Sociology of health and illness

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dysfunctional society that needed regulating. Creating this mechanism would prevent people who were pretending to be sick to form a subculture of being sick. By developing the “sick role mechanism” patients and doctors had to abide by a set of “rights” and “obligations” that would monitor entry into the sick role. The “rights” of a patient constituted an exemption from performing their respective social roles, such as going to work or housekeeping with the further exemption being given to those severely ill. These rights were given if they maintained two obligations, the first being that they had to view being sick as undesirable and thus must find a way to get better. Second, after a while of being sick, the person must seek the help of a doctor and follow their advice in other to alleviate their illness. The “obligations” of the doctors were to be trained in their field, be motivated to help the patient, have objective and emotional detachment from the patient, and be bound by the rules of professional conduct. Their “rights” consisted of being able to examine the patient physically and ask about their personal life, and have a position of authority and autonomy in their professional practice. Lastly, receive status and reward from their important role in society. Parson’s perspective. In addition, Michel Foucault published

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most people that are affected with AIDS and HIV in South America. In Brazil sixty percent of the inhabitants are HIV positive because of drug use. Usually this disease is transmitted by either drug use involving needles or unprotected sex. Sharing needles and being infected with HIV and AIDS is most common in Paraguay and Uruguay. South America is trying to get treatment to the thousands of people infected by this disease. Brazil is offering generic AIDS prescriptions that are much less expensive than the name brand drugs. One hundred and eighty-one thousand inhabitants in Brazil who were infected are being treated. That accounts for eighty percent of those who needed immediate help. This aid from the government has had positive results. Statistics show that there was a fifty percent decrease in mortality rates, approximately sixty to eighty percent decrease in morbidity rates and a seventy percent decrease in hospitalization of infected people.

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themselves. In order to care for the sick parents, the children have to take on more responsibility by working to produce an income. Not only do the children lose their parents but they also lose their childhood as well. Having to provide care for their parents, the children also miss out on an education which increases the risk of teen pregnancy and people affected with HIV. The most efficient way to diminish the orphan epidemic is prevention: preventing children from acquiring HIV from their mothers at birth, as well as educating them on the disease as they grow older. Also, educating adults about HIV and caring for the infected people adequately will lower the orphan population.

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are infected. Incubation of Hepatitis D typically lasts for thirty five days. Most often Hepatitis D is a co-infection with Hepatitis B or a super-infection with chronic hepatitis. In terms of super infections there are high mortality rates, ranging seventy to eighty percent; in contrast with co-infections which have a one to three percent mortality rate. There is little information with the ecology of Hepatitis D. Epidemics have been found in Venezuela, Peru, Columbia, and Brazil. People who are treated for Hepatitis B have been able to control Hepatitis D. People who have chronic HDB will continue to get HDV.

1687: 64: 1501:, also have very elderly populations and thus have to try to sustain their economies and society with small younger generations while caring for their elderly citizens. The elderly have been traditionally well respected and well cared for in most Asian cultures; experts predict that younger generations in the future are less likely to be concerned and involved in the health care of their older relatives due to various factors such as women joining the workforce more, the separation of families because of urbanization or migration, and the proliferation of 1084: 1408: 1769: 1486:(ANC) are usually made by older women, often the pregnant woman's mother-in-law, while the mother and father to be are distanced from the process. They may or may not receive professional ANC depending on their education, class, and financial situation. Generally in Asia, childbirth is still a woman's area and male obstetricians are rare. Female midwives and healers are still the norm in most places. Western methods are overtaking the traditional in an attempt to improve maternal health and increase the number of live births. 1719:

and most importantly are part of the dialogue between patients' and professionals' illness explanations. It can help explore why some patients will follow a doctors instructions to the letter and others ignore them completely. A patient's explanation or understanding of their illness can be much broader than a physician's and this dynamic has become a major criticism of modern medical practice since it normally excludes the "social, psychological and experiential dimensions of illness."

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System to help strengthen the health care system. Even with Chile's indigenous groups, Chile still has the best public health services in South America. They also have the lowest mortality rates in the area. Their health care policies are centered around family and community wellbeing by focusing on the strategies for prevention health strategies. Reports have shown an increase in mental health issues, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

860: 1330: 5481: 4296: 1923:. Malaria can be cured, but the symptoms may not become noticeable until months later. There are three forms of medication that can cure Malaria. An infected person's accessibility to these drugs is dependent upon their access to medical care and their financial situation. Literature about Malaria treatment typically is focused toward people who are tourists. Most sources are not written with the native in mind. 1459: 5469: 4284: 1927: 1455:, try to create policies that respect tradition without trying to replace it with modern science, instead regulating it to ensure safety but keeping it accessible. India in particular tries to make traditional medicines safe but still available to as many people as possible, adapting tradition to match modernization while still considering the economic positions and culture of its citizens. 1451:, and may have been passed down orally in small groups or even institutionalized and professionalized. In many developing countries the only health care available until a few decades ago were those based on traditional medicine and spiritual healing. Now governments must be careful to create health policies that strike a balance between modernity and tradition. Organizations, like the 1017: 1665:. The most common treatment for hypertension is medication but compliance for this treatment plan is low. A study conducted in the UK examined the differences between 'white' patients and first generation immigrants from the West Indies. There were differing reasons for non-compliance that involve the patients' perception and beliefs about the 1537:. Because of this, public health was professionalized beginning in the late 1870s in an effort to control these and other diseases. Since then Australia's health system has evolved similarly to Western countries and the main cultural influence affecting health care are the political ideologies of the parties in control of the government. 1728:

similar studies in Ireland that explain this phenomenon as being based in a strong work ethic. Illness in these countries will affect their work and Finnish people will quickly get treatment so they can return to work. This research out of Finland also describes that this relationship between patient and doctor is based on:

