979:(the electrons reversing course through the shaded portion). When connected in series, the current drawn from a string of cells is no greater than the normally small current that can flow through the shaded cell, so the current (and therefore power) developed by the string is limited. If the external load is of low enough impedance, there may be enough voltage available from the other cells in a string to force more current through the shaded cell by breaking down the junction. This breakdown voltage in common cells is between 10 and 30 volts. Instead of adding to the power produced by the panel, the shaded cell absorbs power, turning it into heat. Since the reverse voltage of a shaded cell is much greater than the forward voltage of an illuminated cell, one shaded cell can absorb the power of many other cells in the string, disproportionately affecting panel output. For example, a shaded cell may drop 8 volts, instead of adding 0.5 volts, at a high current level, thereby absorbing the power produced by 16 other cells. It is thus important that a PV installation not be shaded by trees or other obstructions. There are techniques to mitigate the losses with diodes, but these techniques also entail losses.
94:
45:
783:
3478:. The inverter must monitor grid voltage, waveform, and frequency. The inverter must detect failure of the grid supply, and then, must not supply power to the grid. An inverter connected to a malfunctioning power line will automatically disconnect in accordance with safety rules, which vary by jurisdiction. The location of the fault current plays a crucial part in deciding whether the protection mechanism of the inverter will kick in, especially for low and medium electricity supply network. A protection system must ensure proper operation for faults external to the inverter on the supply network. The special inverter must also be designed to synchronize its AC frequency with the grid, to ensure the correct integration of the inverter power flow into the grid according to the waveform.
1033:
365:, while off-grid systems are somewhat more common in Australia and South Korea. PV systems rarely use battery storage. This may change, as government incentives for distributed energy storage are implemented and investments in storage solutions gradually become economically viable for small systems. In the UK, the number of commercial systems using battery storage is gradually increasing as a result of grid constraints preventing feedback of unused electricity into the grid as well as increased electricity costs resulting in improved economics. A typical residential solar array is rack-mounted on the roof, rather than integrated into the roof or facade of the building, which is significantly more expensive. Utility-scale
930:(kWh) every day, on average, after taking into account the weather and the latitude, for an insolation of 5 sun hours/day. Module output degrades faster at increased temperature. Allowing ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this problem, as the airflow tend to reduce the operating temperature and, as consequence, increase the module efficiency. However, it was recently demonstrated that, in the real-world operation, considering a larger scale photovoltaic generator, increase in wind speed can increase the energy losses, following the fluid mechanics theory, as the wind interaction with the PV generator induces air flux variations that modify the heat transfer from the modules to the air.
83:
103:
36:
1101:
Trackers below. Side-of-pole mounts are suitable for situations where a pole has something else mounted at its top, such as a light fixture or an antenna. Pole mounting raises what would otherwise be a ground mounted array above weed shadows and livestock, and may satisfy electrical code requirements regarding inaccessibility of exposed wiring. Pole mounted panels are open to more cooling air on their underside, which increases performance. A multiplicity of pole top racks can be formed into a parking carport or other shade structure. A rack which does not follow the sun from left to right may allow seasonal adjustment up or down.
74:
1060:
horizontal can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year for a stand-alone system. This optimal module tilt angle is not necessarily identical to the tilt angle for maximum annual array energy output. The optimization of the photovoltaic system for a specific environment can be complicated as issues of solar flux, soiling, and snow losses should be taken into effect. In addition, later work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectrum of the
3387:
consumer will continue to purchase grid energy, but a lesser amount than previously. If photovoltaic wattage substantially exceeds average consumption, the energy produced by the panels will be much in excess of the demand. In this case, the excess power can yield revenue by selling it to the grid. Depending on their agreement with their local grid energy company, the consumer only needs to pay the cost of electricity consumed less the value of electricity generated. This will be a negative number if more electricity is generated than consumed. Additionally, in some cases, cash
1337:
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price for the highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charge when electricity price is reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in
Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for example residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economic decision and investment decisions are based on systematical evaluation of options in operational improvement,
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results clearly show that hybridizing CHP with PV can enable additional PV deployment above what is possible with a conventional centralized electric generation system. This theory was reconfirmed with numerical simulations using per second solar flux data to determine that the necessary battery backup to provide for such a hybrid system is possible with relatively small and inexpensive battery systems. In addition, large PV+CHP systems are possible for institutional buildings, which again provide back up for intermittent PV and reduce CHP runtime.
1085:
442:
2258:
54:
315:
112:
615:
2024:
799:
1008:). Soiling reduces the light that strikes the cells, which in turn reduces the power output of the PV system. Soiling losses aggregate over time, and can become large without adequate cleaning. In 2018, the global annual energy loss due to soiling was estimated to at least 3–4%. However, soiling losses vary significantly from region to region, and within regions. Maintaining a clean module surface will increase output performance over the life of the PV system. In one study performed in a snow-rich area (
474:. In kilowatt-sized installations the DC side system voltage is as high as permitted (typically 1000 V except US residential 600 V) to limit ohmic losses. Most modules (60 or 72 crystalline silicon cells) generate 160 W to 300 W at 36 volts. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to connect the modules partially in parallel rather than all in series. An individual set of modules connected in series is known as a 'string'. A set of series-connected "strings" is known as an "array."
1679:
560:
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65:
1329:
1209:
997:
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dedicated to supervision only or offer additional functions. Individual inverters and battery charge controllers may include monitoring using manufacturer specific protocols and software. Energy metering of an inverter may be of limited accuracy and not suitable for revenue metering purposes. A third-party data acquisition system can monitor multiple inverters, using the inverter manufacturer's protocols, and also acquire weather-related information. Independent
3553:
1388:) inverter, will be limited to the inverter's output of 10 kW. As of 2019, conversion efficiency for state-of-the-art converters reached more than 98 percent. While string inverters are used in residential to medium-sized commercial PV systems, central inverters cover the large commercial and utility-scale market. Market-share for central and string inverters are about 44 percent and 52 percent, respectively, with less than 1 percent for micro-inverters.
9136:
3688:
2437:
2274:
2066:
687:
503:
3702:
3409:
1121:
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1356:(DC) from the solar modules to AC. Grid connected inverters must supply AC electricity in sinusoidal form, synchronized to the grid frequency, limit feed in voltage to no higher than the grid voltage and disconnect from the grid if the grid voltage is turned off. Islanding inverters need only produce regulated voltages and frequencies in a sinusoidal waveshape as no synchronisation or co-ordination with grid supplies is required.
1259:
661:, 1.5% for losses due to snow, and 5% for other sources of error. Identifying and reacting to manageable losses is critical for revenue and O&M efficiency. Monitoring of array performance may be part of contractual agreements between the array owner, the builder, and the utility purchasing the energy produced. A method to create "synthetic days" using readily available weather data and verification using the
9148:
301:, prices for PV systems have rapidly declined since their introduction; however, they vary by market and the size of the system. Nowadays, solar PV modules account for less than half of the system's overall cost, leaving the rest to the remaining BOS components and to soft costs, which include customer acquisition, permitting, inspection and interconnection, installation labor, and financing costs.
2166:
3639:
2009:
Although new stand-alone systems are still being deployed all around the world, their contribution to the overall installed photovoltaic capacity is decreasing. In Europe, off-grid systems account for 1 percent of installed capacity. In the United States, they account for about 10 percent. Off-grid systems are still common in
Australia and South Korea, and in many developing countries.
678:(panel-level DC to AC conversion), module power data is automatically provided. Some systems allow setting performance alerts that trigger phone/email/text warnings when limits are reached. These solutions provide data for the system owner and the installer. Installers are able to remotely monitor multiple installations, and see at-a-glance the status of their entire installed base.
993:. Most modules have bypass diodes between each cell or string of cells that minimize the effects of shading and only lose the power that the shaded portion of the array would have supplied, as well as the power dissipated in the diodes. The main job of the bypass diode is to eliminate hot spots that form on cells that can cause further damage to the array, and cause fires.
674:) on soiling or snow losses. (Although in heavy snow environments with severe ground interference can result in annual losses from snow of 30%.) Access to the Internet has allowed a further improvement in energy monitoring and communication. Dedicated systems are available from a number of vendors. For solar PV systems that use
1405:"sea" of unpowered lines, as the solar array continues to deliver DC power during the power outage. Islanding is a hazard to utility workers, who may not realize that an AC circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-connection of devices. Anti-Islanding feature is not required for complete Off-Grid Systems.
2326:). However, in simple PV systems where the PV module voltage is matched to the battery voltage, the use of MPPT electronics is generally considered unnecessary, since the battery voltage is stable enough to provide near-maximum power collection from the PV module. In small devices (e.g. calculators, parking meters) only
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residential PV systems, as lithium-ion batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, as storage devices for PV systems are stationary, the lower energy and power density and therefore higher weight of lead-acid batteries are not as critical as, for example, in
3249:(NRTL). Many localities require a permit to install a photovoltaic system. A grid-tied system normally requires a licensed electrician to connect between the system and the grid-connected wiring of the building. Installers who meet these qualifications are located in almost every state. Several states prohibit
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which have a capacity more than 10 kilowatts can meet the load of most consumers. They can feed excess power to the grid where it is consumed by other users. The feedback is done through a meter to monitor power transferred. Photovoltaic wattage may be less than average consumption, in which case the
3221:
In the United States, article 690 of the
National Electric Code provides general guidelines for the installation of photovoltaic systems; these may be superseded by local laws and regulations. Often a permit is required necessitating plan submissions and structural calculations before work may begin.
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UK Solar PV installations are also subject to control under the
Building Regulations 2010. Buildings regulation approval is therefore necessary for both domestic and commercial solar PV rootop installations to ensure that they meet the required safety standards. This includes ensuring that the roof
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desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m/day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km. 90,600 km, or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all
482:
Photovoltaic systems are generally categorized into three distinct market segments: residential rooftop, commercial rooftop, and ground-mount utility-scale systems. Their capacities range from a few kilowatts to hundreds of megawatts. A typical residential system is around 10 kilowatts and mounted on
369:
are ground-mounted, with fixed tilted solar panels rather than using expensive tracking devices. Crystalline silicon is the predominant material used in 90 percent of worldwide produced solar modules, while its rival thin-film has lost market-share. About 70 percent of all solar cells and modules are
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that are designed to supply power to the grid are generally required to have automatic anti-islanding circuitry in them. In intentional islanding, the generator disconnects from the grid, and forces the distributed generator to power the local circuit. This is often used as a power backup system for
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Customers have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. An electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a
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With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes two-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the two-way energy transfer. Therefore, some
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Especially HCPV systems are best suited in location with high solar irradiance, concentrating sunlight up to 400 times or more, with efficiencies of 24–28 percent, exceeding those of regular systems. Various designs of systems are commercially available but not very common. However, ongoing research
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strategies depending on the output of the installation and its nature. Monitoring can be performed on site or remotely. It can measure production only, retrieve all the data from the inverter or retrieve all of the data from the communicating equipment (probes, meters, etc.). Monitoring tools can be
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is a protection mechanism to immediately shut down the inverter, preventing it from generating AC power when the connection to the load no longer exists. This happens, for example, in the case of a blackout. Without this protection, the supply line would become an "island" with power surrounded by a
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As pricing, reliability and performance of single-axis trackers have improved, the systems have been installed in an increasing percentage of utility-scale projects. According to data from WoodMackenzie/GTM Research, global solar tracker shipments hit a record 14.5 gigawatts in 2017. This represents
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Trackers and sensors to optimise the performance are often seen as optional, but they can increase viable output by up to 45%. Arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers. Considering clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the equator, and that the sun sets in
978:
Photovoltaic cell electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading (the so-called "Christmas light effect"). When even a small portion of a cell or of a module or array of cells in parallel is shaded, with the remainder in sunlight, the output falls dramatically due to internal 'short-circuiting'
964:. Modules may then be strung together into a photovoltaic array. In 2012, solar panels available for consumers had an efficiency of up to about 17%, while commercially available panels can go as far as 27%. By concentrating the sunlight it is possible to achieve higher efficiencies. A group from The
656:
Uncertainties in revenue over time relate mostly to the evaluation of the solar resource and to the performance of the system itself. In the best of cases, uncertainties are typically 4% for year-to-year climate variability, 5% for solar resource estimation (in a horizontal plane), 3% for estimation
449:
A grid connected system is connected to a larger independent grid (typically the public electricity grid) and feeds energy directly into the grid. This energy may be shared by a residential or commercial building before or after the revenue measurement point, depending on whether the credited energy
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of its electricity via photovoltaic and other renewable energy sources, and cities such as Huelva and
Seville boast nearly 3,000 hours of sunshine per year, in 2013 Spain issued a solar tax to account for the debt created by the investment done by the Spanish government. Those who do not connect to
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In the UK, PV installations are generally considered permitted development and do not require planning permission. If the property is listed or in a designated area (National Park, Area of
Outstanding Natural Beauty, Site of Special Scientific Interest or Norfolk Broads) then planning permission is
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There has also been work showing that the PV penetration limit can be increased by deploying a distributed network of PV+CHP hybrid systems in the U.S. The temporal distribution of solar flux, electrical and heating requirements for representative U.S. single family residences were analyzed and the
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A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of generation, usually a diesel generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of generation may be a type able to modulate power output as a function of demand. However more than one renewable form of energy may be used e.g. wind. The photovoltaic power
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The metering must be able to accumulate energy units in both directions, or two meters must be used. Many meters accumulate bidirectionally, some systems use two meters, but a unidirectional meter (with detent) will not accumulate energy from any resultant feed into the grid. In some countries, for
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systems are very sensitive to the sunlight's angle, tracking systems allow them to produce useful power for more than a brief period each day. Tracking systems improve performance for two main reasons. First, when a solar panel is perpendicular to the sunlight, it receives more light on its surface
944:
The temperature effect on photovoltaic modules is usually quantified by means of some coefficients relating the variations of the open‐circuit voltage, of the short‐circuit current, and of the maximum power to temperature changes. In this paper, comprehensive experimental guidelines to estimate the
594:
source in the form of AC or DC power, depending on the design and power demands. In 2013, rooftop systems accounted for 60 percent of worldwide installations. However, there is a trend away from rooftop and towards utility-scale PV systems, as the focus of new PV installations is also shifting from
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appears very often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may come out as the electricity flows back to the network. There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at electricity
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were built between 2007 and 2013. Installed power grew from 3 GW in 2020, to 13 GW in 2022, surpassing a prediction of 10 GW by 2025. The World Bank estimated there are 6,600 large bodies of water suitable for floating solar, with a technical capacity of over 4,000 GW if 10% of their surfaces were
2088:
In 2015, a case-study conducted in seven countries concluded that in all cases generating costs can be reduced by hybridising mini-grids and isolated grids. However, financing costs for such hybrids are crucial and largely depend on the ownership structure of the power plant. While cost reductions
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through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face due south in the northern hemisphere or due north in the southern hemisphere. The tilt angle from
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in production and technological advances in manufacturing. For large-scale installations, prices below $ 1.00 per watt were common by 2012. A price decrease of 50% had been achieved in Europe from 2006 to 2011, and there was a potential to lower the generation cost by 50% by 2020. Crystal silicon
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it is needed. If both of those fail, installations over 30kWp can automatically shut down, although in practice all inverters maintain voltage regulation and stop supplying power if the load is inadequate. Grid operators have the option of curtailing excess generation from large systems, although
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batteries. Compared to the other types, lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density. However, due to their high reliability, low self discharge as well as low investment and maintenance costs, they are currently (as of 2014) the predominant technology used in small-scale,
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which regulate electrical installations in an area. General features required for solar cables are resistance to ultraviolet light, weather, temperature extremes of the area and insulation suitable for the voltage class of the equipment. Different jurisdictions will have specific rules regarding
763:
The terms "solar array" and "PV system" are often incorrectly used interchangeably, despite the fact that the solar array does not encompass the entire system. Moreover, "solar panel" is often used as a synonym for "solar module", although a panel consists of a string of several modules. The term
599:
and boats that there are retailers specializing in these applications and products specifically targeted to them. Since recreational vehicles (RV) normally carry batteries and operate lighting and other systems on nominally 12-volt DC power, RV systems normally operate in a voltage range that can
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tilts a solar panel throughout the day. Depending on the type of tracking system, the panel is either aimed directly at the Sun or the brightest area of a partly clouded sky. Trackers greatly enhance early morning and late afternoon performance, increasing the total amount of power produced by a
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depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar
1100:
a large rack is mounted on the ground, and the modules mounted on the rack. For buildings, many different racks have been devised for pitched roofs. For flat roofs, racks, bins and building integrated solutions are used. Solar panel racks mounted on top of poles can be stationary or moving, see
881:
and an aluminium frame around the outer edge. Electrically connected and mounted on a supporting structure, solar modules build a string of modules, often called solar panel. A solar array consists of one or many such panels. A photovoltaic array, or solar array, is a linked collection of solar
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have largely been replaced by less expensive multicrystalline silicon solar cells, and thin film silicon solar cells have also been developed at lower costs of production. Although they are reduced in energy conversion efficiency from single crystalline "siwafers", they are also much easier to
2008:
or off-grid systems take a special place. They were the most common type of systems during the 1980s and 1990s, when PV technology was still very expensive and a pure niche market of small scale applications. Only in places where no electrical grid was available, they were economically viable.
