting
7377:Agrivoltaic
7364:Agriculture
7149:New Zealand
7144:Netherlands
6812:Solar power
6222:: 246–258.
5007:25 November
4982:25 November
4954:25 November
4722:planetology
4720:design and
4646:pyranometer
4544:generation.
4542:solar power
4525:Solar power
4164:electricity
4072:pyranometer
3802:Instrument
3750:diffraction
3702:(UARS) and
3676:radiometric
3646:Measurement
2865:declination
2652:Therefore:
1424:is denoted
470:, in which
379:solar power
373:per square
281:of the Sun
247:cloud cover
202:solar power
152:solar cycle
140:atmospheric
7641:Categories
7485:Solar pond
7459:Solar Tuki
7454:Solar lamp
7449:Light tube
7387:Polytunnel
7382:Greenhouse
7026:By country
7004:Solar sail
6916:Solar cell
6844:Solar pond
6564:2005-02-21
6276:redrok.com
6181:16 January
5816:irradiance
5670:2102.09487
5621:2303.03046
5614:: 106150.
5119:2020-07-17
4838:References
4794:Irradiance
4718:spacecraft
4483:kWh/(m·y)
4478:0.0036505
4475:0.0027379
4458:0.0036505
4455:0.0027379
4438:0.1521061
4435:0.1140796
4415:kWh/(m·y)
4303:World Bank
4262:absorbance
4138:, meaning
4132:power flux
4104:atmosphere
4100:attenuated
3827:agreement
3770:radiometer
3674:In orbit,
3636:precession
1595:hour angle
527:Derivation
239:scattering
235:absorption
144:scattering
134:or at the
125:insolation
101:integrated
82:irradiance
78:wavelength
32:insulation
7392:Row cover
7124:Lithuania
7044:Australia
6939:Heliostat
6501:240331557
6460:201590290
6327:glrea.org
6244:0038-092X
6090:0004-640X
6065:1403.7194
6034:1752-0894
5742:1364-5021
5695:0094-8276
5480:cite book
5304:0022-4928
5140:April 23,
4814:Sun chart
4638:hydrology
4597:Buildings
4578:Australia
4512:273.9316
4509:273.9316
4506:6.574360
4498:1.333333
4492:365.2422
4489:365.2422
4486:8.765813
4432:41.66666
4429:41.66666
4174:cells or
4112:sea level
3619:ϖ
3613:
3582:ϖ
3576:
3553:ϖ
3550:−
3542:π
3532:
3511:ϖ
3508:−
3505:θ
3499:
3420:¯
3367:Variation
3325:π
3314:
3284:≈
3218:¯
3161:−
3150:ϖ
3147:−
3144:θ
3138:
3070:ϖ
3067:−
3064:θ
3058:
3028:−
2969:θ
2963:
2954:ε
2948:
2936:δ
2930:
2917:obliquity
2896:θ
2890:
2884:ε
2878:δ
2812:
2803:δ
2797:
2788:φ
2782:
2770:δ
2764:
2755:φ
2749:
2692:π
2666:¯
2613:
2604:δ
2598:
2589:φ
2583:
2571:δ
2565:
2556:φ
2550:
2482:−
2457:−
2412:
2403:δ
2397:
2388:φ
2382:
2370:δ
2364:
2355:φ
2349:
2269:Θ
2263:
2245:−
2229:∫
2149:−
2133:∫
2110:π
2107:−
2102:π
2098:∫
2004:¯
1988:) < −1
1926:δ
1920:
1911:φ
1905:
1899:−
1877:
1832:
1823:δ
1817:
1808:φ
1802:
1790:δ
1784:
1775:φ
1769:
1749:, or for
1737:π
1719:Θ
1671:π
1668:−
1663:π
1659:∫
1651:π
1639:−
1625:¯
1561:≤
1555:Θ
1549:
1525:Θ
1519:
1508:Θ
1502:
1335:¯
1278:
1269:γ
1263:
1254:β
1248:
1239:δ
1233:
1227:−
1215:
1206:γ
1200:
1191:β
1185:
1176:φ
1170:
1161:δ
1155:
1149:−
1130:
1121:β
1115:
1106:δ
1100:
1091:φ
1085:
1073:γ
1067:
1058:β
1052:
1043:φ
1037:
1028:δ
1022:
1006:β
1000:
991:δ
985:
976:φ
970:
958:Θ
952:
910:
901:δ
895:
886:φ
880:
868:δ
862:
853:φ
847:
831:Θ
825:
815:δ
812:−
809:π
780:φ
777:−
774:π
745:Θ
658:
643:
628:
610:
595:
577:
489:π
421:longitude
322:
316:×
92:(W/m) in
7613:Category
7582:See also
7432:Lighting
7406:Building
7285:Adoption
7274:seasonal
7245:and uses
7189:Thailand
7159:Portugal
7154:Pakistan
6769:Concepts
6760:Timeline
6337:21 April
6307:Archived
6157:Archived
5865:54744463
5811:41756073
5803:17835351
5760:32831591
5536:20573668
5319:Archived
5230:21 April
5205:21 April
5180:21 April
4819:Sunlight
4788:PI curve
4746:See also
4642:snowmelt
4534:Sunlight
3945:~0.025%
3922:~0.027%
3899:~0.038%
3722:sunspots
3704:ACRIMSAT
3656:aperture
1953:) > 1
549:ice ages
414:latitude
255:contents
251:moisture
148:function
94:SI units
7625:Commons
7494:Cooking
7252:Storage
7199:Ukraine
7174:Somalia
7164:Romania
7139:Myanmar
7134:Morocco
7089:Germany
7084:Georgia
7079:Denmark
7054:Belgium
7049:Austria
7039:Armenia
7034:Albania
6821:Thermal
6776:The Sun
6755:Outline
6586:Bibcode
6584:: 952.
6547:4273483
6527:Bibcode
6438:Bibcode
6399:Bibcode
6224:Bibcode
6125:Bibcode
6098:3015605
6070:Bibcode
6014:Bibcode
5929:Bibcode
5843:Bibcode
5783:Bibcode
5775:Science
5751:7428030
5722:Bibcode
5675:Bibcode
5626:Bibcode
5570:Bibcode
5516:Bibcode
5429:4273483
5409:Bibcode
5282:Bibcode
5251:Bibcode
5075:1411856
5032:Bibcode
4203:oblique
4110:W/m at
3919:−0.026%
3896:−0.104%
3893:−0.049%
3887:−0.104%
3884:−0.005%
3876:0.020%
3870:−0.029%
3864:−0.012%
3853:0.032%
3847:−0.037%
3841:−0.037%
3726:faculae
3698:(SMM),
3660:shutter
2915:is the
2863:. The
2855:. Let
541:seasons
386:Langley
76:in the
60:is the
7194:Turkey
7129:Mexico
7119:Kosovo
7104:Israel
7094:Greece
7064:Canada
7059:Brazil
6684:SMARTS
6628:
6545:
6519:Nature
6499:
6479:EcoMat
6458:
6242:
6096:
6088:
6032:
5863:
5809:
5801:
5758:
5748:
5740:
5693:
5663:(19).
5534:
5468:
5427:
5401:Nature
5352:
5302:
5073:
4799:Albedo
4685:
4582:
4574:
4570:Norway
4566:
4466:0.024
4446:0.024
4372:Mexico
4214:; see
4212:cosine
4184:albedo
4176:plants
4116:zenith
4108:
4096:
4025:
4021:
4017:
3942:0.013%
3939:0.730%
3936:0.154%
3933:0.743%
3930:0.897%
3916:0.631%
3913:0.037%
3910:0.605%
3907:0.642%
3890:0.098%
3873:0.017%
3850:0.000%
3774:vacuum
3739:
3664:
3640:
3634:, the
3359:where
3333:365.25
2911:where
1984:) tan(
1949:) tan(
1373:
1311:is an
1303:where
679:where
562:, the
517:
513:
459:
452:
448:
394:
138:after
7223:Legal
7214:Yemen
7184:Spain
7114:Japan
7109:Italy
7099:India
7069:China
6750:Index
6543:S2CID
6497:S2CID
6456:S2CID
6430:Joule
6372:(PDF)
6357:(PDF)
6094:S2CID
6060:arXiv
5861:S2CID
5807:S2CID
5665:arXiv
5616:arXiv
5543:(PDF)
5532:S2CID
5504:(PDF)
5425:S2CID
5373:(PDF)
5114:(PDF)
4893:5 May
4708:Space
4515:0.75
4360:India
4348:China
4053:CMIP5
4005:+0.60
3997:+0.58
3684:SORCE
3308:0.034
2853:orbit
1978:. If
1965:, so
1418:(AU).