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In very remote areas of South America, traditional healers are the only forms of health care people have. In north Aymara and south Mapuche, where the indigenous groups have the strongest voices, they still heavily use traditional medicine. The government in Chile has implemented an Indigenous Health

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in the Pacific Islands. The end of colonization meant a loss of medical resources, and the fledgling independent governments could not afford to continue the health policies put in place by the colonial governments. Nutrition was changed radically, contributing to various other health problems. While

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show that autonomy and control in the workplace are vital factors in the etiology of heart disease. One cause is an effort-reward imbalance. Decreasing career advancement opportunities and major imbalances in control over work have been coupled with various negative health costs. Various studies have

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The field of sociology of health and illness has been shaped by the perspectives and contributing works of various authors that have enabled its development. Many research studies touch on the relationship between the patient and doctor aswell as their environment within the healthcare system. One of

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4- sanctioning by other people 5- patients' ideas about how long certain complaints should last. These kind of explanatory models are part of the process that people use to construct medical culture. They give meaning to illness and health, answer questions about personal responsibility about health

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Australia has had treatment facilities for 'problem drinkers' since the 1870s. In the 1960s and 1970s it was recognized that Australia had several hundred thousand alcoholics and prevention became a priority over cures, as there was a societal consensus that treatments are generally ineffective. The

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has the 11th worst (44 years old). Key issues in Asian health include childbirth and maternal health, HIV and AIDS, mental health, and aging and the elderly. These problems are influenced by the sociological factors of religion or belief systems, attempts to reconcile traditional medicinal practices

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Herbal treatment is one of the primary medicines used to treat HIV in Africa. It is used more than standard treatment because it is more affordable. Herbal treatment is more affordable but is not researched and is poorly regulated . This lack of research on whether the herbal medicines work and what

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whereas the modern goal is to prevent disease before it becomes a problem. Despite the overall improvement of world health, there still has not been any decrease in the health gap between the affluent and the impoverished. Today, society is more likely to blame health issues on the individual rather

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there is an aspect "over-protectiveness" within their health care system. Many might conclude that the Finnish people are dependent and helpless but the researchers of this study found that people chose to consult professionals because they trusted them over some lay explanation. These results echo

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levels and many young people are also at risk because of their increased tobacco, alcohol, and non-medical substance use. Health and illness prevention in Europe is largely funded by the governmental services including: regulating health care, insurance and social programs. The role of religion and

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Confucianism has had a strong influence on the belief system in Asia for centuries, particularly in China, Japan, and Korea, and its influence can be seen in the way people chose to seek, or not seek, medical care. An important issue in Asia is societal effect on the ability of disabled individuals

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Economically, HIV has a significant negative effect. The labor force in Africa is slowly diminishing, due to HIV-related deaths and illness. In response, government income declines and so does tax revenue. The government has to spend more money than it is making, in order to care for those affected

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when looking at the pattern of sickness, but sociologists try to look at various data to analyze the distribution better. Normally, developing societies have lower life expectancies in comparison to developed countries. They have also found correlations between mortality and sex and age. Very young

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are the most common means of transmission. HDV is still considered an unusual form of hepatitis. Agents of this virus resemble that of plant viroids. It is still hard to tell how many stereotypes exist because HDV is under the umbrella of HBV. HDV causes very high titers in the blood of people who

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and modernization, but the United States lacks federal laws regarding health care as a basic human right. This lag of health care security causes subsequent issues with pharmaceutical competition, lack of care for the elderly, and little attention to alternative medicine. Health care and education

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consumption, smoking, diet, and exercise are important issues, but they also see the importance of analyzing the cultural factors that affect these patterns. Sociologists also look at the effects that the productive process has on health and illness. While also looking at things such as industrial

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government, it did not go into action immediately. The Conservative government was criticized by the Labour Party for not implementing the suggestions that the Black Report listed. This criticism gave the Black Report the exposure it needed and its arguments were considered a valid explanation for

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in 1963, in which he developed his theory of the “medical gaze” referring to how doctors filter patient information into a biomedical paradigm, which focuses solely on biological factors excluding how social, environmental and psychological factors can influence a patient’s condition. According to

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South America's economy is developing rapidly and has a great deal of industries. The major industry in South America are agriculture. Other industries are fishing, handicrafts, and natural resources. Its trade and import-export market is continually thriving. In the past South American countries