1671:. Grid operators historically have needed to provide transmission lines and generation capacity. Now they need to also provide storage. This is normally hydro-storage, but other means of storage are used. Initially storage was used so that baseload generators could operate at full output. With
381:
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics is declining continuously. There are several million PV systems distributed all over the world, mostly in Europe, with 1.4 million systems in
Germany alone– as well as North
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system by about 20–25% for a single axis tracker and about 30% or more for a dual axis tracker, depending on latitude. Trackers are effective in regions that receive a large portion of sunlight directly. In diffuse light (i.e. under cloud or fog), tracking has little or no value. Because most
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Provided inputs:; Location :;38.111,13.352 Horizon:;Calculated
Database used:;PVGIS-SARAH2 PV technology:;Crystalline silicon PV installed :;1 System loss :;14 Simulation outputs:; Slope angle :;35 Azimuth angle :;0 Yearly PV energy production :;1519.1 Yearly in-plane irradiation :;1944.62
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of the surroundings can play a significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system and the type of solar cell material. A photovoltaic installation in the northern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m/day. A typical 1 kW
374:. The installed capacity for both small rooftop systems and large solar power stations is growing rapidly and in equal parts, although there is a notable trend towards utility-scale systems, as the focus on new installations is shifting away from Europe to sunnier regions, such as the
595:
Europe to countries in the sunbelt region of the planet where opposition to ground-mounted solar farms is less accentuated. Portable and mobile PV systems provide electrical power independent of utility connections, for "off the grid" operation. Such systems are so commonly used on
7288:
3613:
loop is employed to push the voltage and/or the frequency further away from its nominal value. Frequency or voltage may not change if the load matches very well with the inverter output or the load has a very high quality factor (reactive to real power ratio). So there exists some
1394:(MPPT) is a technique that grid connected inverters use to get the maximum possible power from the photovoltaic array. In order to do so, the inverter's MPPT system digitally samples the solar array's ever changing power output and applies the proper impedance to find the optimal
418:
in terms of capacity are currently China, Japan and the United States, while half of the world's capacity is installed in Europe, with
Germany and Italy supplying 7% to 8% of their respective domestic electricity consumption with solar PV. The International Energy Agency expects
3190:
Increasing use of photovoltaic systems and integration of photovoltaic power into existing structures and techniques of supply and distribution increases the need for general standards and definitions for photovoltaic components and systems. The standards are compiled at the
1849:
On average, each family manages to consume 30% of energy directly from the photovoltaic. The storage system can bring its self-consumption to a maximum of 70%, therefore the battery storage capacity that should be in the specific case is: 4.41 Kwh which rounded up is 4.8 Kwh
3293:
reports that VOS results show that grid-tied utility customers are being grossly under-compensated in most of the U.S. as the value of solar eclipses the net metering rate as well as two-tiered rates, which means "your neighbor's solar panels are secretly saving you money".
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which are offered by some system operators, can offset a customer's electricity usage costs. In some locations though, grid technologies cannot cope with distributed generation feeding into the grid, so the export of surplus electricity is not possible and that surplus is
6413:
9200:
Best
Practices for Siting Solar Photovoltaics on Municipal Solid Waste Landfills: A Study Prepared in Partnership with the Environmental Protection Agency for the RE-Powering America's Land Initiative: Siting Renewable Energy on Potentially Contaminated Land and Mine
1635:
logic into their battery charging algorithms. Charge controllers may also divert energy to some purpose other than battery charging. Rather than simply shut off the free PV energy when not needed, a user may choose to heat air or water once the battery is full.
6224:
1627:, as the varying voltage and current from the solar array requires constant adjustment to prevent damage from overcharging. Basic charge controllers may simply turn the PV panels on and off, or may meter out pulses of energy as needed, a strategy called PWM or
3538:
Connecting to the grid poses many protection-related challenges. In addition to islanding, as mentioned above, too high levels of grid-connected PV result in problems like relay desensitization, nuisance tripping, interference with automatic reclosers, and
529:(hybrid plant). In rare cases generated electricity is stored or used directly by island/standalone plant. PV systems are generally designed in order to ensure the highest energy yield for a given investment. Some large photovoltaic power stations such as
2233:
DC grids are found in electric powered transport: railways trams and trolleybuses. A few pilot plants for such applications have been built, such as the tram depots in Hannover Leinhausen, using photovoltaic contributors and Geneva (Bachet de Pesay). The
1755:, after selecting the location in which to install the panels or clicking on the map or typing the name of the location, you must select "Grid connected" and "Visualize results" obtaining the following table for example relating to the city of Palermo:
1023:
The long‐term reliability of photovoltaic modules is crucial to ensure the technical and economic viability of PV as a successful energy source. The analysis of degradation mechanisms of PV modules is key to ensure current lifetimes exceeding 25 years.
3509:
over its lifespan, as any energy produced over and above that to build the panel initially offsets the need for burning fossil fuels. Even though the sun doesn't always shine, any installation gives a reasonably predictable average reduction in carbon
3289:' (VOS), which includes the avoided costs/losses including: plant operations ans maintenance (fixed and variable); fuel; generation capacity, reserve capacity, transmission capacity, distribution capacity, and environmental and health liability.
1291:– the average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 2.26 kWh/m/day in northern climes to 5.61 kWh/m/day in the sunniest regions.
818:
The building blocks of a photovoltaic system are solar cells. A solar cell is the electrical device that can directly convert photons energy into electricity. There are three technological generations of solar cells: the first generation (1G) of
386:
of a conventional solar module increased from 15 to 20 percent since 2004 and a PV system recoups the energy needed for its manufacture in about 2 years. In exceptionally irradiated locations, or when thin-film technology is used, the so-called
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637:
agreement. Some utilities use the rooftops of commercial customers and telephone poles to support their use of PV panels. Solar trees are arrays that, as the name implies, mimic the look of trees, provide shade, and at night can function as
1695:
this is more commonly done with wind power than solar power, and results in a substantial loss of revenue. Three-phase inverters have the unique option of supplying reactive power which can be advantageous in matching load requirements.
1375:
in the system determines the total DC watts capable of being generated by the solar array; however, the inverter ultimately governs the amount of AC watts that can be distributed for consumption. For example, a PV system comprising 11
665:
make it possible to predict photovoltaic systems performance with high degrees of accuracy. This method can be used to then determine loss mechanisms on a local scale - such as those from snow or the effects of surface coatings (e.g.
600:
charge 12-volt batteries directly, so addition of a PV system requires only panels, a charge controller, and wiring. Solar systems on recreation vehicles are usually constrained in wattage by the physical size of the RV's roof space.
3394:
Connection of the photovoltaic power system can be done only through an interconnection agreement between the consumer and the utility company. The agreement details the various safety standards to be followed during the connection.
1912:
So if a 300W panel costs €200, the 4.8Kwh battery costs €3000, the inverter to convert the direct current into alternating current €1000, the charge regulator €100, the installation costs €1000 the total cost will be €6,300 :
6242:
3593:
in a grid-connected PV system, the solar panels will continue to deliver power as long as the sun is shining. In this case, the supply line becomes an "island" with power surrounded by a "sea" of unpowered lines. For this reason,
6417:
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if it is intended for delivery to a power grid. The inverter sits between the solar array and the grid, and may be a large stand-alone unit or may be a collection of small inverters attached to individual solar panels as an
2321:
A charge controller may be incorporated in the system to avoid battery damage by excessive charging or discharging. It may also help to optimize production from the solar array using a maximum power point tracking technique
4412:
Rahmani, R.; Fard, M.; Shojaei, A.A.; Othman, M.F.; Yusof, R., A complete model of stand-alone photovoltaic array in MATLAB-Simulink environment, 2011 IEEE Student Conference on Research and Development (SCOReD), pp 46–51,
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a frequency and a voltage monitor with disconnection of all phases is required. This is done where more solar power is being generated than can be accommodated by the utility, and the excess can not either be exported or
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distributor level, re-conductor the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions. A way to calculate these costs and benefits is to use the concept of '
6228:
487:
than large utility-scale installations, they account for the largest share in the market. There is, however, a growing trend towards bigger utility-scale power plants, especially in the "sunbelt" region of the planet.
1766:
program, the number of panels required for an annual consumption of 2300 kWh and for a crystalline silicon technology with a slope angle of 35°, an azimut angle of 0° and total losses equal to 21.88% is 6 rounded up:
5777:
1750:
of an institution or a family, for example of 2300Kwh, legible in its electricity bill, it is possible to calculate the number of photovoltaic panels necessary to satisfy its energy needs. By connecting to the site
6443:
7099:
6465:
1065:
photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In the
3266:
the grid can face up to a fine of 30 million euros (US$ 40 million). Such measures were finally withdrawn by 2018, when new legislation was introduced banning any taxes on renewable energy self-consumption.
7516:
2224:(NREL), this increase is primarily due to the need for anchoring systems to secure the panels on water, which contributes to making floating solar installations about 25% more expensive than those on land.
1051:. The absorption factor of a PV cell is defined as the fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by the cell. When the sun is at the zenith on a cloudless day, the power of the sun is about 1
3924:
3168:
3524:. The traditional grid operates under the assumption of one-way, or radial, flow. But electricity injected into the grid increases voltage, and can drive levels outside the acceptable bandwidth of ±5%.
2046:
or curved mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto small but highly efficient solar cells. Besides concentrating optics, CPV systems sometime use solar trackers and cooling systems and are more expensive.
4247:
3867:
1302:. For high-concentration photovoltaic systems, dual axis tracking is a necessity. Pricing trends affect the balance between adding more stationary solar panels versus having fewer panels that track.
5761:
3883:
6373:
1759:
Year-to-year variability :;47.61 Changes in output due to:; Angle of incidence :;-2.68 Spectral effects :;0.88 Temperature and low irradiance :;-7.48 Total loss :;-21.88 PV electricity cost :;
8106:
525:
is fed into the transmission grid powered by central generation plants (grid-connected or grid-tied plant), or combined with one, or many, domestic electricity generators to feed into a small
2349:. In remote settings such as mountainous areas, islands, or other places where a power grid is unavailable, solar arrays can be used as the sole source of electricity, usually by charging a
694:
components of a PV system (BOS) balance the power-generating subsystem of the solar array (left side) with the power-using side of the AC-household devices and the utility grid (right side).
2480:
The table below shows the total (average) cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW
2180:
mounted on a structure that floats on a body of water, typically a reservoir or a lake such as drinking water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and tailing ponds.
483:
a sloped roof, while commercial systems may reach a megawatt-scale and are generally installed on low-slope or even flat roofs. Although rooftop mounted systems are small and have a higher
6246:
1012:), cleaning flat mounted solar panels after 15 months increased their output by almost 100%. However, 5° tilted arrays were adequately cleaned by rainwater. In many cases, especially in
4890:
2104:(hybrid PV/T), also known as photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors, convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. Such a system combines a solar (PV) module with a
933:
Effective module lives are typically 25 years or more. The payback period for an investment in a PV solar installation varies greatly and is typically less useful than a calculation of
882:
modules. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are linked together to form an array. Most PV arrays use an
574:
A small PV system is capable of providing enough AC electricity to power a single home, or an isolated device in the form of AC or DC electric. Military and civilian Earth observation
3730:
9194:
3026:
Generated kilowatt-hour per installed watt-peak, based on average insolation for Japan (1500 kWh/m/year), United States (5.0 to 5.5 kWh/m/day), and Germany (1000 to 1200 kWh/m/year).
2187:(PV) on land. Water surfaces may be less expensive than the cost of land, and there are fewer rules and regulations for structures built on bodies of water not used for recreation.
414:
is rapidly approaching the 200 GW mark – about 40 times the installed capacity in 2006. These systems currently contribute about 1 percent to worldwide electricity generation.
8009:
6023:
4056:
7753:
5091:
Drif, M.; Perez, P. J.; Aguilera, J.; Aguilar, J. D. (2008). "A new estimation method of irradiance on a partially shaded PV generator in grid-connected photovoltaic systems".
3195:(IEC) and apply to efficiency, durability and safety of cells, modules, simulation programs, plug connectors and cables, mounting systems, overall efficiency of inverters etc.
7383:
6761:
3280:
technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland, Australia, there have been more than 30% of households with rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The famous Californian 2020
3502:
Grid interconnection of photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems has the advantage of effective utilization of generated power because there are no storage losses involved.
7797:
Miller, Wendy; Liu, Lei Aaron; Amin, Zakaria; Gray, Matthew (2018). "Involving occupants in net-zero-energy solar housing retrofits: An Australian sub-tropical case study".
5891:
3624:
This method employs injecting some error in frequency or voltage. When grid fails, the error accumulates and pushes the voltage and/or frequency beyond the acceptable range.
7055:
5773:
914:. Typical panel ratings range from less than 100 watts to over 400 watts. The array rating consists of a summation of the panel ratings, in watts, kilowatts, or megawatts.
7658:
W. Miller, A. L. Liu, Z. Amin, and A. Wagner, "Power quality and rooftop-PV households: an examination of measured data at point of customer connection," Sustainability,
7542:
2206:
Floating arrays can achieve higher efficiencies than PV panels on land because water cools the panels. The panels can have a special coating to prevent rust or corrosion.
1367:
is connected at each solar panel. For safety reasons a circuit breaker is provided both on the AC and DC side to enable maintenance. AC output may be connected through an
6513:
6091:
169:
6439:
4081:
Bazilian, Morgan; Onyeji, Ijeoma; Liebreich, Michael; MacGill, Ian; Chase, Jennifer; Shah, Jigar; Gielen, Dolf; Arent, Doug; Landfear, Doug; Zhengrong, Shi (May 2013).
5028:
3229:(AHJ) will review designs and issue permits, before construction can lawfully begin. Electrical installation practices must comply with standards set forth within the
9171:
6469:
5848:
3577:
grid is no longer present. Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers, who may not realize that a circuit is still powered, even though there is no power from the
2238:
Geneva site feeds 600 V DC directly into the tram/trolleybus electricity network whereas before it provided about 15% of the electricity at its opening in 1999.
6487:
6267:
J. M. Pearce (2009). "Expanding Photovoltaic Penetration with Residential Distributed Generation from Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic + Combined Heat and Power Systems".
1748:
3030:
7619:
5661:
6710:
3935:
2089:
for state-owned utilities can be significant, the study also identified economic benefits to be insignificant or even negative for non-public utilities, such as
5954:
1711:) can be used to estimate total insolation for comparison. Data collected from a monitoring system can be displayed remotely over the World Wide Web, such as
4858:
4341:
698:
A photovoltaic system for residential, commercial, or industrial energy supply consists of the solar array and a number of components often summarized as the
2330:(DC) is consumed. In larger systems (e.g. buildings, remote water pumps) AC is usually required. To convert the DC from the modules or batteries into AC, an
6889:
6169:
7463:
4011:
2484:), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kW
6790:
3890:
4460:
960:
in series in the manufacture of a "laminate". The laminate is assembled into a protective weatherproof enclosure, thus making a photovoltaic module or
714:, an energy storage device, a racking system that supports the solar array, electrical wiring and interconnections, and mounting for other components.
415:
4330:
2004:
This section includes systems that are either highly specialized and uncommon or still an emerging new technology with limited significance. However,
625:
In urban and suburban areas, photovoltaic arrays are often used on rooftops to supplement power use; often the building will have a connection to the
8113:
2508:
The calculated values in the table reflect the total (average) cost in cents per kWh produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4%
5981:
3535:
nature means rapid changes in voltage. This not only wears out voltage regulators due to frequent adjusting, but also can result in voltage flicker.
7783:
7082:
5512:
Santbergen, R; R.J.C. van Zolingen (22 October 2007). "The absorption factor of crystalline silicon PV cells: A numerical and experimental study".
3286:
5042:
7727:
5417:
2018 IEEE 7th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (WCPEC) (A Joint Conference of 45th IEEE PVSC, 28th PVSEC & 34th EU PVSEC)
1707:
may measure the total energy production of a PV array system. Separate measures such as satellite image analysis or a solar radiation meter (a
7439:
6736:
4887:
2314:, the generated power is stored and buffered with a battery. In non-portable applications where weight is not an issue, such as in buildings,
9041:
8718:
5968:
5913:
3581:. For that reason, distributed generators must detect islanding and immediately stop producing power; this is referred to as anti-islanding.
965:
5825:
7283:{\displaystyle p={\frac {I\cdot (1+i)+\sum _{t=0}^{T}{\frac {I\cdot b}{(1+i)^{t}}}}{\sum _{t=0}^{T}{\frac {E\cdot (1-v)^{t}}{(1+i)^{t}}}}}}
5906:
955:
270:
only encompasses the solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often summarized as the
5941:
4487:"Improved parametric empirical determination of module short circuit current for modelling and optimization of solar photovoltaic systems"
4134:
1096:
Modules are assembled into arrays on some kind of mounting system, which may be classified as ground mount, roof mount or pole mount. For
8687:
8523:
8020:
4624:"A new method to determine the effects of hydrodynamic surface coatings on the snow shedding effectiveness of solar photovoltaic modules"
2101:
403:
from large-scale PV systems has become competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions, and
297:, PV systems have evolved from niche market applications into a mature technology used for mainstream electricity generation. Due to the
7866:
7415:
6381:
6340:
M. Mostofi, A. H. Nosrat, and J. M. Pearce, "Institutional-Scale Operational Symbiosis of Photovoltaic and Cogeneration Energy Systems"
6027:
4355:
4290:
4049:
3054:(LCOE), reducing its cost per kWh by 32.6% for every doubling of capacity. From the data of LCOE and cumulative installed capacity from
8396:
5679:
3797:
3246:
832:
7761:
6816:
5790:
5249:
Ilse K, Micheli L, Figgis BW, Lange K, Dassler D, Hanifi H, Wolfertstetter F, Naumann V, Hagendorf C, Gottschalg R, Bagdahn J (2019).