396:J/m.
375:metre
371:watts
365:Units
263:, or
229:, or
227:(DNI)
220:(AU).
173:Types
132:space
123:, or
109:joule
86:watts
62:power
7367:and
6974:and
6626:ISBN
6339:2018
6240:ISSN
6183:2012
6176:NASA
6086:ISSN
6030:ISSN
5990:link
5983:help
5799:PMID
5756:PMID
5738:ISSN
5691:ISSN
5486:link
5466:ISBN
5350:ISBN
5300:ISSN
5232:2018
5207:2018
5182:2018
5142:2022
5096:help
5071:OSTI
5009:2017
4984:2017
4956:2017
4895:2016
4804:Flux
4732:NASA
4660:and
4636:and
4423:W/m
4406:W/m
4224:sine
4011:and
3724:and
3242:and
3196:and
2847:Let
1980:tan(
1945:tan(
1698:Let
1609:= −π
1531:>
1420:The
687:and
543:and
419:and
384:The
237:and
88:per
6594:doi
6582:215
6535:doi
6523:351
6487:doi
6446:doi
6407:doi
6395:221
6232:doi
6133:doi
6078:doi
6056:350
6022:doi
5937:doi
5851:doi
5791:doi
5779:244
5746:PMC
5730:doi
5718:476
5683:doi
5634:doi
5612:252
5578:doi
5566:467
5524:doi
5512:625
5458:hdl
5450:doi
5417:doi
5405:351
5342:doi
5290:doi
5063:doi
5040:doi
4716:in
4632:In
4307:GIS
4260:or
4182:or
4166:or
4136:sol
3972:365
3960:360
3610:sin
3573:sin
3529:cos
3496:cos
3311:cos
3224:day
3135:cos
3088:or
3055:cos
2960:sin
2945:sin
2927:sin
2887:sin
2809:sin
2794:cos
2779:cos
2761:sin
2746:sin
2672:day
2610:sin
2595:cos
2580:cos
2562:sin
2547:sin
2409:sin
2394:cos
2379:cos
2361:sin
2346:sin
2260:cos
2010:day
1943:If
1917:tan
1902:tan
1874:cos
1866:or
1829:cos
1814:cos
1799:cos
1781:sin
1766:sin
1631:day
1604:to
1602:= π
1546:cos
1516:cos
1499:cos
1341:day
1275:sin
1260:sin
1245:sin
1230:cos
1212:cos
1197:cos
1182:sin
1167:sin
1152:cos
1127:cos
1112:cos
1097:cos
1082:cos
1064:cos
1049:sin
1034:cos
1019:sin
997:cos
982:sin
967:sin
949:cos
907:cos
892:cos
877:cos
859:sin
844:sin
822:cos
655:cos
640:sin
625:sin
607:cos
592:cos
574:cos
434:. (
319:cos
312:DNI
304:DHI
296:GHI
245:),
70:Sun
7643::
6592:.
6580:.
6576:.
6557:.
6541:.
6533:.
6521:.
6495:.
6485:.
6481:.
6477:.
6454:.
6444:.
6432:.
6428:.
6405:.
6393:.
6389:.
6365:57
6363:.
6359:.
6325:.
6274:.
6238:.
6230:.
6220:99
6218:.
6214:.
6174:.
6131:.
6121:97
6119:.
6115:.
6092:.
6084:.
6076:.
6068:.
6054:.
6042:^
6028:.