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Another disease that affects South America is HIV and AIDS. In 2008 roughly two million people had HIV and AIDS. By the end of 2008 one hundred and seventy thousand people were infected with AIDS and HIV. Seventy seven thousand people died from this disease by the end of that year. Brazil has the

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is the addiction of over-consumption of alcohol and is highly prevalent in the US. There are high incidence rates in many other world regions. Roughly 61% of American adults drank in 2007, and 21% of current drinkers consumed five or more drinks at one point in the last year. There have also been

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North America is a fairly recent settled continent, made up of the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. It was built by an amalgamation of wealth, ideas, culture, and practices. North America is highly advanced intellectually, technologically, and traditionally. This

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Disparities in health were also found between people in different social classes and ethnicities within the same society, even though in the medical profession they put more importance in "health related behaviors" such as alcohol consumption, smoking, diet, and exercise. There is a great deal of

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were connected directly or indirectly with travel to Mexico as well. Flu viruses can be directly transmitted (via droplets from sneezing or coughing) from pigs to people, and vice versa. These cross-species infections occur most commonly when people are close to large numbers of pigs, such as in

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Those that were most concerned with health, sanitation and illness in the ancient world were those in the elite class. Good health was thought to reduce the risk of spiritual defilement and therefore enhanced the social status of the ruling class who saw themselves as the beacon of civilization.

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has been spread), people should always pursue good health in their lives, with an emphasis on health promotion and disease prevention. To the Chinese, having a disability signifies that one has not led a proper lifestyle and therefore there is a lack of opportunities for disabled individuals to

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written in 1951. In his sick role theory, he argued that people who were sick adopted a social role, not just a biological condition. Those who were sick deviated from social roles were unable to fulfill their respective functions, thus if too many people claimed to be ill, this would create a

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A major social problem in Africa in regards to HIV is the orphan epidemic. The orphan epidemic in Africa is a regional problem. In most cases, both of the parents are affected with HIV. Due to this, the children are usually raised by their grandmothers and in extreme cases they are raised by

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People who are a part of religious sub-groups of Sub-Saharan Africa, and those who actively and frequently participate in religious activities, are more likely to be at a lower risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. On the opposite end, there are many beliefs that an infected male can be cured of the

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The Sociology of Health and Illness focuses on three areas: the conceptualization, the study of measurement and social distribution, and the justification of patterns in health and illness. By looking at these things researchers can look at different diseases through a sociological lens. The

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and supervising sewer systems. Private corporations also played a role in public health. The funding for research and the institutions for them to work were funded by governments and private firms. Epidemics were the cause of most government interventions. The early goal of public health was

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of 75 years for males and 80 years for females. This leads to the conclusion that North America has cultivated a comparatively healthy society. As North America contains several core nations, the growing economies in those nations are able to maintain and develop medical institutions. This

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The Finnish study examined 127 patients and the results have been different from findings in other countries where there is more 'lay consultation'. Half of the respondents did not have any lay consultation before coming to the doctors office. One-third did not try any self-treatment and

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problems focused on reasons for consulting medical experts and explanations of illness. These common illness were examined not because of their seriousness but because of their frequency. The researchers explain five possible triggers that people seek medical aid: 1- the occurrence of an

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Mental health issues are gaining an increasing amount of attention in the Asian countries. Many of these countries have a preoccupation with modernizing and developing their economies, resulting in cultural changes. In order to reconcile modern techniques with traditional practices,

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was the first medical doctor known by name. An Egyptian who lived around 2650 B.C., he was an adviser to King Zoser at a time when Egyptians were making progress in medicine. Among his contributions to medicine was a textbook on the treatment of wounds, broken bones, and even

1064:. From his account it is shown how factors outside the disease itself can affect society. The Athenians were under siege and concentrated within the city. Major city centers were the hardest hit. This made the outbreak even more deadly and with probable food shortages the fate of 1207:

A great deal of the time, mortality statistics take the place of the morbidity statistics because in many developed societies where people typically die from degenerative conditions, the age in which they die sheds more light on their life-time health. This produces many

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Foucault doctors are trained to be doctor-oriented rather than patient-oriented, which creates a form of abusive power structure. Among these authors have contributed to the development of the field of health and illness by bringing in their perspectives at the time.

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moved slowly in regards to economic development. South America began to build its economy ever since World War II. South America's largest economies are Brazil, Chile, Argentina, and Columbia. Venezuela, Peru, and Argentina's economy are growing very rapidly.

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teaches them to reject long-term drug therapy opted instead for folk remedies in higher numbers than the 'white' respondents. What can be seen here is that some people will choose to ignore a doctor's expert advice and will employ 'lay consultation' instead.

1165:, published in the United Kingdom, went against this view and argued that the true root of the problem was material deprivation. This report proposed a comprehensive anti-poverty strategy to address these issues. Since this did not parallel the views of the 1673:

when first diagnosed are the major cause and think that when stress levels decline so too will their hypertension. Other respondents in this UK based study had varying beliefs concerning the necessity of medication while others still argued that it was the

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22,073 alcohol induced deaths in the United States in the past year, about 13,000 of which were related to liver disease. Alcoholism has many risk factors ingrained in North American culture, such as heredity, stress from competition or availability.