3355:. When conditions are right, the grid-connected PV system supplies the excess power, beyond consumption by the connected load, to the
2057:) that does not use photovoltaics. Both technologies favor locations that receive much sunlight and directly compete with each other.
3192:
1194:
1185:
radiation and extremely high temperature fluctuations and are generally unaffected by the weather. Standards specifying the usage of
93:
7391:
6769:
6071:
8858:
6865:
782:
436:
335:
5880:
4662:
4533:
3063:
8825:
8820:
8154:
7059:
5864:
4119:
1016:
regions, or in locations in close proximity to deserts, roads, industry, or agriculture, regular cleaning of the solar panels is
7546:
2085:
island in Greece are notable examples (both are combined with wind). The Kythnos plant has reduced diesel consumption by 11.2%.
334:. It comprises the solar array and the balance of system components. PV systems can be categorized by various aspects, such as,
8565:
5698:
5066:
3852:
3540:
3388:
2488:
by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW
2111:
938:
6509:
6088:
5380:"Regional and National Scale Spatial Variability of Photovoltaic Cover Plate Soiling and Subsequent Solar Transmission Losses"
1298:, the added maintenance of tracking is a substantial detriment. Tracking is not required for flat panel and low-concentration
6148:
5536:
5432:
4556:
3055:
9176:
7310:
7012:
6328:
9203:
5621:
5304:
5208:
5161:
4152:
3430:
2221:
2125:
CPV/CSP system is a proposed novel solar hybrid system, combining concentrator photovoltaics with the non-PV technology of
1560:
Although still expensive, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night.
1306:
growth of 32 percent year-over-year, with similar or greater growth projected as large-scale solar deployment accelerates.
1142:
467:
7634:
2220:
The costs for a floating system are about 10-20% higher than for ground-mounted systems. According to a researcher at the
1239:
Specific performance requirements for material used for wiring a solar panel installation are given in national and local
1032:
869:, normally wired in series, are encapsulated in a solar module to protect them from the weather. The module consists of a
378:
in the U.S., which are less opposed to ground-mounted solar farms and cost-effectiveness is more emphasized by investors.
8863:
6981:
3792:
44:
8045:
Kaur, Gurkiran (2006). "Effects of distributed generation (DG) interconnections on protection of distribution feeders".
6840:
3967:"The Economic Viability of Battery Storage for Residential Solar Photovoltaic Systems - A Review and a Simulation Model"
3213:
can support the weight of the solar panels, that the electrical connections are safe, and that there are no fire risks.
1332:
Central inverter with AC and DC disconnects (on the side), monitoring gateway, transformer isolation and interactive LCD
8879:
8231:
5658:
5209:"Simple and low-cost method of planning for tree growth and lifetime effects on solar photovoltaic systems performance"
4422:
3817:
3383:
3348:
3320:
1295:
982:
Several methods have been developed to determine shading losses from trees to PV systems over both large regions using
937:. While it is typically calculated to be between 10 and 20 years, the financial payback period can be far shorter with
563:
554:
275:
141:
7357:
6971:"Comparing Photovoltaic (PV) Costs and Deployment Drivers in the Japanese and U.S. Residential and Commercial Markets"
3245:
code. Jurisdictions may require that equipment has been tested, certified, listed, and labeled by at least one of the
1004:
Sunlight can be absorbed by dust, snow, or other impurities at the surface of the module (collectively referred to as
346:
vs. centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted systems, tracking vs. fixed-tilt systems, and new constructed vs.
9007:
8942:
8884:
8381:
8062:
7037:
6245:. Frankfurt School – UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance. May 2015. Archived from
5475:"Analysis of degradation mechanisms of crystalline silicon PV modules after 12 years of operation in Southern Europe"
5147:
3715:
3671:
3456:
2214:
1660:
1580:
1168:
609:
279:
258:
PV systems convert light directly into electricity and are not to be confused with other solar technologies, such as
135:
7976:
7023:, quarterly figures from EUPD-Researchfor, data for years 2006–2008. Used exchange rate of 0.74 euro-cents per US$ .
5749:
3438:
1150:
706:" q.v. BOS-components include power-conditioning equipment and structures for mounting, typically one or more DC to
9012:
8775:
8256:
7984:
6414:"Kyocera, partners announce construction of the world's largest floating solar PV Plant in Hyogo prefecture, Japan"
4866:
2390:
2077:
generation serves to reduce the consumption of non renewable fuel. Hybrid systems are most often found on islands.
1538:, Total Market Share is greater than 100% because DC/DC converters are required to be paired with string inverters
6483:
6131:
5583:"The effect of spectral albedo on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic device performance"
5554:
5461:
1576:, as they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is high.
9026:
8533:
8391:
8272:
7962:
7459:
Regan Arndt and Ing Robert Puto. Basic Understanding of IEC Standard Testing For Photovoltaic Panels. Available:
7020:
5473:
Sánchez-Friera, Paula; Piliougine, Michel; Peláez, Javier; Carretero, Jesús; Sidrach De Cardona, Mariano (2011).
3653:
3037:
cost for a small PV system to be $ 0.16 (€0.12) rather than $ 0.22 per kilowatt-hour as shown in table (Germany).
1699:
828:
651:
371:
8209:
6630:
6395:
399:
for solar-generated electricity, have also greatly supported installations of PV systems in many countries. The
9151:
8977:
8503:
8297:
8246:
7593:
7460:
6225:"New study: Hybridising electricity grids with solar PV saves costs, especially benefits state-owned utilities"
4400:
3434:
2140:
1146:
662:
618:
184:
6329:"Optimizing Design of Household Scale Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic + Combined Heat and Power Systems for Ontario"
910:. Solar panels are typically measured under STC (standard test conditions) or PTC (PVUSA test conditions), in
8810:
3226:
3051:
2247:
400:
388:
7963:"International Guideline For The Certification Of Photovoltaic System Components and Grid-Connected Systems"
7938:
4308:
3347:, a power conditioning unit and grid connection equipment. They range from small residential and commercial
752:, or task-specific accessories designed to meet specialized requirements for a system owner. In addition, a
9097:
9077:
8457:
8216:
7368:
2323:
1632:
1391:
1283:
can improve solar panel efficiency for direct and angled light, somewhat reducing the benefit of tracking.
1079:
244:
7478:
6662:
Trapani, Kim; Redón Santafé, Miguel (2015). "A review of floating photovoltaic installations: 2007-2013".
4992:
Andresen, Bjarne; R. Stephen Berry (May 1977). "Thermodynamics in finite time. I. The step-Carnot cycle".
3222:
Additionally, many locales require the work to be performed under the guidance of a licensed electrician.
2505:
can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.
1244:
grounding (earthing) of solar power installations for electric shock protection and lightning protection.
470:. Feeding electricity into the grid requires the transformation of DC into AC by a special, synchronizing
8987:
8462:
8147:
6117:
5988:
3578:
1675:, storage is needed to allow power generation whenever it is available, and consumption whenever needed.
722:
350:
systems. Other distinctions may include, systems with microinverters vs. central inverter, systems using
255:
that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems.
159:
17:
7079:
1698:
Photovoltaic systems need to be monitored to detect breakdown and optimize operation. There are several
657:
of irradiation in the plane of the array, 3% for power rating of modules, 2% for losses due to dirt and
8997:
8850:
8839:
8713:
8560:
8518:
8498:
5715:
Al-Mohamad, Ali (2004). "Efficiency improvements of photo-voltaic panels using a Sun-tracking system".
3807:
3532:
3371:
3352:
3250:
2513:
2307:
2090:
2070:
2018:
1588:
1569:
1299:
1275:
1055:/m, on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can
753:
741:
514:
497:
424:
366:
283:
148:
7673:
6536:
5046:
3499:
Grid-connected PV systems are comparatively easier to install as they do not require a battery system.
1294:
For large systems, the energy gained by using tracking systems can outweigh the added complexity. For
1020:. In 2018, the estimated soiling-induced revenue loss was estimated to between 5 and 7 billion euros.
8477:
8411:
8386:
8226:
6047:
4934:"Temperature coefficients of degraded crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules at outdoor conditions"
3750:
3262:
2119:
2027:
1672:
1601:
856:
848:
791:
361:
About 99 percent of all European and 90 percent of all U.S. solar power systems are connected to the
8092:
7917:
6583:
6289:
6058:
5077:
Kajihara, Atsushi, and A. T. Harakawa. "Model of photovoltaic cell circuits under partial shading."
2415:
1884:
If the price of energy is 0.5 €/Kwh then the cost of energy excluding taxes will be 1150€ per year:
1525:
data by IHS Markit 2020, remarks by Fraunhofer ISE 2020, from: Photovoltaics Report 2020, p. 39, PDF
8912:
8894:
8785:
8631:
8618:
8613:
8513:
5929:
5251:"Techno-Economic Assessment of Soiling Losses and Mitigation Strategies for Solar Power Generation"
3787:
3419:
3230:
2291:
2196:
2126:
2054:
2005:
1561:
1340:
String inverter (left), generation meter, and AC disconnect (right). A modern 2013 installation in
1131:
339:
287:
259:
7504:
5569:
102:
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than if it were angled. Second, direct light is used more efficiently than angled light. Special
1135:
718:
411:
298:
251:, and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. Many utility-scale PV systems use
6243:"Renewable Energy in Hybrid Mini-Grids and Isolated Grids: Economic Benefits and Business Cases"
5849:"Global Solar Tracker Shipments Grow 32% in 2017, NEXTracker Leads the Market | Greentech Media"
5162:"Incorporating shading losses in solar photovoltaic potential assessment at the municipal scale"
4403:. Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), a research institute of the University of Central Florida.
3648:
may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
3023:
Cost per watt for rooftop system in 2013: Japan $ 4.64, United States $ 4.92, and Germany $ 2.05
9218:
9180:
9140:
8982:
8952:
8917:
8904:
8790:
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8356:
8251:
8140:
6284:
6076:
Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference
4797:
4389:
Residential, Commercial, and Utility-Scale Photovoltaic (PV) System Prices in the United States
4131:
3767:
3720:
3570:
3506:
2386:
2358:
1628:
1605:
1005:
874:
658:
591:
522:
343:
3964:
3469:
Electric power from photovoltaic panels must be converted to alternating current by a special
2516:
of the capital outlay over 20 years). Normally, photovoltaic modules have a 25-year warranty.
8957:
8947:
8927:
8780:
8603:
8406:
8204:
7870:
7635:"Así queda la regulación del autoconsumo en España tras la eliminación del "impuesto al sol""
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4363:
4283:
3375:
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2331:
2188:
1584:
1555:
1089:
852:
534:
383:
216:
5676:
4024:
2213:
technology has grown rapidly since 2016. The first 20 plants with capacities of a few dozen
2122:(CPV) instead of conventional PV technology, and combines it with a solar thermal collector.
8992:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8937:
8932:
8447:
8376:
8221:
8189:
7806:
7685:
7568:
6929:
6331:, Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2009 34th IEEE, pp.1274–1279, 7–12 June 2009.
6276:
5794:
5774:
Beginners' Guide to Solar Trackers: How to Increase Output for Your Home Solar Panel System
5724:
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5594:
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5001:
4822:
4733:
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4094:
3978:
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3304:
2382:
1726:
1551:
1478:
1364:
1319:
1205:
and photovoltaic systems, and the US UL4703 standard, in subject 4703 "Photovoltaic Wire".
934:
824:
726:
596:
355:
263:
7836:
4786:
4775:
3848:"More than half of utility-scale solar photovoltaic systems track the sun through the day"
1228:
and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system. Solar cables are designed to be
423:
to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and
8:
8646:
8626:
8593:
8401:
8277:
8236:
7384:"Learning Curve Analysis: Solar PV to be the Cheapest Renewables in 2024 - Inspecro Blog"
5582:
5327:"Global reduction of solar power generation efficiency due to aerosols and panel soiling"
3725:
3315:
2299:
1668:
1609:
1592:
1349:
1336:
887:
863:
820:
787:
707:
351:
240:
35:
7810:
7689:
7346:
6933:
6918:"Electricity self-sufficiency of single-family houses in Germany and the Czech Republic"
6916:
Ramirez Camargo, Luis; Nitsch, Felix; Gruber, Katharina; Dorner, Wolfgang (2018-10-15).
6359:
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5728:
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4502:
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4168:
4098:
3982:
3847:
2450:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
342:
systems, building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs. utility systems,
8682:
8641:
8588:
8361:
8241:
8080:
8068:
7709:
6689:
6611:
6584:"The greenest solar power? Life cycle assessment of foam-based flexible floatovoltaics"
6564:
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6185:
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5438:
5354:
5189:
4953:
4757:
4685:
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4514:
4190:
3521:
2468:
2370:
1620:, a rechargeable lithium-ion battery with the aim to revolutionize energy consumption.
1498:
1084:
968:
has created a cell that can reach 44.7% efficiency using the equivalent of "297 suns".
878:
844:
441:
8107:"Grid-interactive Solar Inverters and Their Impact on Power System Safety and Quality"
5861:
4971:
1197:, in section 712 "Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems", the British Standard
82:
8708:
8703:
8636:
8432:
8371:
8302:
8292:
8058:
7985:"Challenges for Distribution Feeder Voltage Regulation with Increasing Amounts of PV"
7777:
7713:
7701:
7008:"History of average turn-key prices for rooftop PV systems up to 100 kWp in Germany.
6947:
6883:
6638:
6615:
6603:
6568:
6556:
6314:
6200:
6163:
5836:
5532:
5428:
5358:
5143:
4957:
4761:
4749:
4552:
4340:. International Energy Agency — Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 30 March 2015.
3966:
3610:
3297:
3290:
3058:
from 2010 to 2017, the learning curve equation for photovoltaic systems is given as
2315:
2257:
1763:
1624:
1617:
1368:
1186:
1110:
903:
836:
699:
691:
587:
506:
471:
271:
129:
8072:
6762:"BayWa r.e. adds to European floating solar momentum with double project completion"
6693:
5955:"Tesla launches Powerwall home battery with aim to revolutionize energy consumption"
5695:
5498:
5442:
5193:
4721:
4689:
4663:"Impact of Snow and Ground Interference on Photovoltaic Electric System Performance"
4566:
4518:
4423:
Army evaluating transportable solar-powered tents | Article | The United States Army
4194:
894:, motors, and other loads. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in
73:
8765:
8749:
8733:
8723:
8194:
8050:
7892:
7837:"PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF 3.6 KW ROOFTOP GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM IN EGYP"
7814:
7693:
7334:
7298:
6942:
6937:
6917:
6679:
6671:
6595:
6548:
6302:
6294:
5736:
5732:
5641:
5602:
5486:
5420:
5391:
5346:
5326:
5280:
5270:
5228:
5181:
5108:
5009:
4945:
4838:
4830:
4741:
4677:
4643:
4604:
4544:
4506:
4229:
4180:
4172:
4102:
3986:
3812:
3757:
3745:
3574:
2210:
2177:
2136:
2132:
1597:
1217:
1044:
907:
840:
745:
703:
538:
314:
165:
7818:
6537:"Distributed manufacturing of after market flexible floating photovoltaic modules"
5606:
5232:
5185:
4608:
4510:
3965:
Joern Hoppmann; Jonas Volland; Tobias S. Schmidt; Volker H. Hoffmann (July 2014).
3609:
The voltage and/or the frequency change during the grid failure is measured and a
2411:
614:
282:
systems with capacities ranging from a few to several tens of kilowatts to large,
8677:
8608:
7467:
7314:
7086:
7016:
7009:
6298:
6135:
6095:
5868:
5814:
5702:
5683:
5665:
5645:
5558:
5396:
5379:
5112:
4894:
4681:
4647:
4623:
4584:
4486:
4138:
4106:
3238:
2426:
History of solar rooftop prices 2006–2013. Comparison in US$ per installed watt.
2354:
2350:
2295:
2192:
2023:
1649:
1565:
1503:
1472:€0.04 per watt-peak. High reliability. Often sold along with a service contract.
1280:
1240:
1202:
895:
730:
526:
396:
362:
327:
9199:
6348:
5275:
5250:
4435:
4233:
2524:
depending on solar radiation and installation cost during 20 years of operation
798:
9087:
9062:
8728:
8580:
8482:
8472:
8442:
8199:
7697:
7058:. European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA). 2011-09-01. Archived from
6552:
5412:
4834:
4745:
4176:
3990:
3595:
3492:
3470:
3344:
2502:
2327:
2173:
2158:
1530:: best efficiencies displayed, market-share and cost per watt are estimated, kW
1401:
1372:
1360:
1353:
1323:
1315:
1017:
926:
is about a square meter in size. Such a module may be expected to produce 0.75
883:
870:
711:
675:
451:
236:
232:
125:
7674:"A review of the value of solar methodology with a case study of the U.S. VOS"
6970:
6011:
5424:
5350:
5079:
Industrial Technology, 2005. ICIT 2005. IEEE International Conference on. IEEE
4548:
4388:
4209:
3010:
Small rooftop system cost and average insolation applied to data table in 2013
1181:
Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are designed to be resistant against
9212:
8672:
8662:
8575:
8467:
8184:
8163:
8054:
7705:
6951:
6903:
6711:"Floating Solar Panels Turn Old Industrial Sites Into Green Energy Goldmines"
6642:
6607:
6560:
6204:
5026:
5013:
4810:
4753:
4534:"Prediction of energy effects on photovoltaic systems due to snowfall events"
3827:
3772:
3735:
3707:
3528:
3234:
3176:
Capacity : cumulative installed capacity of photovoltaic systems (in MW)
2509:
2184:
1678:
1518:€0.08 per watt-peak. Ease-of-replacement concerns. Inverter is still needed.