6020:.
6008:.
5974::
5972:}}
5968:{{
5935:.
5925:38
5923:.
5919:.
5873:^
5859:.
5849:.
5839:27
5837:.
5833:.
5813:.
5805:.
5797:.
5789:.
5777:.
5754:.
5744:.
5736:.
5728:.
5716:.
5712:.
5689:.
5681:.
5673:.
5661:47
5659:.
5655:.
5632:.
5624:.
5610:.
5606:.
5592:^
5576:.
5564:.
5560:.
5530:.
5522:.
5510:.
5506:.
5482:}}
5478:{{
5464:.
5456:.
5423:.
5415:.
5403:.
5348:.
5298:.
5288:.
5278:35
5276:.
5272:.
5223:.
5198:.
5173:.
5087::
5085:}}
5081:{{
5069:.
5038:.
5028:83
5026:.
5000:.
4975:.
4964:^
4947:.
4934:^
4919:^
4873:^
4857:^
4742:.
4724:.
4668:.
4648:.
4518:1
4495:1
4472:1
4469:1
4452:1
4449:1
4426:1
4218:.
4186:.
4142:.
4123:.
4082:A
4070:A
4058:.
4049:23
4003:,
3974:.4
3962:.9
3785:(1
3777:(1
3737:~1
3728:.
3250:,
3192:,
2030:.
1973:=
1960:=
1611::
1414:1
1315:.
683:,
566::
555:.
523:.
455:AU
249:,
127:.
119:,
115:,
96:.
6731:e
6724:t
6717:v
6634:.
6602:.
6596::
6588::
6567:.
6549:.
6537::
6529::
6503:.
6489::
6483:4
6462:.
6448::
6440::
6434:3
6409::
6401::
6341:.
6294:.
6278:.
6260:.
6246:.
6234::
6226::
6199:.
6185:.
6141:.
6135::
6127::
6100:.
6080::
6072::
6062::
6036:.
6024::
6016::
6010:5
5992:)
5985:)
5981:(
5945:.
5939::
5931::
5867:.
5853::
5845::
5793::
5785::
5762:.
5732::
5724::
5697:.
5685::
5677::
5667::
5640:.
5636::
5628::
5618::
5586:.
5580::
5572::
5526::
5518::
5488:)
5474:.
5460::
5452::
5431:.
5419::
5411::
5375:.
5358:.
5344::
5306:.
5292::
5284::
5257:.
5253::
5234:.
5209:.
5184:.
5144:.
5122:.
5098:)
5094:(
5077:.
5065::
5046:.
5042::
5034::
5011:.
4986:.
4958:.
4897:.
4587:π
4047:-
4007:±
3999:±
3976:±
3970:1
3964:±
3958:1
3867:—
3861:—
3844:—
3838:—
3787:σ
3779:σ
3622:)
3616:(
3607:e
3585:)
3579:(
3570:e
3567:+
3564:1
3561:=
3557:)
3545:2
3536:(
3526:e
3523:+
3520:1
3517:=
3514:)
3502:(
3493:e
3490:+
3487:1
3484:=
3477:E
3473:R
3467:o
3463:R
3450:ε
3433:y
3430:a
3427:d
3417:Q
3361:n
3344:)
3339:)
3330:n
3322:2
3318:(
3305:+
3302:1
3298:(
3292:0
3288:S
3281:Q
3268:θ
3264:θ
3260:θ
3256:θ
3252:θ
3244:θ
3240:φ
3215:Q
3202:o
3198:e
3194:ε
3190:ϖ
3169:2
3165:e
3158:1
3153:)
3141:(
3132:e
3129:+
3126:1
3120:=
3113:E
3109:R
3103:o
3099:R
3073:)
3061:(
3052:e
3049:+
3046:1
3041:)
3036:2
3032:e
3025:1
3022:(
3017:o
3013:R
3006:=
3001:E
2997:R
2972:)
2966:(
2957:)
2951:(
2942:=
2939:)
2933:(
2913:ε
2899:)
2893:(
2881:=
2868:δ
2857:θ
2849:θ