1431:, in which women are of less importance than men. Men in their superiority have no need to be sexually responsible, and women, generally not well educated, are often unaware of the risk, perpetuating the spread of HIV and AIDS as well as other STIs. 961:

is viewed as not holistically placing humans within the wider social, cultural, economic, political, and environmental contexts that play a large part in how health and wellbeing are deprived, maintained, or improved. Alternative models include the

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is a good example of how society is shaping Asian HIV/AIDS awareness and attitudes towards this disease. Vietnam is a country with feudal, traditional roots, which, due to invasion, wars, technology and travel is becoming increasingly globalized.

1753:. These people will often use knowledge outside the medical field to deal with health and illness. Others see the doctor as the expert and are shy about describing their symptoms and therefore rely on the doctor for diagnosis and treatment. 1953:

from another disease altogether. They called it "Hepatitis Delta Virus" (HDV). This new virus was found to be defective. HDV needed HBV to act as a helper function in order for it to be detected. Normally Hepatitis B is transmitted through

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Nursing student graduate (center) participates in the reading of the International Nurses' Pledge during Germanna Community College's Nursing and Health Technologies convocation, held at the Fredericksburg Expo and Conference Center in

930:, social processes interweave and influence our health and wellbeing. These influences could be where we were brought up, how illness is understood and framed by immediate community members, or the impact that technology has with our 1795:

are plentiful at a price and illness still persists for many reasons. A main reason is that a lower- and middle-class population still exists in plentiful numbers, maintaining a group that is highly vulnerable to physical ailment.

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begins to fail, leading to life-threatening infections. Two-thirds of the world's HIV population is located in Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the epidemic started more than 15 million Africans have died by complications with HIV/AIDS.

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and community surveys. Official statistics make it possible to look at people who have been treated. It shows that they are both willing and able to use health services. It also sheds light on the infected person's view of their

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HIV/AIDS is the leading epidemic that affects the social welfare of Africa. Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can cause AIDS which is an acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which the

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to adjust to a disability. Cultural beliefs shape attitudes towards physical and mental disabilities. China exemplifies this problem. According to Chinese Confucian tradition (which is also applicable in other countries where

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data supporting the conclusion that these behaviors affect health more significantly than other factors. Sociologists think that it is more helpful to look at health and illness through a broad lens. Sociologists agree that

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During the late Roman Period, sanitation for the lower classes was a concern for the leisured class. Those that had the means would donate to charities that focused on the health of non-elites. After the decline of the

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shown that pension rights may shed light on mortality differences between retired men and women of different socioeconomic statuses. These studies show that there are outside factors that influence health and illness.

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lead to a smaller mortality rate in much of the western world. Other factors that allowed the modern rise in population include: better nutrition and environmental reforms (such as getting clean water supplies).

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natives see obesity as a positive thing, especially in men. They also believe that women should do as little physical work as possible while the men provide for them, meaning they get very little exercise.

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of people in Africa by twenty years. The age range with the highest death rates, due to HIV, are those between the ages of 20 and 49 years. The fact that this age range is when adults acquire most of their

1525:. While indigenous medicinal beliefs are not significantly prevalent in Australia, traditional ideas are still influential in the health care problems in many of the islands of the Pacific. The rapid 1204:. On the other hand, community surveys look at people's rating of their health. Then looking at the relation of clinically defined illness and self reports and find that there is often a discrepancy. 1427:

has altered traditional viewpoints and values. It is also responsible for the spread of HIV and AIDS in Vietnam. Even early globalization has added to this problem – Chinese influence made Vietnam a

1842:(also known as H1N1) epidemic is a recent disease emerging in the early 21st century. In April 2009, during the early days of the outbreak, a molecular biologist named Dr. Henry Miller wrote in the 1195:. By looking at bad health, researchers can see if health affects different social regulations or controls. When measuring the distribution of health and illness, it is useful to look at official 1560:

Experts believe that many of the health problems in the Pacific Islands can be traced back to European colonization and the subsequent globalization and modernization of island communities. (See

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Before people seek medical help they try to interpret the symptoms themselves and often consult people in their lives or use 'self-help' measures. A study of 'everyday illness' in

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has more of a bearing on health than social environment, but research has also proved that there is indeed a positive correlation between socioeconomic inequalities and illness.

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European Region. The goal is to improve the health of poor and disadvantaged populations by promoting healthy lifestyles including environmental, economic, social and providing

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Indigenous healing practices are extremely diverse throughout Asia but often follow certain patterns and are still prevalent today. Many traditional healing practices include

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means they often cannot afford to send their children to school due to the high medication costs. It also removes the people who could help aid in responding to the epidemic.

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Punamaki, Raija-Leena (1995). "Reasons for consultation and explanations of illness among Finnish primary-care patients". Sociology of Health & Illness, Vol. 17, No. 1.