1270:
1263:
1253:
1056:
927:
737:
579:
559:
518:
484:
450:
production is calculated independently of the customer's energy consumption (
294:
252:
224:
155:
53:
7491:
Building Regulations Requirements for Non-Domestic Rooftop Solar PV - GB NRG
7461:
http://tuvamerica.com/services/photovoltaics/ArticleBasicUnderstandingPV.pdf
6186:"Large scale integration of renewable electricity production into the grids"
1752:
629:, in which case the energy produced by the PV array can be sold back to the
541:
cover tens or hundreds of hectares and have power outputs up to hundreds of
9117:
9072:
8805:
7033:
6582:
Hayibo, Koami Soulemane; Mayville, Pierce; Pearce, Joshua M. (2022-03-01).
6440:"Running Out of Precious Land? Floating Solar PV Systems May Be a Solution"
6128:
4931:
3822:
3590:
3488:
3367:
3356:
3336:
2144:
2043:
1645:
1613:
1600:
Other rechargeable batteries considered for distributed PV systems include
1225:
1221:
807:
757:
639:
634:
583:
455:
392:
323:
7659:
6106:
4932:
Piliougine, M.; Oukaja, A.; Sidrach-De-Cardona, M.; Spagnuolo, G. (2021).
4661:
Heidari, Negin; Gwamuri, Jephias; Townsend, Tim; Pearce, Joshua M (2015).
2539:
annually generated kilowatt-hours per installed kW-capacity (kWh/(kWp•y))
1352:(AC), such as grid-connected applications need an inverter to convert the
1328:
9112:
9082:
9057:
8815:
8452:
8427:
5285:
3740:
3340:
3332:
3242:
2498:
2338:
2203:
eq/MWh) in crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic technologies reported.
1708:
1704:
1653:
1208:
996:
987:
961:
717:
Optionally, a balance of system may include any or all of the following:
671:
667:
521:
and capable of providing an energy supply to large numbers of consumers.
420:
404:
347:
331:
248:
228:
220:
111:
7844:
International Conference on Energy Systems and Technologies (ICEST 2011)
5762:
Reflective Coating Silicon Solar Cells Boosts Absorption Over 96 Percent
3552:
3331:
A grid-connected photovoltaic system, or grid-connected PV system is an
8598:
8570:
8348:
6684:
6599:
5551:
5472:
5300:
3762:
3281:
2536:
2493:
2473:
2311:
1573:
1288:
1097:
1037:
949:
866:
803:
749:
626:
530:
27:
Power system designed to supply usable electric power from solar energy
7893:"Homeowners Guide to Financing a Grid-Connected Solar Electric System"
7021:
Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft e.V. (BSW-Solar), September 2009, page 4
6737:"Floating solar going global with 10GW more by 2025: Fitch | Recharge"
4722:"Advances in solar photovoltaics: Technology review and patent trends"
2410:
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on
2176:
or floating photovoltaics (FPV), sometimes called floatovoltaics, are
2065:
8889:
8795:
8667:
6675:
6535:
Mayville, Pierce; Patil, Neha Vijay; Pearce, Joshua M. (2020-12-01).
6306:
5490:
4949:
4185:
3566:
3561:
3475:
2280:
2273:
2264:
2031:
1535:
1190:
1048:
923:
777:
575:
502:
191:
176:
7620:"Spain and Portugal Lead the Way on Renewable Energy Transformation"
6069:
5620:
Brennan, M.P.; Abramase, A.L.; Andrews, R.W.; Pearce, J. M. (2014).
3687:
3408:
1120:
686:
590:
may contain integrated photovoltaic systems to provide a primary or
9102:
9092:
9067:
7569:"Solar does work within HOAs, but installers have to stay vigilant"
5474:
5027:
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (23 September 2013).
4933:
4120:
US Solar Market Grew 41%, Had Record Year in 2013 | Greentech Media
3934:. EPIA - European Photovoltaic Industry Association. Archived from
2318:
are most commonly used for their low cost and tolerance for abuse.
2078:
1579:
Common battery technologies used in today's PV systems include the
1377:
1052:
990:
765:
542:
64:
6841:"How Floating Solar Panels Are Being Used to Power Electric Grids"
3731:
List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources
3298:
Implications for electricity bill management and energy investment
1686:
The two variables a grid operator has are storing electricity for
9107:
7751:
6915:
3782:
3701:
2082:
1996:
having the battery a life of 10 years and the panels 25–30 years
1363:
may connect to a string of solar panels. In some installations a
1341:
1258:
1233:
1198:
1009:
899:
811:
630:
375:
227:. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including
9172:
Summary of Photovoltaic Wire Requirements as Outlined in UL 4703
8132:
6510:"Short Of Land, Singapore Opts For Floating Solar Power Systems"
5926:
5901:
5899:
4012:
Solar Energy Storage About To Take Off In Germany and California
2467:
The cost of producing photovoltaic cells has dropped because of
370:
produced in China and Taiwan, only 5 percent by European and US-
6012:
Integrating Variable Renewable Energy in Electric Power Markets
5764:. Scientificblogging.com (2008-11-03). Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
4897:. Renewable Energy World (2010-04-19). Retrieved on 2012-10-01.
4811:"Energy losses in photovoltaic generators due to wind patterns"
4289:. Deutsche Bank Markets Research. 27 February 2015. p. 9.
3324:
1236:
resistant. They can be used within a large temperature range.
1066:
1061:
567:
4798:
List of Eligible SB1 Guidelines Compliant Photovoltaic Modules
4153:"A Review of Solar Photovoltaic Levelized Cost of Electricity"
4130:
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21),
4080:
3652:
Please help by removing excessive detail that may be against
3050:
Photovoltaic systems demonstrate a learning curve in terms of
2298:. Standalone systems vary widely in size and application from
956:
Copper in renewable energy#Solar photovoltaic power generation
382:
America with 440,000 systems in the United States. The energy
7835:
Elhodeiby, A.S.; Metwally, H.M.B; Farahat, M.A (March 2011).
6342:
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
5982:"Residential Photovoltaic Metering and Interconnection Study"
5896:
5511:
4248:"Levelized Cost of Electricity—Renewable Energy Technologies"
2165:
1712:
983:
891:
427:
contributing 16% and 11% to the global demand, respectively.
9189:
7728:"Your Neighbor's Solar Panels Are Secretly Saving You Money"
6070:
Pearce, Joshua. M; Adegboyega Babasola; Rob Andrews (2012).
5619:
4706:
Forging Ahead: Technology Development and Emerging Economies
4660:
4583:
Andrews, Rob W.; Pollard, Andrew; Pearce, Joshua M. (2013).
3233:(NEC) and be inspected by the AHJ to ensure compliance with
3163:{\displaystyle LCOE_{photovoltaic}=151.46\,Capacity^{-0.57}}
458:). These systems vary in size from residential (2–10 kW
7918:"Grid Connected Solar Electric - Photovoltaic (PV) Systems"
4585:"The Effects of Snowfall on Solar Photovoltaic Performance"
4323:
3034:
2342:
1623:
PV systems with an integrated battery solution also need a
1088:
A 23-year-old ground mounted PV system from the 1980s on a
1013:
911:
877:, a rear backsheet made of a weathering and fire-resistant
734:
318:
Diagram of the possible components of a photovoltaic system
6466:"Vikram Solar commissions India's first floating PV plant"
5622:"Effects of spectral albedo on solar photovoltaic devices"
4622:
Andrews, Rob W; Pollard, Andrew; Pearce, Joshua M (2013).
4485:
Andrews, Rob W; Pollard, Andrew; Pearce, Joshua M (2012).
3602:
There are two types of anti-islanding control techniques:
3335:
generating solar PV power system that is connected to the
1616:
battery, respectively. In 2015, Tesla Motors launched the
1092:, Germany. The modules conversion efficiency was only 12%.
9184:
7672:
Hayibo, Koami Soulemane; Pearce, Joshua M. (2021-03-01).
3573:
continues to power a location even though power from the
2379:
Median installed system prices for residential PV Systems
1384:) worth of PV modules, paired with one 10-kilowatt AC (kW
7990:. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy
7898:. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy
7855:
7834:
5090:
4991:
2522:
Cost of generated kilowatt-hour by a PV system (US¢/kWh)
2191:
indicates that foam-based FPV have some of the shortest
6965:
6963:
6961:
6791:"Long popular in Asia, floating solar catches on in US"
6183:
2492:. This varies by geographic region because the average
2310:. If the load is to be supplied independently of solar
1229:
1182:
7752:
L. Liu, W. Miller, and G. Ledwich (October 27, 2017).
7004:
7002:
6817:"Buoyant racking turns water into an ideal solar site"
5248:
3599:
buildings that normally sell their power to the grid.
3173:
LCOE : levelized cost of electricity (in USD/kWh)
7594:"The Ins and Outs of Solar Panels In HOA Communities"
7500:
7498:
7102:
7056:"Solar photovoltaics: Competing in the energy sector"
6705:
6703:
4461:"PSE&G completes utility-pole solar installation"
3878:
3876:
3310:
3066:
2341:
settings, the array may be used to directly power DC
1729:
886:
to convert the DC power produced by the modules into
6958:
6664:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
6661:
6581:
5479:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
4938:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
4888:
The Worst Metric in Renewables: 'The Payback Period'
4621:
4582:
4484:
4083:"Re-considering the economics of photovoltaic power"
4044:
4042:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4034:
3683:
1718:
1631:. More advanced charge controllers will incorporate
8047:
2006 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting
7754:"Solutions for reducing facility electricity costs"
6999:
6534:
6416:. SolarServer.com. 4 September 2014. Archived from
5206:
4276:
4150:
3925:"Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2014-2018"
3919:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3911:
2129:(CSP), or also known as concentrated solar thermal.
1492:€0.29 per watt-peak. Ease-of-replacement concerns.
1287:the evening, the correct measure of solar power is
293:Operating silently and without any moving parts or
231:to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a
7495:
7282:
6808:
6783:
6700:
6655:
6528:
6468:. SolarServer.com. 13 January 2015. Archived from
4541:2012 38th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
4151:Branker, K.; Pathak, M.J.M.; Pearce, J.M. (2011).
3873:
3846:Hoff, Sara; DeVilbiss, Jonathan (April 24, 2017).
3162:
2118:(CPVT) system is similar to a PVT system. It uses
1742:
7796:
7303:
5324:
4425:. Army.mil (2010-12-08). Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
4031:
3556:Diagram of a residential grid-connected PV system
3391:are paid from the grid operator to the consumer.
445:Schematics of an AC coupled residential PV system
9210:
6888:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
6631:"New Solar Plants Generate Floating Green Power"
6168:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
3908:
3274:
1452:Cost €0.05-0.17 per watt-peak. Easy to replace.
548:
286:of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, off-grid or
8849:
7010:photovoltaik-guide.de, pv-preisindex since 2009
6541:Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments
6484:"Sunflower Floating Solar Power Plant In Korea"
5892:Services and Solutions for Photovoltaic Systems
5029:"World Record Solar Cell with 44.7% Efficiency"
3884:"Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy"
1583: – a modified version of the conventional
986:, but also at an individual system level using
902:; the individual strings are then connected in
395:and financial incentives, such as preferential
8010:"MIT Study on the Future of the Electric Grid"
7369:Map-Photovoltaic Resource of the United States
6871:. Archived from the original on March 18, 2009
6374:"What Is a Photovoltaic Diesel Hybrid System?"
6227:. SolarServer.com. 31 May 2015. Archived from
6072:"Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization"
3960:
3958:
3956:
1212:Weatherproof connectors on a solar panel cable
952:(typically ca. 0.5V), several cells are wired
9042:List of countries by photovoltaics production
8719:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
8148:
6347:(1), pp. 31–44, 2011. Available open access:
6151:. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011
5930:All About Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
5914:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
5580:
5404:
4531:
4356:"Photovoltaic... Cell, Module, String, Array"
3845:
3056:International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
1723:Knowing the annual energy consumption in Kwh
1047:is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected
966:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
7782:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7671:
7032:
6360:A novel solar CPV/CSP hybrid system proposed
6266:
5159:
4257:. Fraunhofer ISE. November 2013. p. 4.
4025:"Solar Panels and Battery Storage: The Rise"
1224:power generation. Solar cables interconnect
8524:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
8112:. eng.wayne.edu. p. 30. Archived from
7869:. Acmepoint Energy Services. Archived from
7481:. Planning Portal. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
7038:"The End of the Nuclear Renaissance |"
6371:
5581:Andrews, Rob W.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2013).
5526:
5207:Dereli, Z; Yücedağ, C; Pearce, J.M (2013).
4525:
3953:
3437:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2294:or off-grid system is not connected to the
2169:Floating photovoltaic on an irrigation pond
1149:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
760:or mirrors and sometimes a cooling system.
462:) to solar power stations (up to tens of MW
290:account for a small portion of the market.
120:Photovoltaic power systems and components:
8397:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
8155:
8141:
6906:. Ecotourisme.ch. Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
6024:"Smart PV Inverter Benefits for Utilities"
5714:
5686:. Rredc.nrel.gov. Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
5462:Should you spring clean your solar panels?
5067:CPV Solar Cell Reach 27% System Efficiency
3798:List of rooftop photovoltaic installations
3247:Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories
1639:
175:Commercial rooftop PV system of about 400
7830:
7828:
6941:
6683:
6288:
6138:, Hybrid power station accessed 10 Feb 08
5871:. Homepower.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
5705:. Mecasolar.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
5659:Sahara's solar power potential underlined
5570:Stand Alone Photovoltaic Lighting Systems
5395:
5284:
5274:
4842:
4787:Key Factors in selecting solar components
4532:Andrews, Rob W; Pearce, Joshua M (2012).
4458:
4184:
3672:Learn how and when to remove this message
3457:Learn how and when to remove this message
3339:. A grid-connected PV system consists of
3193:International Electrotechnical Commission
3125:
2512:, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and
1753:https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/
1195:International Electrotechnical Commission
1169:Learn how and when to remove this message
917:
407:has been achieved in about 30 countries.
8859:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
7678:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
6980:. NREL.gov. June 2014. pp. 16, 27.
6396:"Hybrid Wind and Solar Electric Systems"
5881:Trend watch: Microinverters invade solar
5514:Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells
5043:"Concentrix Solar: Concentrator Modules"
4726:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4578:
4576:
4306:
4157:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
3971:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
3551:
3520:Grid-connected PV can cause issues with
3366:
3314:
3307:, onsite generation and energy storage.
2353:. Stand-alone systems closely relate to
2164:
2151:
2116:concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid
2064:
2022:
1677:
1335:
1327:
1257:
1207:
1201:, incorporating regulations relating to
1083:
1031:
1027:
995:
948:Due to the low voltage of an individual
797:
781:
685:
613:
558:
501:
440:
437:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
430:
313:
8826:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
8821:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
7660:http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/4/1224
7416:"Renewable Power Generation Costs 2017"
6741:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
6089:CSI—Metering and Performance Monitoring
5410:
5244:
5242:
5160:Nguyen, Ha T; Pearce, Joshua M (2012).
4908:"It's payback time for home generation"
4719:
4702:
4144:
3198:
454:) or only on the difference of energy (
172:solar power station, as seen from space
14:
9211:
7825:
7517:"Requirements for Solar Installations"
7434:
7432:
7410:
7408:
7378:
7376:
7019:, using month of January figures, and
6759:
6734:
5942:Solar power anti-islanding and control
5626:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
5413:"Local Variability in PV Soiling Rate"
4628:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
3853:U.S. Energy Information Administration
2228:
2135:combines a photovoltaic system with a
1070:of the world's power plants combined.
823:(c-Si), the second generation (2G) of
603:
8136:
7447:International Renewable Energy Agency
7423:International Renewable Energy Agency
6987:from the original on 27 February 2015
6628:
6446:from the original on 26 December 2014
6174:. Pellworm island website (in German)
5377:
5371:
4808:
4709:. Universität Bremen. pp. 41–46.
4573:
2183:The systems can have advantages over
2038:Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and
1965:which are amortized over 5.46 years:
1216:A solar cable is the interconnection
764:"solar system" is also an often used
702:(BOS). This term is synonymous with "
9204:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
9147:
8044:
7955:
7939:"Grid-connected photovoltaic system"
7617:
7440:"Renewable Capacity Statistics 2018"
7358:Understanding Solar Panel Warrantees
6894:. International Energy Agency (2001)
6814:
6442:. EnergyWorld.com. 7 November 2013.
6184:Darul'a, Ivan; Stefan Marko (2007).
5325:Li X, Mauzerall D, Bergin M (2020).
5305:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
5293:
5239:
5132:
4207:
4132:Renewables 2010 Global Status Report
3632:
3435:adding citations to reliable sources
3402:
2430:
2396:
2364:
2222:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1690:it is needed, or transmitting it to
1608:batteries, two prominent types of a
1371:into the public grid. The number of
1147:adding citations to reliable sources
1114:
906:to allow the system to produce more
843:), and the third generation (3G) of
468:decentralized electricity generation
330:, in the form of light, into usable
274:(BOS). PV systems range from small,
8864:List of photovoltaic power stations
7982:
7633:Jiménez, Javiier (8 October 2018).