2832:]
2828:)
2823:o
2819:h
2815:(
2806:)
2800:(
2791:)
2785:(
2776:+
2773:)
2767:(
2758:)
2752:(
2741:o
2737:h
2732:[
2724:2
2719:E
2715:R
2709:2
2704:o
2700:R
2687:o
2683:S
2677:=
2663:Q
2633:]
2629:)
2624:o
2620:h
2616:(
2607:)
2601:(
2592:)
2586:(
2577:+
2574:)
2568:(
2559:)
2553:(
2542:o
2538:h
2533:[
2525:2
2520:E
2516:R
2510:2
2505:o
2501:R
2493:o
2489:S
2485:2
2479:=
2465:o
2461:h
2454:=
2451:h
2444:o
2440:h
2436:=
2433:h
2427:]
2421:)
2418:h
2415:(
2406:)
2400:(
2391:)
2385:(
2376:+
2373:)
2367:(
2358:)
2352:(
2343:h
2338:[
2329:2
2324:E
2320:R
2314:2
2309:o
2305:R
2297:o
2293:S
2289:=
2279:h
2276:d
2272:)
2266:(
2253:o
2249:h
2238:o
2234:h
2221:2
2216:E
2212:R
2206:2
2201:o
2197:R
2189:o
2185:S
2181:=
2171:h
2168:d
2164:Q
2157:o
2153:h
2142:o
2138:h
2129:=
2122:h
2119:d
2115:Q
2067:2
2062:E
2058:R
2052:2
2047:o
2043:R
2018:0
2015:=
2001:Q
1986:δ
1982:φ
1975:π
1971:o
1968:h
1962:π
1958:h
1951:δ
1947:φ
1929:)
1923:(
1914:)
1908:(
1896:=
1893:)
1888:o
1884:h
1880:(
1854:0
1851:=
1848:)
1843:o
1839:h
1835:(
1826:)
1820:(
1811:)
1805:(
1796:+
1793:)
1787:(
1778:)
1772:(
1755:0
1752:h
1731:2
1728:1
1722:=
1709:Q
1704:0
1701:h
1683:h
1680:d
1676:Q
1648:2
1644:1
1636:=
1622:Q
1607:h
1600:h
1591:Q
1587:Q
1564:0
1558:)
1552:(
1541:0
1534:0
1528:)
1522:(
1511:)
1505:(
1492:2
1487:E
1483:R
1477:2
1472:o
1468:R
1460:o
1456:S
1449:{
1444:=
1441:Q
1430:0
1427:S
1409:0
1406:R
1400:E
1397:R
1388:e
1384:ε
1380:0
1377:S
1369:φ
1365:θ
1361:θ
1357:θ
1332:Q
1309:γ
1305:β
1287:)
1284:h
1281:(
1272:)
1266:(
1257:)
1251:(
1242:)
1236:(
1224:)
1221:h
1218:(
1209:)
1203:(
1194:)
1188:(
1179:)
1173:(
1164:)
1158:(
1139:)
1136:h
1133:(
1124:)
1118:(
1109:)
1103:(
1094:)
1088:(
1079:+
1076:)
1070:(
1061:)
1055:(
1046:)
1040:(
1031:)
1025:(
1016:+
1009:)
1003:(
994:)
988:(
979:)
973:(
964:=
961:)
955:(
919:)
916:h
913:(
904:)
898:(
889:)
883:(
874:+
871:)
865:(
856:)
850:(
841:=
834:)
828:(
803:2
800:1
794:=
787:b
768:2
765:1
759:=
752:a
742:=
735:c
728:h
725:=
718:C
704:Θ
697:c
693:C
689:c
685:b
681:a
667:)
664:C
661:(
652:)
649:b
646:(
637:)
634:a
631:(
622:+
619:)
616:b
613:(
604:)
601:a
598:(
589:=
586:)
583:c
580:(
497:2
493:r
486:4
472:r
467:r
464:π
440:h
436:δ
432:δ
428:h
424:λ
417:φ
410:Θ
331:)
328:z
325:(
308:+
300:=
283:z
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.