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subsequently provides more access to health care for American citizens but health care is not universal. North America is known for being a leading nation in regards to

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has turned to examining the role that beliefs play in its diagnosis and treatment. Hypertension is an essential topic for study since it is linked to increased risk of

923:. As a field of study it is interested in all aspects of life, including contemporary as well as historical influences, that impact and alter our health and wellbeing. 2540:

Saari, Peggy. "Medicine And Disease - Who Was The First Doctor In History?." History Fact Finder. Ed. Julie L. Carnagie. UXL-GALE, 2001. eNotes.com. 2006. 2 Nov, 2009

2782: 2758: 1564:.) European colonization and late independence meant modernization but also slow economic growth, which had an enormous effect on health care, particularly on 3131:

Morgan, Myfanwy (1988). "Managing hypertension: beliefs and responses to medication among cultural groups". Sociology of Health & Illness, Vol. 10, No. 4.

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of several Italians who developed HBV infections. Scientists initially thought that it was an antigenic specificity of HBV, but they soon found that it was a

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barns, livestock exhibits at fairs, and slaughterhouses. The flu is transmissible from human to human, either directly or via contaminated surfaces."

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psychology". Indigenous psychology is that which is derived from the laws, theories, principals, and ideas of a culture and unique to each society.

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Estimation of the number of adults in Africa who are infected with HIV or AIDS. Note that levels of infection are much higher in sub-Saharan Africa.

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created rules for health which stressed ritual cleanliness, connected disease with certain animals and created diets. Other examples include the

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Asian countries have wide variations of population, wealth, technology and health care, causing attitudes towards health and illness to differ.

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The conflict between medical and lay worlds is prominent. On one hand many patients believe they are the expert of their own body and view the

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Willcox, Merlin, Gerard Bodeker and Philippe Rasoanaivo. Traditional medicinal plants and malaria. United States of America: CRC Press, 2004.

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more prosperous, urban areas could afford food, they chose poor diets, causing 'overnourishment', and leading to extremely high levels of

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In many Asian countries, childbirth is still treated by traditional means and is thought of with regional attitudes. For example, in

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interpersonal crisis 2- perceived interference with social and personal relations 3- perceived interference with vocational &

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are still unsure in what way this disease was being transmitted throughout certain South American countries. Sexual contact and

1135:, physicians and concern with public health disappeared except in the largest cities. Health and public doctors remained in the 5312: 4628: 3839: 468: 1723:

three-quarters of the sample consulted the doctor within three days of symptoms developing. Possible explanations are that in

5370: 5277: 3472: 3453: 3434: 3387: 3341: 3291: 3082: 3048: 3014: 2983: 2956: 2916: 2886: 2859: 2823: 2663: 2619: 2525: 2375: 2205: 2114: 2079: 1830:, or BMI. From the beginning and to the end of the decade, the median percent of adults who were obese rose from 12% to 20%. 5531: 5360: 3517: 2541: 5317: 4881: 4469: 890: 487: 4385: 1617:. Overall health in Europe is very high compared to the rest of the world. The average life expectancy is around 78 in 2790: 1588:

Traditional diets in the Pacific are very low in fat, but since World War II there has been a significant increase in

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Stopping the spread of infectious disease was of utmost importance for maintaining a healthy society. The outbreak of

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Nosikov, Anatoliy (2002). The European Health Report 2002 (Report). World Health Organization Regional Office Europe.

829: 819: 523: 483: 3749: 2721: 278: 2759:"Epidemics: Malaria, AIDS, Other Disease: Postcolonial Africa | Encyclopedia of African History - Credo Reference" 5499: 5018: 4646: 4300: 4181: 4102: 1621:

countries but there is a wide gap between Western and Eastern Europe. It is as low as 67 in Russia and 73 in the

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to preserve one's health. The Chinese closely link health with spiritual well-being. Health regimes in ancient

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government began passing laws attempting to curb alcohol consumption but consistently met opposition from the

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and ritual. Other codes of behavior and dietary protocols were widespread in the ancient world. During the

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Babb, DA. (2007) Use of traditional medicine by HIV infected individuals. Psycho Health Med. 12, 314-320.

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Infectious Diseases in an Age of Change The Impact of Human Ecology and Behavior on Disease Transmission

998:, an American sociologist, who analyzed the relationship between patients and their doctors in his book 26: 5536: 5207: 5132: 5037: 4573: 4288: 2851: 1899:

is a major factor in the areas where malaria is found. The disease is spread from person to person via

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national and municipal administrative bureaucracies that demand more output and more satisfied patients

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as they contribute insights from their distinct focuses on the life-course of our health and wellness.

946:; that our way of knowing illness, wellbeing, and our interactions with them are socially interpreted. 824: 322: 5513: 2461: 1217:. On average women typically live longer than men, although women are more likely to have bad health. 5329: 5324: 5192: 4891: 4598: 4556: 4520: 4427: 4186: 3859: 2277: 2014: 1610: 1452: 1178:

gave considerable emphasis to poverty and lack of access to health care. It has also been found that

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claims that poverty is the most important factor bringing on ill health across Europe. Those at low

1577:, and cardiovascular diseases. Poorer rural communities, on the other hand, continue to suffer from 650: 5167: 4866: 4578: 4474: 4270: 3809: 3618: 3510: 2815:

Sexual cultures in East Asia the social construction of sexuality and sexual risk in a time of AIDS

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and other historical records, allow an examination of how ancient societies dealt with illness and

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of this disorder are: high fever, chills, sweating, headaches, body aches, weakness, vomiting and

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even as they are attempting to build their economies. Even wealthy Asian nations, such as Japan,

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than society as a whole. This was the prevailing view in the late 20th century. In the 1980s the

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Packer, Lester; Ong, Choon Nam; Halliwell, Barry; Choon Nam Ong & Barry Halliwell (2004).