7429:
7405:
7373:
6486:. CleanTechnica. 21 December 2014.
5837:Should You Install a Solar Tracker?
5752:. mtu.edu. Retrieved on 2018-04-25.
4296:from the original on 30 March 2015.
4264:from the original on 24 August 2014
3793:List of photovoltaic power stations
2477:produce at comparably lower costs.
973:
24:
8880:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
8283:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
8232:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
7337:. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-04-23.
7335:PV operation and maintenance costs
6735:Hopson, Christopher (2020-10-15).
6516:from the original on 14 March 2016
5750:Shining More Light on Solar Panels
5318:
4720:Shubbak, Mahmood H. (2019-11-01).
4713:
4344:from the original on 7 April 2015.
4062:from the original on 9 August 2014
3818:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
3311:Grid-connected photovoltaic system
3185:
1572:, and play an important role in a
1409:Inverter/Converter market in 2019
582:, construction and traffic signs,
555:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
477:
266:, used for heating and cooling. A
25:
9230:
9165:
8885:Building-integrated photovoltaics
8382:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
8288:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
8162:
7598:Homeowners Protection Bureau, LLC
6193:Journal of Electrical Engineering
5301:"Photovoltaic Module Soiling Map"
4815:Nature Communications Engineering
4331:"Snapshot of Global PV 1992-2014"
4210:"Reconsidering solar grid parity"
4074:
3716:Building-integrated photovoltaics
3584:
3527:Grid-connected PV can compromise
3203:
3045:
2050:and development is taking place.
1719:Sizing of the photovoltaic system
1581:valve regulated lead-acid battery
610:Building-integrated photovoltaics
9146:
9135:
9134:
8257:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
8099:
8038:
8002:
7931:
7910:
7885:
7859:
7790:
7745:
7720:
7665:
7652:
7626:
7611:
7586:
7561:
7535:
7509:
7484:
7472:
7453:
7362:
7351:
7340:
7328:
7292:
7091:
7073:
7048:
7026:
6909:
6897:
6866:"Innovative Electrical Concepts"
6858:
6833:
6760:Martín, José Rojo (2019-10-27).
6753:
6728:
6622:
6575:
6502:
6490:from the original on 15 May 2016
6476:
6458:
6432:
6406:
6388:
6365:
6352:
6334:
5957:. Associated Press. May 1, 2015.
5916:. 16 September 2020. p. 39.
5826:Utility Scale Solar Power Plants
5815:10 years Average Insolation Data
5527:El-Sharkawi, Mohamed A. (2005).
5140:Solar Technologies for Buildings
5127:Photovoltaic systems engineering
4863:Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
4859:"Solar Power (Photovoltaic, PV)"
4338:www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=32
4055:. Fraunhofer ISE. 28 July 2014.
3700:
3686:
3637:
3514:
3407:
3253:from restricting solar devices.
3216:
2435:
2401:
2272:
2256:
2157:This section is an excerpt from
2053:CPV is often confused with CSP (
1999:
1119:
710:power converters, also known as
491:
304:
194:, Germany's highest mountain-top
110:
101:
92:
81:
72:
63:
52:
43:
34:
8392:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
8273:List of semiconductor materials
7080:A Comparison of PV Technologies
6372:Amanda Cain (22 January 2014).
6321:
6260:
6235:
6217:
6177:
6141:
6122:
6111:
6100:
6082:
6063:
6052:
6041:
6016:
6005:
5974:
5969:Charge Controller Buyer's Guide
5961:
5947:
5934:
5920:
5885:
5874:
5855:
5841:
5830:
5819:
5808:
5783:
5767:
5755:
5743:
5708:
5689:
5670:
5652:
5613:
5574:
5563:
5545:
5520:
5505:
5466:
5455:
5411:Gostein M, et al. (2018).
5200:
5153:
5119:
5084:
5071:
5060:
5035:
5020:
4985:
4964:
4925:
4900:
4881:
4851:
4802:
4791:
4780:
4768:
4696:
4654:
4615:
4478:
4459:MacKenzie, Pam (July 1, 2014).
4452:
4428:
4416:
4406:
4394:
4381:
4348:
4309:"The Solar Singularity Is Nigh"
4300:
4240:
4201:
4124:
4113:
3505:A photovoltaic power system is
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2703:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2654:
2651:
2648:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2527:
1562:Batteries used for grid-storage
652:Photovoltaic system performance
391:decreases to one year or less.
138:on balcony in Helsinki, Finland
9185:Center for Sustainable Systems
8504:Incremental conductance method
8298:Copper indium gallium selenide
8247:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
7265:
7252:
7241:
7228:
7184:
7171:
7130:
7118:
6943:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.06.118
6588:Sustainable Energy & Fuels
6327:P. Derewonko and J.M. Pearce,
5737:10.1016/j.apenergy.2003.12.004
4972:"Solar Panel Comparison Table"
4017:
4004:
3860:
3839:
3319:A grid-connected, residential
3269:
2371:Photovoltaics § Economics
2199:to energy ratio (11 kg CO
2040:high concentrator photovoltaic
1000:Cleaning a photovoltaic system
873:as cover, a soft and flexible
771:
663:Open Solar Outdoors Test Field
645:
13:
1:
9177:Photovoltaic Energy Factsheet
8811:South African Solar Challenge
7819:10.1016/j.solener.2017.10.008
7618:Hunt, Tam (7 February 2011).
7543:"California Solar Rights Act"
6512:. CleanTechnica. 5 May 2014.
6059:Solar Irradiance Measurements
5927:http://www.solar-electric.com
5607:10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030
5531:. CRC Press. pp. 87–88.
5384:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
5378:Boyle L, et al. (2017).
5233:10.1016/j.solener.2013.06.019
5186:10.1016/j.solener.2012.01.017
4670:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
4609:10.1016/j.solener.2013.02.014
4511:10.1016/j.solener.2012.04.016
3868:Levelized Cost of Electricity
3833:
3481:
3275:Impact on electricity network
3227:Authority Having Jurisdiction
3180:
3052:levelized cost of electricity
2248:Applications of photovoltaics
2241:
786:Fixed tilt solar array in of
681:
549:Rooftop, mobile, and portable
412:fast-growing global PV market
401:levelised cost of electricity
8458:Photovoltaic mounting system
7390:. 2018-05-05. Archived from
6299:10.1016/j.energy.2009.08.012
5967:Dan Fink, www.homepower.com
5791:"Insolation Levels (Europe)"
5646:10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046
5552:Optimum Tilt of Solar Panels
5397:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2017.2731939
5113:10.1016/j.renene.2007.12.010
4682:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2466448
4648:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.01.032
4107:10.1016/j.renene.2012.11.029
3654:Knowledge's inclusion policy
3569:is the condition in which a
3547:
3382:Residential, grid-connected
3362:
2263:An isolated mountain hut in
1682:A Canadian electricity meter
1514:
1511:
1488:
1485:
1468:
1465:
1448:
1445:
1392:Maximum power point tracking
1348:Systems designed to deliver
1080:Photovoltaic mounting system
416:Top installers of PV systems
358:, and systems with modules.
284:utility-scale power stations
7:
8463:Maximum power point tracker
7867:"Grid Connected PV Systems"
7662:(Open Access), p. 29, 2018.
7632:
6629:Goode, Erica (2016-05-20).
5276:10.1016/j.joule.2019.08.019
4234:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.03.013
3889:. IEA. 2014. Archived from
3870:Study, November 2013, p. 19
3628:
3398:
3031:study by the Fraunhofer ISE
2218:covered with solar panels.
2195:(1.3 years) and the lowest
2091:independent power producers
2071:wind-solar PV hybrid system
1659:installations over 30
1309:
1073:
723:maximum power point tracker
586:, solar-powered tents, and
309:
235:to convert the output from
10:
9235:
8714:Solar panels on spacecraft
8561:Solar-powered refrigerator
8519:Concentrated photovoltaics
8499:Perturb and observe method
8278:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
7698:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110599
6815:Ludt, Billy (2023-01-20).
6553:10.1016/j.seta.2020.100830
4835:10.1038/s44172-023-00119-7
4746:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109383
4177:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104
3991:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.068
3808:Photovoltaic power station
3559:
3372:Photovoltaic power station
3263:Spain generates around 40%
2988:
2521:
2368:
2345:, without the need for an
2245:
2156:
2120:concentrated photovoltaics
2019:Concentrator photovoltaics
2016:
1643:
1549:
1545:
1313:
1276:concentrated photovoltaics
1251:
1247:
1189:in PV systems include the
1108:
1104:
1077:
945:temperature coefficients.
775:
742:energy management software
649:
621:wall near Barcelona, Spain
607:
552:
498:Photovoltaic power station
495:
434:
425:concentrated solar thermal
326:system converts the Sun's
219:designed to supply usable
9130:
9050:
9034:
9025:
8903:
8872:
8838:
8758:
8742:
8696:
8655:
8553:
8546:
8491:
8420:
8412:Heterojunction solar cell
8387:Dye-sensitized solar cell
8347:
8336:
8311:
8265:
8227:Multi-junction solar cell
8217:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
8177:
8170:
7622:. Renewable Energy World.
5862:Grid-Tied Inverter Safety
5425:10.1109/PVSC.2018.8548049
5351:10.1038/s41893-020-0553-2
4703:Shubbak, Mahmood (2018).
4549:10.1109/PVSC.2012.6318297
4307:Tam Hunt (9 March 2015).
3751:Variable renewable energy
3589:In the case of a utility
2535:
2528:
2444:This section needs to be
2143:are possible and include
2060:
2028:Concentrator photovoltaic
1673:variable renewable energy
1522:
821:crystalline silicon cells
792:Canterbury, New Hampshire
9195:Solar project management
8895:Strasskirchen Solar Park
8786:American Solar Challenge
8632:Solar-powered flashlight
8619:Solar-powered calculator
8614:Solar cell phone charger
8303:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
8055:10.1109/PES.2006.1709551
7758:Australian Ageing Agenda
7311:"PV price index Germany"
6378:RenewableEnergyWorld.com
6048:Enphase Solar Monitoring
5696:Technological advantages
5677:A Performance Calculator
5014:10.1103/PhysRevA.15.2086
4141:, Paris, 2010, pp. 1–80.
3788:Energy demand management
3256:
3251:homeowners' associations
3231:National Electrical Code
2197:greenhouse gas emissions
2127:concentrated solar power
2055:concentrated solar power
1967:
1915:
1886:
1852:
1769:
1281:anti-reflective coatings
260:concentrated solar power
144:in Boston, United States
8801:Frisian Solar Challenge
8771:List of solar car teams
8529:Space-based solar power
8509:Constant voltage method
8438:Solar charge controller
8324:Timeline of solar cells
8319:Growth of photovoltaics
7299:What is Levelized Cost?
4360:WordPower—Ian Woofenden
4010:FORBES, Justin Gerdes,
3803:Panel generation factor
3694:Renewable energy portal
3351:to large utility-scale
2306:to remote buildings or
2279:Solar parking meter in
2108:in a complementary way.
2106:solar thermal collector
1700:photovoltaic monitoring
1640:Monitoring and metering
1598:electric transportation
1570:leveling out peak loads
1457: Central inverter
1040:on a horizontal surface
719:renewable energy credit
299:growth of photovoltaics
9181:University of Michigan
8791:Formula Sun Grand Prix
8623:Solar-powered fountain
8566:Solar air conditioning
8367:Quantum dot solar cell
8357:Nanocrystal solar cell
8252:Sun-free photovoltaics
7284:
7218:
7156:
5907:"PHOTOVOLTAICS REPORT"
5419:. pp. 3421–3425.
4809:Rossa, Carlos (2023).
4362:. 2006. Archived from
4050:"Photovoltaics Report"
3768:Low smoke zero halogen
3721:Distributed generation
3557:
3379:
3328:
3164:
2359:distributed generation
2170:
2081:island in Germany and
2073:
2035:
2012:
1744:
1683:
1629:pulse-width modulation
1437: String inverter
1345:
1333:
1266:
1213:
1093:
1041:
1001:
918:Modules and efficiency
898:to obtain the desired
815:
795:
695:
622:
571:
510:
446:
319:
187:on Mt. Komekura, Japan
8781:World Solar Challenge
8604:Photovoltaic keyboard
8534:PV system performance
8407:Perovskite solar cell
8205:Solar cell efficiency
8019:. MIT. Archived from
8017:MIT Energy Initiative
7285:
7198:
7136:
5331:Nature Sustainability
5125:VENTRE, JERRY AUTOR.
4440:www.outsidesupply.com
4255:www.ise.fraunhofer.de
3571:distributed generator
3555:
3376:Nellis Air Force Base
3370:
3318:
3165:
2168:
2152:Floating solar arrays
2068:
2026:
1745:
1743:{\displaystyle E_{d}}
1681:
1556:Battery (electricity)
1339:
1331:
1271:solar tracking system
1261:
1211:
1087:
1035:
1028:Insolation and energy
999:
801:
785:
776:Further information:
721:revenue-grade meter,
689:
650:Further information:
617:
597:recreational vehicles
562:
535:Waldpolenz Solar Park
523:Generated electricity
505:
466:). This is a form of
444:
431:Solar grid-connection
384:conversion efficiency
317:
217:electric power system
151:in the United Kingdom
9051:Individual producers
8759:Solar vehicle racing
8448:Solar micro-inverter
8377:Plasmonic solar cell
8222:Thin-film solar cell
8190:Photoelectric effect
7944:. soe-townsville.org
7920:. powernaturally.org
7100:
6420:on 24 September 2015
6129:PV resources website
4869:on 16 September 2010
4284:"Crossing the Chasm"
3778:Solar micro-inverter
3431:improve this section
3353:solar power stations
3321:solar rooftop system
3199:National regulations
3064:
2209:The market for this
2193:energy payback times
2139:. Combinations with
1727:
1552:Rechargeable battery
1365:solar micro-inverter
1320:Solar micro-inverter
1300:photovoltaic systems
1143:improve this section
1090:North Frisian Island
935:return on investment
806:with a few thousand
515:solar parks or farms
513:Large utility-scale
367:solar power stations
356:thin-film technology
9190:Home Power Magazine
8647:Solar traffic light
8627:Solar-powered radio
8594:Solar-powered watch
8402:Printed solar panel
8237:Solar cell research
7811:2018SoEn..159..390M
7690:2021RSERv.13710599H
7549:on October 19, 2012
7347:Solar PV warranties
7036:(January 3, 2012).
6934:2018ApEn..228..902R
6402:. DOE. 2 July 2012.
6281:2009Ene....34.1947P
5729:2004ApEn...79..345A
5638:2014SEMSC.124..111B
5599:2013SoEn...91..233A
5343:2020NatSu...3..720L
5267:2019Joule...3.2303I
5225:2013SoEn...95..300D
5178:2012SoEn...86.1245N
5105:2008REne...33.2048D
5006:1977PhRvA..15.2086A
4827:2023CmEng...2...66R
4738:2019RSERv.11509383S
4640:2013SEMSC.113...71A
4601:2013SoEn...92...84A
4503:2012SoEn...86.2240A
4401:Types of PV systems
4391:, p.6 February 2012
4226:2010EnPol..38.3270Y
4169:2011RSERv..15.4470B
4099:2013REne...53..329B
3983:2014RSERv..39.1101H
3726:Grid energy storage
2316:lead acid batteries
2229:Direct current grid
2189:Life cycle analysis
2042:(HCPV) systems use
1564:also stabilize the
1509:module power range
1483:module power range
1410:
1396:maximum power point
1350:alternating current
922:A typical 150 watt
888:alternating current
857:multijunction cells
788:crystalline silicon
604:Building-integrated
389:energy payback time
352:crystalline silicon
288:stand-alone systems
280:building-integrated
241:alternating current
205:photovoltaic system
190:Solar PV system on
8683:The Quiet Achiever
8642:Solar street light
8589:Solar-powered pump
8362:Organic solar cell
8242:Thermophotovoltaic
8210:Quantum efficiency
7873:on 31 October 2015
7521:bootsontheroof.com
7466:2017-10-13 at the
7280:
7085:2012-07-09 at the
7015:2017-07-10 at the
6635:The New York Times
6600:10.1039/D1SE01823J
6362:, 11 February 2015
6149:"Daten und Fakten"
6134:2010-11-28 at the
6094:2012-08-10 at the
5867:2010-11-25 at the
5776:, 17 August 2011 (
5701:2012-04-06 at the
5682:2012-01-18 at the
5664:2013-06-30 at the
5557:2015-08-11 at the
5129:. CRC press, 2004.
4893:2014-11-13 at the
4543:. p. 003386.
4369:on August 19, 2016
4137:2014-09-13 at the
3616:Non Detection Zone
3558:
3522:voltage regulation
3380:
3329:
3160:
2469:economies of scale
2171:
2074:
2036:
1740:
1684:
1408:
1346:
1334:
1296:very large systems
1267:
1214:
1094:
1042:
1002:
816:
796:
696:
623:
572:
511:
447:
320:
213:solar power system
9162:
9161:
9126:
9125:
9021:
9020:
8834:
8833:
8709:Mauro Solar Riser
8704:Electric aircraft
8637:Solar-powered fan
8542:
8541:
8433:Balance of system
8421:System components
8372:Hybrid solar cell
8332:
8331:
8293:Cadmium telluride
8049:. pp. 8 pp.
7732:Popular Mechanics
7573:Solar Power World
7505:Solar Power World
7278:
7275:
7194:
7042:National Interest
6821:Solar Power World
6275:(11): 1947–1954.
5538:978-0-8493-3078-0
5434:978-1-5386-8529-7
5261:(10): 2303–2321.
5031:. Fraunhofer ISE.
4994:Physical Review A
4774:PV Education.org
4558:978-1-4673-0066-7
4465:MY CENTRAL JERSEY
4311:. Greentech Media
4208:Yang, C. (2010).
3896:on 1 October 2014
3682:
3681:
3674:
3611:positive feedback
3467:
3466:
3459:
3343:, one or several
3305:energy efficiency
3291:Popular Mechanics
3043:
3042:
3015:
3014:
2465:
2464:
2423:
2422:
2365:Costs and economy
1879:4.410958904109589
1844:5.046847914335243
1625:charge controller
1585:lead–acid battery
1543:
1542:
1440:up to 150 kW
1369:electricity meter
1187:electrical wiring
1179:
1178:
1171:
1111:Electrical wiring
837:Amorphous Silicon
810:on the island of
802:Solar array of a
768:for a PV system.
700:balance of system
692:balance of system
588:electric aircraft
507:Perovo Solar Park
472:grid-tie inverter
272:balance of system
16:(Redirected from
9226:
9150:
9149:
9138:
9137:
9032:
9031:
8873:Building-mounted
8851:PV power station
8847:
8846:
8776:Solar challenges
8766:Solar car racing
8734:Solar Challenger
8724:Gossamer Penguin
8551:
8550:
8345:
8344:
8195:Solar irradiance
8175:
8174:
8157:
8150:
8143:
8134:
8133:
8128:
8127:
8125:
8124:
8118:
8111:
8103:
8097:
8096:
8090:
8086:
8084:
8076:
8042:
8036:
8035:
8033:
8031:
8025:
8014:
8006:
8000:
7999:
7997:
7995:
7989:
7983:Steffel, Steve.
7980:
7974:
7973:
7971:
7970:
7959:
7953:
7952:
7950:
7949:
7943:
7935:
7929:
7928:
7926:
7925:
7914:
7908:
7907:
7905:
7903:
7897:
7889:
7883:
7882:
7880:
7878:
7863:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7851:
7841:
7832:
7823:
7822:
7794:
7788:
7787:
7781:
7773:
7771:
7769:
7760:. Archived from
7749:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7739:
7724:
7718:
7717:
7669:
7663:
7656:
7650:
7649:
7647:
7645:
7630:
7624:
7623:
7615:
7609:
7608:
7606:
7605:
7600:. 18 August 2018
7590:
7584:
7583:
7581:
7580:
7565:
7559:
7558:
7556:
7554:
7545:. Archived from
7539:
7533:
7532:
7530:
7528:
7513:
7507:
7502:
7493:
7488:
7482:
7476:
7470:
7457:
7451:
7450:
7444:
7436:
7427:
7426:
7420:
7412:
7403:
7402:
7400:
7399:
7380:
7371:
7366:
7360:
7355:
7349:
7344:
7338:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7323:
7322:
7313:. Archived from
7307:
7301:
7296:
7290:
7289:
7287:
7286:
7281:
7279:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7273:
7272:
7250:
7249:
7248:
7220:
7217:
7212:
7196:
7195:
7193:
7192:
7191:
7169:
7158:
7155:
7150:
7110:
7095:
7089:
7077:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7067:
7052:
7046:
7045:
7030:
7024:
7006:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6992:
6986:
6975:
6967:
6956:
6955:
6945:
6913:
6907:
6901:
6895:
6893:
6887:
6879:
6877:
6876:
6870:
6862:
6856:
6855:
6853:
6852:
6837:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6827:
6812:
6806:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6787:
6781:
6780:
6778:
6777:
6768:. Archived from
6757:
6751:
6750:
6748:
6747:
6732:
6726:
6725:
6723:
6722:
6707:
6698:
6697:
6687:
6676:10.1002/pip.2466
6659:
6653:
6652:
6650:
6649:
6626:
6620:
6619:
6594:(5): 1398–1413.
6579:
6573:
6572:
6532:
6526:
6525:
6523:
6521:
6506:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6495:
6480:
6474:
6473:
6472:on 2 March 2015.
6462:
6456:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6436:
6430:
6429:
6427:
6425:
6410:
6404:
6403:
6392:
6386:
6385:
6380:. Archived from
6369:
6363:
6356:
6350:
6338:
6332:
6325:
6319:
6318:
6292:
6264:
6258:
6257:
6255:
6254:
6239:
6233:
6232:
6231:on 26 July 2015.
6221:
6215:
6214:
6212:
6211:
6190:
6181:
6175:
6173:
6167:
6159:
6157:
6156:
6145:
6139:
6126:
6120:
6115:
6109:
6104:
6098:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6067:
6061:
6056:
6050:
6045:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6035:
6026:. Archived from
6020:
6014:
6009:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5999:
5993:
5987:. Archived from
5986:
5978:
5972:
5965:
5959:
5958:
5951:
5945:
5938:
5932:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5911:
5903:
5894:
5889:
5883:
5878:
5872:
5859:
5853:
5852:
5845:
5839:
5834:
5828:
5823:
5817:
5812:
5806:
5805:
5803:
5802:
5793:. Archived from
5787:
5781:
5771:
5765:
5759:
5753:
5747:
5741:
5740:
5712:
5706:
5693:
5687:
5674:
5668:
5656:
5650:
5649:
5617:
5611:
5610:
5578:
5572:
5567:
5561:
5549:
5543:
5542:
5524:
5518:
5517:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5491:10.1002/pip.1083
5470:
5464:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5449:
5408:
5402:
5401:
5399:
5390:(5): 1354–1361.
5375:
5369:
5368:
5366:
5365:
5322:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5312:
5297:
5291:
5290:
5288:
5278:
5246:
5237:
5236:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5157:
5151:
5136:
5130:
5123:
5117:
5116:
5099:(9): 2048–2056.
5093:Renewable Energy
5088:
5082:
5075:
5069:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5054:
5045:. Archived from
5039:
5033:
5032:
5024:
5018:
5017:
5000:(5): 2086–2093.
4989:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4979:
4968:
4962:
4961:
4950:10.1002/pip.3396
4929:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4904:
4898:
4885:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4865:. Archived from
4855:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4806:
4800:
4795:
4789:
4784:
4778:
4776:Module Materials
4772:
4766:
4765:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4700:
4694:
4693:
4667:
4658:
4652:
4651:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4580:
4571:
4570:
4538:
4529:
4523:
4522:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4436:"RV Solar Guide"
4432:
4426:
4420:
4414:
4410:
4404:
4398:
4392:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4368:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4335:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4304:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4288:
4280:
4274:
4273:
4271:
4269:
4263:
4252:
4244:
4238:
4237:
4220:(7): 3270–3273.
4205:
4199:
4198:
4188:
4163:(9): 4470–4482.
4148:
4142:
4128:
4122:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4087:Renewable Energy
4078:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4067:
4061:
4054:
4046:
4029:
4028:
4021:
4015:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3997:
3962:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3940:
3929:
3921:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3895:
3888:
3880:
3871:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3843:
3813:Renewable energy
3758:Copper conductor
3746:Renewable energy
3710:
3705:
3704:
3696:
3691:
3690:
3677:
3670:
3666:
3663:
3657:
3641:
3640:
3633:
3575:electric utility
3487:Systems such as
3462:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3442:
3411:
3403:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3158:
3118:
3117:
2990:
2989:
2519:
2518:
2460:
2457:
2451:
2439:
2438:
2431:
2405:
2404:
2397:
2276:
2260:
2211:renewable energy
2141:other renewables
2137:diesel generator
2133:PV diesel system
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1855:Battery_capacity
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1460:above 80 kW
1411:
1407:
1344:, United States.
1241:electrical codes
1174:
1167:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1123:
1115:
1045:Solar insolation
974:Shading and dirt
756:system requires
746:solar irradiance
704:Balance of plant
633:in some sort of
539:Topaz Solar Farm
410:As of 2015, the
253:tracking systems
207:, also called a
114:
105:
96:
85:
76:
67:
56:
47:
38:
21:
9234:
9233:
9229:
9228:
9227:
9225:
9224:
9223:
9209:
9208:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9122:
9046:
9017:
8899:
8868:
8841:
8830:
8754:
8743:Water transport
8738:
8692:
8678:Solar golf cart
8651:
8609:Solar road stud
8538:
8492:System concepts
8487:
8416:
8339:
8328:
8307:
8261:
8166:
8161:
8131:
8122:
8120:
8116:
8109:
8105:
8104:
8100:
8088:
8087:
8078:
8077:
8065:
8043:
8039:
8029:
8027:
8026:on 5 March 2016
8023:
8012:
8008:
8007:
8003:
7993:
7991:
7987:
7981:
7977:
7968:
7966:
7961:
7960:
7956:
7947:
7945:
7941:
7937:
7936:
7932:
7923:
7921:
7916:
7915:
7911:
7901:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7890:
7886:
7876:
7874:
7865:
7864:
7860:
7849:
7847:
7839:
7833:
7826:
7795:
7791:
7775:
7774:
7767:
7765:
7764:on May 20, 2019
7750:
7746:
7737:
7735:
7726:
7725:
7721:
7670:
7666:
7657:
7653:
7643:
7641:
7631:
7627:
7616:
7612:
7603:
7601:
7592:
7591:
7587:
7578:
7576:
7567:
7566:
7562:
7552:
7550:
7541:
7540:
7536:
7526:
7524:
7515:
7514:
7510:
7503:
7496:
7489:
7485:
7477:
7473:
7468:Wayback Machine
7458:
7454:
7442:
7438:
7437:
7430:
7418:
7414:
7413:
7406:
7397:
7395:
7382:
7381:
7374:
7367:
7363:
7356:
7352:
7345:
7341:
7333:
7329:
7320:
7318:
7309:
7308:
7304:
7297:
7293:
7268:
7264:
7251:
7244:
7240:
7221:
7219:
7213:
7202:
7197:
7187:
7183:
7170:
7159:
7157:
7151:
7140:
7111:
7109:
7101:
7098:
7097:
7096:
7092:
7087:Wayback Machine
7078:
7074:
7065:
7063:
7054:
7053:
7049:
7031:
7027:
7017:Wayback Machine
7007:
7000:
6990:
6988:
6984:
6973:
6969:
6968:
6959:
6914:
6910:
6902:
6898:
6881:
6880:
6874:
6872:
6868:
6864:
6863:
6859:
6850:
6848:
6839:
6838:
6834:
6825:
6823:
6813:
6809:
6800:
6798:
6789:
6788:
6784:
6775:
6773:
6758:
6754:
6745:
6743:
6733:
6729:
6720:
6718:
6709:
6708:
6701:
6660:
6656:
6647:
6645:
6627:
6623:
6580:
6576:
6533:
6529:
6519:
6517:
6508:
6507:
6503:
6493:
6491:
6482:
6481:
6477:
6464:
6463:
6459:
6449:
6447:
6438:
6437:
6433:
6423:
6421:
6412:
6411:
6407:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6384:on 25 May 2017.
6370:
6366:
6357:
6353:
6339:
6335:
6326:
6322:
6290:10.1.1.593.8182
6265:
6261:
6252:
6250:
6241:
6240:
6236:
6223:
6222:
6218:
6209:
6207:
6188:
6182:
6178:
6161:
6160:
6154:
6152:
6147:
6146:
6142:
6136:Wayback Machine
6127:
6123:
6116:
6112:
6105:
6101:
6096:Wayback Machine
6087:
6083:
6068:
6064:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6042:
6033:
6031:
6022:
6021:
6017:
6010:
6006:
5997:
5995:
5991:
5984:
5980:
5979:
5975:
5966:
5962:
5953:
5952:
5948:
5944:, 7 August 2012
5939:
5935:
5925:
5921:
5909:
5905:
5904:
5897:
5890:
5886:
5879:
5875:
5869:Wayback Machine
5860:
5856:
5847:
5846:
5842:
5835:
5831:
5824:
5820:
5813:
5809:
5800:
5798:
5789:
5788:
5784:
5772:
5768:
5760:
5756:
5748:
5744:
5713:
5709:
5703:Wayback Machine
5694:
5690:
5684:Wayback Machine
5675:
5671:
5666:Wayback Machine
5657:
5653:
5618:
5614:
5579:
5575:
5568:
5564:
5559:Wayback Machine
5550:
5546:
5539:
5529:Electric energy
5525:
5521:
5510:
5506:
5471:
5467:
5460:
5456:
5447:
5445:
5435:
5409:
5405:
5376:
5372:
5363:
5361:
5323:
5319:
5310:
5308:
5299:
5298:
5294:
5247:
5240:
5205:
5201:
5158:
5154:
5138:Ursula Eicker,
5137:
5133:
5124:
5120:
5089:
5085:
5076:
5072:
5065:
5061:
5052:
5050:
5041:
5040:
5036:
5025:
5021:
4990:
4986:
4977:
4975:
4970:
4969:
4965:
4930:
4926:
4917:
4915:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4895:Wayback Machine
4886:
4882:
4872:
4870:
4857:
4856:
4852:
4807:
4803:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4718:
4714:
4701:
4697:
4665:
4659:
4655:
4620:
4616:
4595:(8497): 84–97.
4581:
4574:
4559:
4536:
4530:
4526:
4483:
4479:
4469:
4467:
4457:
4453:
4444:
4442:
4434:
4433:
4429:
4421:
4417:
4411:
4407:
4399:
4395:
4386:
4382:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4354:
4353:
4349:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4324:
4314:
4312:
4305:
4301:
4293:
4286:
4282:
4281:
4277:
4267:
4265:
4261:
4250:
4246:
4245:
4241:
4206:
4202:
4149:
4145:
4139:Wayback Machine
4129:
4125:
4118:
4114:
4079:
4075:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4052:
4048:
4047:
4032:
4023:
4022:
4018:
4009:
4005:
3995:
3993:
3963:
3954:
3944:
3942:
3941:on 25 June 2014
3938:
3927:
3923:
3922:
3909:
3899:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3882:
3881:
3874:
3866:Fraunhofer ISE
3865:
3861:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3706:
3699:
3692:
3685:
3678:
3667:
3661:
3658:
3651:
3642:
3638:
3631:
3596:solar inverters
3587:
3579:electrical grid
3564:
3550:
3517:
3507:carbon negative
3484:
3463:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3428:
3412:
3401:
3384:rooftop systems
3378:, United States
3365:
3349:rooftop systems
3313:
3300:
3277:
3272:
3259:
3239:electrical code
3219:
3206:
3201:
3188:
3186:Standardization
3183:
3151:
3147:
3080:
3076:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3048:
2532:
2530:
2523:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2461:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2380:
2373:
2367:
2355:microgeneration
2351:storage battery
2296:electrical grid
2288:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2277:
2269:
2268:
2261:
2250:
2244:
2237:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2202:
2162:
2154:
2063:
2021:
2015:
2002:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
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1728:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1664:
1656:
1650:Energy metering
1644:Main articles:
1642:
1566:electrical grid
1558:
1550:Main articles:
1548:
1533:
1526:
1504:Power optimizer
1501:
1499:DC/DC converter
1463:
1443:
1427:
1387:
1383:
1326:
1314:Main articles:
1312:
1256:
1250:
1203:microgeneration
1175:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1140:
1124:
1113:
1107:
1082:
1076:
1030:
976:
920:
890:that can power
827:cells (such as
794:, United States
780:
774:
684:
654:
648:
612:
606:
592:auxiliary power
557:
551:
527:electrical grid
500:
494:
480:
478:Scale of system
465:
461:
439:
433:
397:feed-in tariffs
363:electrical grid
312:
307:
276:rooftop-mounted
201:
200:
199:
198:
197:
180:
170:world's largest
117:
116:
115:
107:
106:
98:
97:
88:
87:
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78:
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69:
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59:
58:
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49:
48:
40:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9232:
9222:
9221:
9207:
9206:
9197:
9192:
9187:
9174:
9167:
9166:External links
9164:
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9156:
9144:
9131:
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9127:
9124:
9123:
9121:
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9105:
9100:
9095:
9090:
9088:Solar Frontier
9085:
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9070:
9065:
9063:Hanwha Q CELLS
9060:
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8729:Qinetiq Zephyr
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8656:Land transport
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8583:
8581:Solar backpack
8578:
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8506:
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8493:
8489:
8488:
8486:
8485:
8483:Synchronverter
8480:
8475:
8473:Solar shingles
8470:
8465:
8460:
8455:
8450:
8445:
8443:Solar inverter
8440:
8435:
8430:
8424:
8422:
8418:
8417:
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8414:
8409:
8404:
8399:
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8280:
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8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8219:
8214:
8213:
8212:
8202:
8200:Solar constant
8197:
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8187:
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8179:
8172:
8168:
8167:
8160:
8159:
8152:
8145:
8137:
8130:
8129:
8098:
8089:|journal=
8063:
8037:
8001:
7975:
7965:. iea-pvps.org
7954:
7930:
7909:
7884:
7858:
7824:
7789:
7744:
7719:
7664:
7651:
7625:
7610:
7585:
7560:
7534:
7508:
7494:
7483:
7471:
7452:
7428:
7404:
7372:
7361:
7350:
7339:
7327:
7302:
7291:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7260:
7257:
7254:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7236:
7233:
7230:
7227:
7224:
7216:
7211:
7208:
7205:
7201:
7190:
7186:
7182:
7179:
7176:
7173:
7168:
7165:
7162:
7154:
7149:
7146:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7132:
7129:
7126:
7123:
7120:
7117:
7114:
7108:
7105:
7090:
7072:
7047:
7025:
6998:
6957:
6922:Applied Energy
6908:
6896:
6857:
6832:
6807:
6782:
6752:
6727:
6699:
6670:(4): 524–532.