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as a mechanical entity alongside disrupting the idea that the mind and body can be treated as

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of medication that made them end their prescribed regimen. West Indian respondents whose lay

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Mumtaz and Salway. Gender, pregnancy and the uptake of antenatal care services in Pakistan.

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Healing powers and modernity traditional medicine, shamanism, and science in Asian societies

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Health, Civilization, and the State A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times

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Health, Civilization, and the state a history of public health from ancient to modern times

2234: 2197: 2131: 2028: 1642: 1036:. Rulers in Ancient Egypt sponsored physicians that were specialists in specific diseases. 834: 636: 603: 573: 408: 378: 368: 298: 283: 78: 73: 3944: 1741:

hospital specialists wanting better/earlier screening for serious illnesses (e.g. cancer).

1151:. A few state interventions include maintaining clean towns, enforcing quarantines during 688: 8: 5403: 5398: 5172: 4971: 4961: 4796: 4405: 4245: 3969: 3849: 3799: 3704: 3694: 3585: 3503: 1104: 708: 453: 353: 191: 178: 3211: 2413: 2238: 1407: 1083: 966:

that aims to incorporate these elements alongside the psychological aspect of the mind.

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Like the rest of the world, Asia is threatened by a possible pandemic of HIV and AIDS.

927: 876: 518: 513: 433: 388: 338: 308: 288: 148: 125: 4059: 784: 5187: 5182: 5110: 5059: 4833: 4813: 4801: 4761: 4732: 4700: 4618: 4511: 4479: 4375: 4210: 4142: 4122: 3999: 3934: 3909: 3794: 3608: 3486: 3468: 3449: 3430: 3411: 3383: 3337: 3312: 3287: 3078: 3044: 3010: 2979: 2952: 2912: 2882: 2855: 2819: 2659: 2615: 2577: 2521: 2381: 2371: 2346: 2341: 2324: 2309: 2297: 2258: 2250: 2222: 2201: 2161: 2153: 2110: 2085: 2075: 1911:. If left untreated, new symptoms can occur; people that are infected may experience 1791: 1715: 1634: 1596:

in Pacific diets. Native attitudes towards weight contribute to the obesity problem.

1490: 1468: 1053: 970: 736: 680: 660: 618: 598: 428: 418: 348: 198: 143: 3959: 2560:

Littman, Robert J. (2009). "The Plague of Athens: Epidemiology and Paleopathology".

2173: 1768: 1311:

Social factors play a significant role in developing health and illness. Studies of

1020:

Wall painting found in the tomb of an Egyptian official known as the physicians tomb

700: 5352: 5105: 5064: 4876: 4851: 4663: 4593: 4437: 4240: 4064: 4014: 3949: 3819: 3739: 3719: 3633: 3570: 3074:

Health change in the Asia-Pacific region biocultural and epidemiological approaches

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by having sex with a virgin. These beliefs increase the number of people with the

1147:

The present day sense of health being a public concern for the state began in the

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the Daughters of Hariti childbirth and female healers in South and Southeast Asia

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with modern professionalism, and the economic status of the inhabitants of Asia.

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Health sociology uses this insight to critique long established ideas around the

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the medicines consist of is a major flaw in the healing cycle of HIV in Africa.

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is a recent epidemic in North America. The 1990s brought a rise in the average

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This field of research acts as a broad school overlapping with areas like the

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Miller, Henry I. Wall Street Journal: Understanding Swine Flu, April 28, 2009

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Public health in Asia and the Pacific historical and comparative perspectives

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high-school students. These students apparently brought the virus back from

1776:

countries and the percentage of total population (aged 15 and above) with a

1095:

Ancient medical systems stressed the importance of reducing illness through

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advantageous character of North American nations has caused a high average

1675: 1650: 1578: 1526: 1436: 1428: 1399:, for example, has the third highest life expectancy (82 years old), while 1366: 1312: 1308:, environmental pollution, accidents at work, and stress-related diseases. 1162: 1132: 1100: 744: 696: 2847:

Progress in Asian social psychology conceptual and empirical contributions

2365: 2132:"The Social Construction of Illness: Key Insights and Policy Implications" 2069: 5423: 5120: 4818: 4727: 4690: 4112: 4029: 3994: 3964: 3669: 3037:

Lewis, Milton James; Macpherson, Kerrie L.; Kerrie L. Macpherson (2007).

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traditional medicine, however, is often left unexamined in such reports.

1614: 1400: 1157: 1148: 1120: 1116: 760: 732: 704: 588: 543: 273: 248: 2278:"Menopause Research and The Dominance of the Biomedical Model 1984-1994" 1738:

nurses criticizing physicians for not taking a holistic view of patients

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Ohtsuka, Ryutaro; Ulijaszek, Stanley J.; Stanley J. Ulijaszek (2007).