6654:
6621:
6574:
6527:
6501:
6475:
6457:
6431:
6405:
6387:
6364:
6351:
6333:
6320:
6259:
6234:
6216:
6176:
6140:
6121:
6110:
6099:
6081:
6062:
6051:
6040:
6015:
6004:
5973:
5971:, January 2012
5960:
5946:
5933:
5919:
5895:
5884:
5873:
5854:
5840:
5829:
5818:
5807:
5782:
5766:
5754:
5742:
5723:(3): 345–354.
5717:Applied Energy
5707:
5688:
5669:
5651:
5612:
5573:
5562:
5544:
5537:
5519:
5504:
5485:(6): 658–666.
5465:
5454:
5433:
5403:
5370:
5337:(9): 720–727.
5317:
5292:
5238:
5199:
5152:
5142:, Wiley 2003,
5131:
5118:
5083:
5070:
5059:
5034:
5019:
4984:
4963:
4944:(5): 558–570.
4924:
4914:. 22 June 2010
4899:
4880:
4850:
4801:
4790:
4779:
4767:
4712:
4695:
4653:
4614:
4572:
4557:
4524:
4477:
4451:
4427:
4415:
4405:
4393:
4380:
4347:
4322:
4299:
4275:
4239:
4200:
4143:
4123:
4112:
4073:
4030:
4016:
4014:, 18 July 2013
4003:
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3907:
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3765:
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3728:
3723:
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3712:
3711:
3697:
3680:
3679:
3645:
3643:
3636:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3619:
3586:
3585:Anti-islanding
3583:
3560:Main article:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3541:ferroresonance
3536:
3525:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3493:Feed-in Tariff
3483:
3480:
3471:power inverter
3465:
3464:
3415:
3413:
3406:
3400:
3397:
3364:
3361:
3312:
3309:
3299:
3296:
3287:value of solar
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3258:
3255:
3218:
3215:
3205:
3204:United Kingdom
3202:
3200:
3197:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3047:
3046:Learning curve
3044:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3027:
3024:
3013:
3012:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
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2918:
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2900:
2897:
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2874:
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2868:
2865:
2862:
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2807:
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2659:
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2647:
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2624:
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2612:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2598:
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2592:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2540:
2534:
2526:
2525:
2503:Solar tracking
2489:
2485:
2481:
2463:
2462:
2443:
2441:
2434:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2409:
2407:
2400:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2366:
2363:
2328:direct current
2278:
2271:
2270:
2262:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2246:Main article:
2243:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2227:
2200:
2174:Floating solar
2163:
2159:Floating solar
2155:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2130:
2123:
2109:
2062:
2059:
2044:optical lenses
2017:Main article:
2014:
2011:
2001:
1998:
1968:
1916:
1887:
1853:
1770:
1757:
1737:
1733:
1720:
1717:
1662:
1641:
1638:
1606:vanadium redox
1589:nickel–cadmium
1547:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1531:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1479:Micro-inverter
1474:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1423:
1418:
1415:
1402:Anti-islanding
1385:
1381:
1361:solar inverter
1354:direct current
1324:Power inverter
1316:Solar inverter
1311:
1308:
1264:solar trackers
1252:Main article:
1249:
1246:
1232:resistant and
1177:
1176:
1127:
1125:
1118:
1106:
1103:
1078:Main article:
1075:
1072:
1029:
1026:
1018:cost-effective
975:
972:
919:
916:
871:tempered glass
849:dye-sensitized
773:
770:
758:optical lenses
683:
680:
676:microinverters
647:
644:
608:Main article:
605:
602:
564:Rooftop system
553:Main article:
550:
547:
519:power stations
496:Main article:
493:
490:
479:
476:
463:
459:
452:feed-in tariff
435:Main article:
432:
429:
336:grid-connected
311:
308:
306:
303:
233:solar inverter
196:
195:
188:
182:
178:
173:
163:
152:
145:
142:Rooftop system
139:
133:
121:
119:
118:
109:
108:
100:
99:
91:
90:
89:
80:
79:
71:
70:
62:
61:
60:
51:
50:
42:
41:
33:
32:
31:
30:
29:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9231:
9220:
9219:Photovoltaics
9217:
9216:
9214:
9205:
9202:
9198:
9196:
9193:
9191:
9188:
9186:
9182:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9169:
9155:
9154:
9145:
9143:
9142:
9133:
9132:
9129:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9055:
9053:
9049:
9043:
9040:
9039:
9037:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9024:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8910:
8908:
8906:
8902:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8877:
8875:
8871:
8865:
8862:
8860:
8857:
8856:
8854:
8852:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8837:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8763:
8761:
8757:
8751:
8748:
8747:
8745:
8741:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8727:
8725:
8722:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8701:
8699:
8697:Air transport
8695:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8673:Solar roadway
8671:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8663:Solar vehicle
8661:
8660:
8658:
8654:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8635:
8633:
8630:
8628:
8625:
8622:
8620:
8617:
8615:
8612:
8610:
8607:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8584:
8582:
8579:
8577:
8576:Solar charger
8574:
8572:
8569:
8567:
8564:
8562:
8559:
8558:
8556:
8552:
8549:
8545:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8500:
8497:
8496:
8494:
8490:
8484:
8481:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8468:Solar tracker
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8456:
8454:
8451:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8425:
8423:
8419:
8413:
8410:
8408:
8405:
8403:
8400:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8350:
8346:
8343:
8341:
8335:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8316:
8314:
8310:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8289:
8286:
8284:
8281:
8279:
8276:
8274:
8271:
8270:
8268:
8264:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8218:
8215:
8211:
8208:
8207:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8185:Photovoltaics
8183:
8182:
8180:
8176:
8173:
8169:
8165:
8164:Photovoltaics
8158:
8153:
8151:
8146:
8144:
8139:
8138:
8135:
8119:on 2012-05-23
8115:
8108:
8102:
8094:
8082:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8064:1-4244-0493-2
8060:
8056:
8052:
8048:
8041:
8022:
8018:
8011:
8005:
7986:
7979:
7964:
7958:
7940:
7934:
7919:
7913:
7894:
7888:
7872:
7868:
7862:
7856:
7845:
7838:
7831:
7829:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7793:
7785:
7779:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7733:
7729:
7723:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7695:
7691:
7687:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7668:
7661:
7655:
7640:
7636:
7629:
7621:
7614:
7599:
7595:
7589:
7574:
7570:
7564:
7548:
7544:
7538:
7522:
7518:
7512:
7506:
7501:
7499:
7492:
7487:
7480:
7475:
7469:
7465:
7462:
7456:
7448:
7441:
7435:
7433:
7424:
7417:
7411:
7409:
7394:on 2021-03-22
7393:
7389:
7388:Inspecro Blog
7385:
7379:
7377:
7370:
7365:
7359:
7354:
7348:
7343:
7336:
7331:
7317:on 2017-07-10
7316:
7312:
7306:
7300:
7295:
7269:
7261:
7258:
7255:
7245:
7237:
7234:
7231:
7225:
7222:
7214:
7209:
7206:
7203:
7199:
7188:
7180:
7177:
7174:
7166:
7163:
7160:
7152:
7147:
7144:
7141:
7137:
7133:
7127:
7124:
7121:
7115:
7112:
7106:
7103:
7094:
7088:
7084:
7081:
7076:
7062:on 2014-11-03
7061:
7057:
7051:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7029:
7022:
7018:
7014:
7011:
7005:
7003:
6983:
6979:
6978:www.nrel.gov/
6972:
6966:
6964:
6962:
6953:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6935:
6931:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6912:
6905:
6900:
6891:
6885:
6867:
6861:
6846:
6845:Bloomberg.com
6842:
6836:
6822:
6818:
6811:
6796:
6792:
6786:
6772:on 2019-11-11
6771:
6767:
6763:
6756:
6742:
6738:
6731:
6716:
6715:Bloomberg.com
6712:
6706:
6704:
6695:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6677:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6658:
6644:
6640:
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6625:
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6609:
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6601:
6597:
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6589:
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6578:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6531:
6515:
6511:
6505:
6489:
6485:
6479:
6471:
6467:
6461:
6445:
6441:
6435:
6419:
6415:
6409:
6401:
6397:
6391:
6383:
6379:
6375:
6368:
6361:
6355:
6349:
6346:
6343:
6337:
6330:
6324:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6263:
6249:on 2018-08-20
6248:
6244:
6238:
6230:
6226:
6220:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6180:
6171:
6165:
6150:
6144:
6137:
6133:
6130:
6125:
6119:
6114:
6108:
6103:
6097:
6093:
6090:
6085:
6077:
6073:
6066:
6060:
6055:
6049:
6044:
6030:on 2012-10-17
6029:
6025:
6019:
6013:
6008:
5994:on 2013-09-11
5990:
5983:
5977:
5970:
5964:
5956:
5950:
5943:
5937:
5931:
5928:
5923:
5915:
5908:
5902:
5900:
5893:
5888:
5882:
5877:
5870:
5866:
5863:
5858:
5850:
5844:
5838:
5833:
5827:
5822:
5816:
5811:
5797:on 2012-04-17
5796:
5792:
5786:
5779:
5775:
5770:
5763:
5758:
5751:
5746:
5738:
5734:
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5697:
5692:
5685:
5681:
5678:
5673:
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5660:
5655:
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5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5623:
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5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5577:
5571:
5566:
5560:
5556:
5553:
5548:
5540:
5534:
5530:
5523:
5515:
5508:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5469:
5463:
5458:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5407:
5398:
5393:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5374:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5321:
5306:
5302:
5296:
5287:
5286:11573/1625631
5282:
5277:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5245:
5243:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5203:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5156:
5149:
5148:0-471-48637-X
5145:
5141:
5135:
5128:
5122:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5087:
5080:
5074:
5068:
5063:
5049:on 2016-01-26
5048:
5044:
5038:
5030:
5023:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4988:
4973:
4967:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4928:
4913:
4909:
4903:
4896:
4892:
4889:
4884:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4854:
4845:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
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4816:
4812:
4805:
4799:
4794:
4788:
4783:
4777:
4771:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4716:
4708:
4707:
4699:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4664:
4657:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4618:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4579:
4577:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
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4528:
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4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4481:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4441:
4437:
4431:
4424:
4419:
4409:
4402:
4397:
4390:
4384:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4351:
4343:
4339:
4332:
4326:
4310:
4303:
4292:
4285:
4279:
4260:
4256:
4249:
4243:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4214:Energy Policy
4211:
4204:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4140:
4136:
4133:
4127:
4121:
4116:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4058:
4051:
4045:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4035:
4026:
4020:
4013:
4007:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3977:: 1101–1118.
3976:
3972:
3968:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3937:
3933:
3926:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3892:
3885:
3879:
3877:
3869:
3863:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3842:
3838:
3829:
3828:Solar vehicle
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3773:MC4 connector
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3736:Photovoltaics
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3709:
3708:Energy portal
3703:
3698:
3695:
3689:
3684:
3676:
3673:
3665:
3655:
3649:
3646:This section
3644:
3635:
3634:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3592:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3554:
3542:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3529:power quality
3526:
3523:
3519:
3518:
3515:Disadvantages
3508:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3485:
3479:
3477:
3472:
3461:
3458:
3450:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3416:This section
3414:
3410:
3405:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3390:
3385:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3308:
3306:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3267:
3264:
3254:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3235:building code
3232:
3228:
3223:
3217:United States
3214:
3210:
3196:
3194:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3155:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3122:
3119:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3059:
3057:
3053:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3011:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2956:
2955:
2924:
2923:
2892:
2891:
2860:
2859:
2828:
2827:
2796:
2795:
2764:
2763:
2732:
2731:
2700:
2699:
2668:
2667:
2636:
2635:
2604:
2603:
2572:
2571:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2510:interest rate
2506:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2459:
2447:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2417:
2416:MediaWiki.org
2413:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2392:
2391:United States
2388:
2384:
2372:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2282:
2275:
2266:
2259:
2249:
2239:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2185:photovoltaics
2181:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2160:
2146:
2145:wind turbines
2142:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2092:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2067:
2058:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2010:
2007:
2000:Other systems
1997:
1966:
1914:
1885:
1851:
1808:Number_panels
1768:
1765:
1756:
1754:
1735:
1731:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1680:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1602:sodium–sulfur
1599:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1553:
1539:
1537:
1527:
1521:
1517:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1338:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1307:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1284:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1254:Solar tracker
1245:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1210:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1173:
1170:
1162:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1128:This section
1126:
1122:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1102:
1099:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1057:track the sun
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1034:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
998:
994:
992:
989:
985:
980:
971:
969:
967:
963:
959:
957:
951:
946:
942:
940:
936:
931:
929:
928:kilowatt-hour
925:
915:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
865:
862:Conventional
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
813:
809:
808:solar modules
805:
800:
793:
789:
784:
779:
769:
767:
761:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
738:solar tracker
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
693:
688:
679:
677:
673:
669:
664:
660:
653:
643:
641:
640:street lights
636:
632:
628:
620:
616:
611:
601:
598:
593:
589:
585:
584:electric cars
581:
580:street lights
577:
569:
565:
561:
556:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
508:
504:
499:
492:Utility-scale
489:
486:
485:cost per watt
475:
473:
469:
457:
453:
443:
438:
428:
426:
422:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
379:
377:
373:
372:manufacturers
368:
364:
359:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
316:
305:Modern system
302:
300:
296:
295:air pollution
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:solar thermal
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
243:, as well as
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
225:photovoltaics
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
193:
189:
186:
183:
181:
174:
171:
168:, one of the
167:
164:
161:
157:
153:
150:
146:
143:
140:
137:
134:
131:
127:
124:Solar string
123:
122:
113:
104:
95:
84:
75:
66:
55:
46:
37:
19:
9152:
9139:
9118:Yingli Solar
9098:Sungen Solar
9073:Motech Solar
9027:PV companies
8988:South Africa
8806:Solar Splash
8547:Applications
8478:Solar mirror
8338:Photovoltaic
8337:
8121:. Retrieved
8114:the original
8101:
8046:
8040:
8028:. Retrieved
8021:the original
8016:
8004:
7992:. Retrieved
7978:
7967:. Retrieved
7957:
7946:. Retrieved
7933:
7922:. Retrieved
7912:
7900:. Retrieved
7887:
7875:. Retrieved
7871:the original
7861:
7848:. Retrieved
7843:
7802:
7799:Solar Energy
7798:
7792:
7768:December 29,
7766:. Retrieved
7762:the original
7757:
7747:
7736:. Retrieved
7734:. 2021-02-11
7731:
7722:
7681:
7677:
7667:
7654:
7642:. Retrieved
7638:
7628:
7613:
7602:. Retrieved
7597:
7588:
7577:. Retrieved
7575:. 2018-08-13
7572:
7563:
7553:February 25,
7551:. Retrieved
7547:the original
7537:
7525:. Retrieved
7520:
7511:
7486:
7479:Solar Panels
7474:
7455:
7446:
7422:
7396:. Retrieved
7392:the original
7387:
7364:
7353:
7342:
7330:
7319:. Retrieved
7315:the original
7305:
7294:
7093:
7075:
7064:. Retrieved
7060:the original
7050:
7041:
7034:John Quiggin
7028:
6991:24 September
6989:. Retrieved
6977:
6925:
6921:
6911:
6899:
6873:. Retrieved
6860:
6849:. Retrieved
6847:. 2023-03-07
6844:
6835:
6824:. Retrieved
6820:
6810:
6799:. Retrieved
6797:. 2023-05-10
6794:
6785:
6774:. Retrieved
6770:the original
6765:
6755:
6744:. Retrieved
6740:
6730:
6719:. Retrieved
6717:. 2023-08-03
6714:
6667:
6663:
6657:
6646:. Retrieved
6634:
6624:
6591:
6587:
6577:
6544:
6540:
6530:
6518:. Retrieved
6504:
6492:. Retrieved
6478:
6470:the original
6460:
6448:. Retrieved
6434:
6422:. Retrieved
6418:the original
6408:
6399:
6390:
6382:the original
6377:
6367:
6354:
6344:
6341:
6336:
6323:
6272:
6268:
6262:
6251:. Retrieved
6247:the original
6237:
6229:the original
6219:
6208:. Retrieved
6199:(1): 58–60.
6196:
6192:
6179:
6153:. Retrieved
6143:
6124:
6113:
6107:Solar Energy
6102:
6084:
6075:
6065:
6054:
6043:
6032:. Retrieved
6028:the original
6018:
6007:
5996:. Retrieved
5989:the original
5976:
5963:
5949:
5936:
5922:
5887:
5876:
5857:
5843:
5832:
5821:
5810:
5799:. Retrieved
5795:the original
5785:
5769:
5757:
5745:
5720:
5716:
5710:
5691:
5672:
5654:
5629:
5625:
5615:
5590:
5587:Solar Energy
5586:
5576:
5565:
5547:
5528:
5522:
5513:
5507:
5482:
5478:
5468:
5457:
5446:. Retrieved
5416:
5406:
5387:
5383:
5373:
5362:. Retrieved
5334:
5330:
5320:
5309:. Retrieved
5307:. 2017-10-11
5295:
5258:
5254:
5216:
5213:Solar Energy
5212:
5202:
5169:
5166:Solar Energy
5165:
5155:
5139:
5134:
5126:
5121:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5078:
5073:
5062:
5051:. Retrieved
5047:the original
5037:
5022:
4997:
4993:
4987:
4976:. Retrieved
4966:
4941:
4937:
4927:
4916:. Retrieved
4911:
4902:
4883:
4871:. Retrieved
4867:the original
4862:
4853:
4818:
4814:
4804:
4793:
4782:
4770:
4729:
4725:
4715:
4705:
4698:
4673:
4669:
4656:
4631:
4627:
4617:
4592:
4589:Solar Energy
4588:
4540:
4527:
4494:
4491:Solar Energy
4490:
4480:
4470:December 29,
4468:. Retrieved
4464:
4454:
4443:. Retrieved
4439:
4430:
4418:
4408:
4396:
4383:
4373:December 28,
4371:. Retrieved
4364:the original
4359:
4350:
4337:
4325:
4313:. Retrieved
4302:
4278:
4266:. Retrieved
4254:
4242:
4217:
4213:
4203:
4160:
4156:
4146:
4126:
4115:
4090:
4086:
4076:
4064:. Retrieved
4019:
4006:
3996:December 28,
3994:. Retrieved
3974:
3970:
3943:. Retrieved
3936:the original
3932:www.epia.org
3931:
3898:. Retrieved
3891:the original
3862:
3851:
3841:
3823:Solar energy
3668:
3659:
3647:
3621:
3615:
3606:
3601:
3588:
3565:
3533:intermittent
3510:consumption.
3489:Net Metering
3468:
3453:
3444:
3429:Please help
3417:
3393:
3381:
3357:utility grid
3341:solar panels
3337:utility grid
3330:
3301:
3278:
3260:
3224:
3220:
3211:
3207:
3189:
3060:
3049:
3017:
3016:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2529:Installation
2514:depreciation
2507:
2479:
2466:
2453:
2445:
2378:
2339:agricultural
2336:
2320:
2300:wristwatches
2289:
2232:
2208:
2205:
2182:
2178:solar panels
2172:
2115:
2095:
2087:
2075:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2037:
2003:
1995:
1964:
1911:
1883:
1848:
1761:
1722:
1705:smart meters
1697:
1691:
1687:
1685:
1657:
1646:Net metering
1622:
1578:
1559:
1529:
1524:
1425:
1420:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1358:
1347:
1304:
1293:
1285:
1268:
1238:
1226:solar panels
1222:photovoltaic
1215:
1180:
1165:
1156:
1141:Please help
1129:
1095:
1043:
1022:
1003:
981:
977:
970:
953:
947:
943:
932:
921:
861:
817:
762:
716:
697:
655:
635:net metering
624:
573:
512:
481:
456:net metering
448:
409:
393:Net metering
380:
360:
324:photovoltaic
321:
292:
267:
257:
229:solar panels
223:by means of
212:
208:
204:
202:
9113:Trina Solar
9058:First Solar
8998:Switzerland
8978:Netherlands
8816:Tour de Sol
8514:Fill factor
8453:Solar cable
8428:Solar panel
8349:Solar cells
7805:: 390–404.
6928:: 902–915.
6685:10251/80704
5632:: 111–116.
5593:: 233–241.
5219:: 300–307.
5172:(5): 1245.
4974:. July 2009
4676:(6): 1680.
4497:(9): 2240.
4093:: 329–338.
3741:Solar power
3333:electricity
3270:Limitations
3243:fire safety
2533:$ per watt
2499:declination
2474:solar cells
2412:Phabricator
2304:calculators
2292:stand-alone
2234:150 kW
2112:CPVT system
1982:Energy_cost
1889:Energy_cost
1709:pyranometer
1654:Smart meter
1610:molten salt
1593:lithium-ion
1098:solar parks
988:3D modeling
962:solar panel
875:encapsulant
867:solar cells
772:Solar array
729:system and
672:hydrophilic
668:hydrophobic
646:Performance
421:solar power
405:grid parity
348:retrofitted
344:distributed
340:stand alone
332:electricity
268:solar array
221:solar power
185:Power plant
18:Solar array
9035:By country
8905:By country
8840:Generation
8750:Solar boat
8599:Solar Tuki
8585:Solar tree
8571:Solar lamp
8554:Appliances
8178:Technology
8123:2011-06-10
7969:2011-07-21
7948:2011-07-21
7924:2011-07-21
7850:2011-07-21
7738:2023-03-04
7684:: 110599.
7604:2019-11-17
7579:2019-11-17
7398:2018-05-15
7321:2014-08-21
7066:2014-04-05
6875:2008-02-11
6851:2024-04-21
6826:2024-07-15
6801:2023-05-11
6776:2019-11-11
6746:2021-10-18
6721:2023-08-03
6648:2023-01-25
6547:: 100830.
6400:energy.gov
6253:2015-06-01
6210:2008-02-10
6155:2008-02-10
6118:SolarGuard
6034:2012-07-11
5998:2012-07-11
5801:2012-07-09
5448:2020-12-04
5364:2020-12-04
5311:2020-12-03
5150:, page 226
5053:2008-12-03
4978:2012-10-21
4918:2012-04-23
4873:5 February
4821:(66): 66.
4732:: 109383.
4445:2018-08-15
3834:References
3763:Polyolefin
3662:April 2024
3482:Advantages
3447:April 2024
3389:incentives
3282:duck curve
3209:required.
3181:Regulation
3033:concludes
2537:Insolation
2494:insolation
2456:April 2024
2369:See also:
2312:insolation
2308:spacecraft
2283:, Scotland
2242:Standalone
2102:PVT system
2006:standalone
1976:Total_cost
1918:Total_cost
1762:Using the
1574:smart grid
1421:Efficiency
1289:insolation
1262:Dual axis
1159:April 2024
1109:See also:
1038:insolation
950:solar cell
939:incentives
853:Perovskite
804:solar farm
790:panels in
750:anemometer
682:Components
627:power grid
576:satellites
531:Solar Star
509:in Ukraine
154:Dual axis
149:solar park
132:components
128:and other
8913:Australia
8890:Solar Ark
8796:Solar Cup
8688:Sunmobile
8668:Solar car
8266:Materials
8091:ignored (
8081:cite book
7846:: 151–157
7714:229415163
7706:1364-0321
7527:March 31,
7235:−
7226:⋅
7200:∑
7164:⋅
7138:∑
7116:⋅
6952:0306-2619
6643:0362-4331
6616:246498822
6608:2398-4902
6569:225132653
6561:2213-1388
6358:Phys.org
6315:109780285
6307:1974/5307
6285:CiteSeerX
6205:1335-3632
5359:219976569
4958:233976803
4762:204164204
4754:1364-0321
4634:: 71–78.
4387:NREL.gov
4186:1974/6879
4066:31 August
3900:7 October
3567:Islanding
3562:Islanding
3548:Islanding
3476:AC module
3418:does not
3363:Operation
3345:inverters
3261:Although
3153:−
2334:is used.
2281:Edinburgh
2265:Catalonia
2032:Catalonia
2030:(CPV) in
1618:Powerwall
1536:watt-peak
1378:kilowatts
1191:IEC 60364
1130:does not
1049:radiation
924:PV module
825:thin-film
778:PV module
748:sensors,
712:inverters
543:megawatts
328:radiation
209:PV system
192:Zugspitze
147:Westmill
9213:Category
9141:Category
9103:Sunpower
9093:Solyndra
9068:JA Solar
9003:Thailand
8923:Bulgaria
8171:Concepts
8073:24433656
8030:28 April
7994:28 April
7902:28 April
7877:28 April
7778:cite web
7644:28 April
7464:Archived
7083:Archived
7013:Archived
6982:Archived
6884:cite web
6694:98460653
6514:Archived
6488:Archived
6444:Archived
6164:cite web
6132:Archived
6092:Archived
5940:EDN.com
5865:Archived
5778:archived
5699:Archived
5680:Archived
5662:Archived
5555:Archived
5499:98693018
5443:54442001
5194:15435496
4912:BBC News
4891:Archived
4844:10956078
4690:45625281
4567:40053323
4519:18111360
4342:Archived
4315:29 April
4291:Archived
4268:3 August
4259:Archived
4195:73523633
4135:Archived
4057:Archived
3629:See also
3607:Passive:
3591:blackout
3496:earthed.
3399:Features
2389:and the
2347:inverter
2332:inverter
2079:Pellworm
1764:wxMaxima
1587: –
1523:Source:
1486:90%–97%
1432:Remarks
1310:Inverter
1220:used in
1074:Mounting
991:software
904:parallel
884:inverter
879:material
766:misnomer
725:(MPPT),
310:Overview
245:mounting
215:, is an
126:inverter
9179:by the
9153:Commons
9108:Suntech
8983:Romania
8953:Germany
8918:Belgium
8842:systems
8312:History
7807:Bibcode
7686:Bibcode
6930:Bibcode
6795:AP NEWS
6766:PV Tech
6520:11 June
6494:11 June
6450:11 June
6424:11 June
6277:Bibcode
5725:Bibcode
5634:Bibcode
5595:Bibcode
5339:Bibcode
5263:Bibcode
5221:Bibcode
5174:Bibcode
5101:Bibcode
5081:, 2005.
5002:Bibcode
4823:Bibcode
4734:Bibcode
4636:Bibcode
4597:Bibcode
4499:Bibcode
4222:Bibcode
4165:Bibcode
4095:Bibcode
3979:Bibcode
3945:12 June
3783:Tinning
3622:Active:
3531:. PV's
3439:removed
3424:sources
3029:A 2013
3004:Germany
2957:$ 5.00
2925:$ 4.60
2893:$ 4.20
2861:$ 3.80
2829:$ 3.40
2797:$ 3.00
2765:$ 2.60
2733:$ 2.20
2701:$ 1.80
2669:$ 1.40
2637:$ 1.00
2605:$ 0.60
2573:$ 0.20
2531:cost in
2446:updated
2414:and on
2387:Germany
2267:, Spain
2083:Kythnos
2034:, Spain
1546:Battery
1502: (
1373:modules
1342:Vermont
1248:Tracker
1234:weather
1199:BS 7671
1193:by the
1151:removed
1136:sources
1105:Cabling
1036:Global
1010:Ontario
1006:soiling
908:current
900:voltage
845:organic
814:, Spain
812:Majorca
731:charger
727:battery
659:soiling
631:utility
376:Sunbelt
249:cabling
162:modules
156:tracker
8958:Greece
8948:France
8928:Canada
8340:system
8071:
8061:
7712:
7704:
7639:Xataka
7523:. 2011
6950:
6692:
6641:
6614:
6606:
6567:
6559:
6313:
6287:
6269:Energy
6203:
6078:: 1–7.
5535:
5497:
5441:
5431:
5357:
5192:
5146:
4956:
4841:
4760:
4752:
4688:
4565:
4555:
4517:
4193:
3618:(NDZ).
3325:Boston
3241:, and
3123:151.46
3018:Notes:
2393:($ /W)
2061:Hybrid
1907:1150.0
1790:1519.1
1669:stored
1652:, and
1612:and a
1534:= kilo
1512:99.5%
1497:
1477:
1469:36.7%
1466:98.5%
1449:61.6%
1426:Market
1417:Power
1380:DC (kW
1322:, and
1067:Sahara
1062:albedo
896:series
892:lights
839:, and
568:Boston
237:direct
9201:Sites
9083:Sharp
8993:Spain
8973:Japan
8968:Italy
8963:India
8938:China
8933:Chile
8117:(PDF)
8110:(PDF)
8069:S2CID
8024:(PDF)
8013:(PDF)
7988:(PDF)
7942:(PDF)
7896:(PDF)
7840:(PDF)
7710:S2CID
7443:(PDF)
7419:(PDF)
6985:(PDF)
6974:(PDF)
6904:site7
6869:(PDF)
6690:S2CID
6612:S2CID
6565:S2CID
6311:S2CID
6189:(PDF)
5992:(PDF)
5985:(PDF)
5910:(PDF)
5495:S2CID
5439:S2CID
5355:S2CID
5255:Joule
5190:S2CID
4954:S2CID
4758:S2CID
4686:S2CID
4666:(PDF)
4563:S2CID
4537:(PDF)
4515:S2CID
4413:2011.
4367:(PDF)
4334:(PDF)
4294:(PDF)
4287:(PDF)
4262:(PDF)
4251:(PDF)
4191:S2CID
4060:(PDF)
4053:(PDF)
3939:(PDF)
3928:(PDF)
3894:(PDF)
3887:(PDF)
3327:, USA
3323:near
3257:Spain
2999:Japan
2984:62.5
2981:50.0
2978:41.7
2975:35.7
2972:31.3
2969:27.8
2966:25.0
2963:22.7
2960:20.8
2952:57.5
2949:46.0
2946:38.3
2943:32.9
2940:28.8
2937:25.6
2934:23.0
2931:20.9
2928:19.2
2920:52.5
2917:42.0
2914:35.0
2911:30.0
2908:26.3
2905:23.3
2902:21.0
2899:19.1
2896:17.5
2888:47.5
2885:38.0
2882:31.7
2879:27.1
2876:23.8
2873:21.1
2870:19.0
2867:17.3
2864:15.8
2856:42.5
2853:34.0
2850:28.3
2847:24.3
2844:21.3
2841:18.9
2838:17.0
2835:15.5
2832:14.2
2824:37.5
2821:30.0
2818:25.0
2815:21.4
2812:18.8
2809:16.7
2806:15.0
2803:13.6
2800:12.5
2792:32.5
2789:26.0
2786:21.7
2783:18.6
2780:16.3
2777:14.4
2774:13.0
2771:11.8
2768:10.8
2760:27.5
2757:22.0
2754:18.3
2751:15.7
2748:13.8
2745:12.2
2742:11.0
2739:10.0
2728:22.5
2725:18.0
2722:15.0
2719:12.9
2716:11.3
2713:10.0
2696:17.5
2693:14.0
2690:11.7
2687:10.0
2664:12.5
2661:10.0
2565:1,000
2562:1,200
2559:1,400
2556:1,600
2553:1,800
2550:2,000
2547:2,200
2544:2,400
2383:Japan
2343:pumps
1970:Years
1713:OSOTF
1692:where
1528:Notes
1515:5.1%
1489:1.7%
1428:Share
1414:Type
1218:cable
984:LiDAR
954:(see
912:watts
566:near
166:Topaz
158:with
8093:help
8059:ISBN
8032:2015
7996:2015
7904:2015
7879:2015
7784:link
7770:2018
7702:ISSN
7646:2020
7555:2012
7529:2011
6993:2014
6948:ISSN
6890:link
6639:ISSN
6604:ISSN
6557:ISSN
6522:2016
6496:2016
6452:2016
6426:2016
6201:ISSN
6170:link
5533:ISBN
5429:ISBN
5144:ISBN
4875:2010
4750:ISSN
4553:ISBN
4472:2018
4375:2018
4317:2015
4270:2014
4068:2014
3998:2018
3947:2014
3902:2014
3491:and
3422:any
3420:cite
3225:The
3156:0.57
3035:LCOE
2736:9.2
2710:9.0
2707:8.2
2704:7.5
2684:8.8
2681:7.8
2678:7.0
2675:6.4
2672:5.8
2658:8.3
2655:7.1
2652:6.3
2649:5.6
2646:5.0
2643:4.5
2640:4.2
2632:7.5
2629:6.0
2626:5.0
2623:4.3
2620:3.8
2617:3.3
2614:3.0
2611:2.7
2608:2.5
2600:2.5
2597:2.0
2594:1.7
2591:1.4
2588:1.3
2585:1.1
2582:1.0
2579:0.9
2576:0.8
2568:800
2357:and
2324:MPPT
2114:. A
1988:5.46
1960:3150
1954:1000
1942:1000
1936:3000
1861:0.70
1814:1000
1778:2300
1688:when
1633:MPPT
1614:flow
1604:and
1591:and
1554:and
1446:98%
1134:any
1132:cite
1014:arid
864:c-Si
855:and
841:GaAs
833:CIGS
829:CdTe
735:GNSS
690:The
619:BAPV
570:, US
537:and
517:are
354:vs.
338:vs.
136:BIPV
9183:'s
9078:REC
8051:doi
7815:doi
7803:159
7694:doi
7682:137
6938:doi
6926:228
6680:hdl
6672:doi
6596:doi
6549:doi
6303:hdl
6295:doi
5733:doi
5642:doi
5630:124
5603:doi
5487:doi
5421:doi
5392:doi
5347:doi
5281:hdl
5271:doi
5229:doi
5182:doi
5109:doi
5010:doi
4946:doi
4839:PMC
4831:doi
4742:doi
4730:115
4678:doi
4644:doi
4632:113
4605:doi
4545:doi
4507:doi
4230:doi
4181:hdl
4173:doi
4103:doi
3987:doi
3433:by
3374:at
2994:USA
2381:in
2337:In
2302:or
2215:kWp
2013:CPV
1991:...
1948:100
1924:200
1901:0.5
1895:E_d
1873:365
1867:E_d
1835:E_s
1820:E_d
1802:300
1784:E_s
1772:E_d
1568:by
1145:by
754:CPV
670:or
278:or
262:or
239:to
211:or
160:CPV
130:BOS
9215::
9013:US
8085::
8083:}}
8079:{{
8067:.
8057:.
8015:.
7842:.
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7813:.
7801:.
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