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the Well-being of the elderly in Asia a four-country comparative study

2573: 2568:(5). Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, Vol. 76, pp. 456-467.: 456–467. 1938:

D was detected in 1978 when a strange and unrecognizable internuclear

1540: 5147: 4966: 4536: 4417: 3974: 3919: 3526: 2975:

Ageing in the Asia-Pacific region issues, policies, and future trends

1963: 1935: 1896: 1880: 1839: 1798: 1702: 1666: 1565: 1553:. The government has also waged a war on illegal drugs, particularly 1494: 1448: 1444: 1348: 1305: 1220: 1152: 1140: 1024:

Humans have long sought advice from those with knowledge or skill in

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causes ill-health or if ill-health causes poverty. Arguments by the

5013: 4766: 4400: 4370: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3036: 2881:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 3–4. 2367:

The sociology of health and medicine : a critical introduction

2004:

Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health

1912: 1908: 1904: 1903:

bites. People are typically bitten by mosquitoes at dusk and dawn.

1900: 1626: 1479: 1412: 1179: 1073: 1061: 1033: 939: 36: 4309: 1629:

in Eastern Europe because of a worsening socioeconomic situation.

1111:

focused on oral health as the best method for a healthy life. The

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In Europe, sociology of health and illness is represented by the

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and infected their classmates. All six cases so far reported in

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was inevitable. Approximately 25% of the population died of the

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Willcox, Merlin; Bodeker, Gerard; Rasoanaivo, Philippe (2004).

2904: 2223:"The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine" 1946: 1855: 1851: 1658: 1622: 1554: 1498: 1384: 1112: 1065: 1042: 935: 931: 920: 1926: 1458: 5142: 1955: 1943: 1920: 1888: 1609:

The largest endeavors to improve health across Europe is the

1597: 1396: 1352: 1214: 1108: 977:, sociology of disease to wider sociologies like that of the 3495: 2944: 2722:"HIV and AIDS in East and Southern Africa regional overview" 1557:, which in the 1950s became widely used as a pain reliever. 1440:

explore better ways to accept or adapt to their disability.

1080:

attacked people of different ages, sexes and nationalities.

1016: 5268:

Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety

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United Nations Industrial Development Organization (1978).

2908:

Herbal and traditional medicine molecular aspects of health

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Rozario, Santi; Samuel, Geoffrey; Geoffrey Samuel (2002).

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greater than 30. Data was collected between 1996 and 2003.

1489:

Asian countries, which are mostly developing nations, are

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Connor, Linda; Samuel, Geoffrey; Geoffrey Samuel (2001).

2193:

The Sociology of Health and Illness Critical Perspectives

1883:

D. Malaria affects every country in South America except

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Palmerlee, Danny; Bao, Sandra; Beech, Charlotte (2004).

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prevalence and response to different diseases varies by

1139:. Focusing on preventing the spread of diseases such as 3365:

World Learning Study Abroad. 2009. 3 December 2009 <

2048: 1757: 1170:

health inequality. There is also a debate over whether

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the founders of the sociology of health and illness is

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Rostosky, Sharon Scales; Travis, Cheryl Brown (1996).

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An introduction to the sociology of health and illness

1802:

World map showing alcohol consumption around the world

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states. Europe is seeing an increase in the spread of

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and also increase the number of rapes against women.

1103:

in China, doctors suggested exercise, meditation and

3077:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4, 7–9, 136. 1213:

and old people are more susceptible to sickness and

2789:. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009. Archived from 3275: 2610:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 2603: 3273: 2744: 2742: 2652:Taylor, Steve; Field, David; David Field (2007). 2049:European Society for Health and Medical Sociology 1810:for illness are currently excessive alcohol use, 1758:European Society for Health and Medical Sociology 5523: 1669:. Patients commonly believe that high levels of 2783:"Country Comparison:: Life Expectancy at Birth" 2739: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2322: 2275: 1513:The health patterns found on the continent of 1378:The HIV/AIDS epidemic is reducing the average 4341: 3511: 3307:for the National Academy of Sciences (1995). 2689:"Encyclopedia.com | Free Online Encyclopedia" 2562:The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, New York 884: 3380:Encyclopedia of World Geography China-Taiwan 3311:. National Academies Press. pp. 67–68. 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2129: 1319: 926:It establishes that, from our births to our 3732: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3159: 2705: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2606:Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe 988: 5303:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4348: 4334: 3518: 3504: 3367:http://www.sit.edu/studyabroad/ssa_cih.htm 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3094: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2398:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2130:Conrad, Peter; Barker, Kristin K. (2010). 1637:are more prevalent is Eastern Europe. The 891: 877: 62: 5263:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 5253:Center for Disease Control and Prevention 3405: 3260: 3258: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 2900: 2898: 2811: 2805: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2601: 2588: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2363: 2340: 2323:Timmermans, Stefan; Haas, Steven (2008). 2147: 2067: 1551:wine-making regions of southern Australia 21:Sociology of Health and Illness (journal) 3334:Traditional Medicinal Plants and Malaria 3173: 3156: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 2998: 2971: 2672: 2185: 2183: 1925: 1797: 1767: 1685: 1539: 1457: 1406: 1365: 1328: 1219: 1082: 1015: 1011: 25: 5308:Health departments in the United States 3114: 3091: 3043:. London: Routledge. pp. 222–235. 2938: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2559: 2546: 5524: 5313:Council on Education for Public Health 3465:Technologies from Developing Countries 3443: 3424: 3255: 3130: 3119: 3057: 2978:. London: Routledge. pp. xiv–xv. 2895: 2818:. London: Routledge. pp. 98–101. 2628: 2515: 2478: 2189: 1772:Compares figures in the population of 5371:Professional degrees of public health 5278:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 4329: 3499: 3023: 2220: 2180: 2136:Journal of Health and Social Behavior 2102: 2074:(3 ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity. 1482:, decisions concerning pregnancy and 934:. As such, it outlines that both our 5468: 5361:Bachelor of Science in Public Health 4283: 2843: 2832: 2658:. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell. 2096: 1521:, have been very much influenced by 5480: 4629:Workers' right to access the toilet 4470:Human right to water and sanitation 4295: 3481:Seale, Gabe, Wainwright, Williams. 3427:The Sociology of Health and Illness 3408:The Sociology of Health and Illness 3214:. World Health Organization. 2008. 2951:. London: Routledge. pp. 1–2. 2655:Sociology of Health and Health Care 2071:The sociology of health and illness 1962:Hepatitis D was found to be fatal. 13: 3399: 2294:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00471.x 14: 5548: 4902:Commercial determinants of health 4355: 3483:Sociology of Health & Illness 3218:from the original on May 21, 2008 2329:Sociology of Health & Illness 2109:. SAGE Publishing. pp. 4–5. 1958:or any type of blood product. In 1529:of Australia led to epidemics of 1462:Flag of World Health Organization 1294:Life expectancy by region in 2015 915:examines the interaction between 909:sociology of health and wellness, 5479: 5467: 5456: 5455: 4485:National public health institute 4308: 4294: 4282: 4259: 4258: 2933:Sociology of Health and Illness, 2342:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2008.01097.x 2325:"Towards a sociology of disease" 1862: 1763: 1735:the public demanding better care 1471:in India are in the process of " 858: 5505:Sociology of health and illness 4882:Open-source healthcare software 4624:Sociology of health and illness 3372: 3359: 3350: 3325: 3300: 3267: 3230: 2992: 2965: 2925: 2868: 2775: 2751: 2534: 2454: 2430: 2221:Engel, George L. (1977-04-08). 1994:Sociology of Health and Illness 1875:, but two major conditions are 905:sociology of health and illness 444:Peace, war, and social conflict 5243:Caribbean Public Health Agency 5055:Sexually transmitted infection 4952:Statistical hypothesis testing 4713:Occupational safety and health 4614:Sexual and reproductive health 4527:Occupational safety and health 3212:"World Health Statistics 2008" 2935:Vol. 29, No. 1 pp. 1-26: 2007. 2406: 2357: 2316: 2269: 2214: 2123: 2061: 1562:History of the Pacific Islands 1185: 1076:"carried away all alike". The 1: 4897:Social determinants of health 3525: 3278:South America on a shoestring 2370:(2 ed.). Cambridge, UK. 2282:Psychology of Women Quarterly 2055: 2044:Naturalistic disease theories 1224: 1091:treating a patient 480–470 BC 1072:. Thucydides stated that the 4957:Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 4718:Human factors and ergonomics 3007:University of Michigan Press 1508: 7: 5532:Alternative medical systems 5138:Good manufacturing practice 4942:Randomized controlled trial 2911:. CRC Press. pp. 2–5. 2854:. pp. 11–12, 294–295. 2812:Micollier, Evelyne (2004). 2021: 1999:Social Science and Medicine 1986: 1822:use, and water sanitation. 1747:Doctor-patient relationship 10: 5553: 5208:Theory of planned behavior 5133:Good agricultural practice 5038:Public health surveillance 4930:epidemiological statistics 4574:Public health intervention 4182:Human environmental impact 3336:. CRC Press. p. 173. 2852:Greenwood Publishing Group 2520:. New York NY: Routledge. 1919:. Severe cases may end in 1259: 1227: 115:Human environmental impact 18: 5514:Resources in your library 5451: 5386: 5345: 5330:World Toilet Organization 5325:World Health Organization 5232: 5221: 5158: 5083: 4999: 4927: 4892:Public health informatics 4832: 4637: 4599:Right to rest and leisure 4428:Globalization and disease 4363: 4255: 4158: 4083: 3892: 3649: 3599: 3561: 3533: 3406:Nettleton, Sarah (2006). 2999:Hermalin, Albert (2002). 2850:. Westport, Connecticut: 2763:search.credoreference.com 2462:"The Birth of the Clinic" 2364:Annandale, Ellen (2014). 2068:Nettleton, Sarah (2013). 1611:World Health Organization 1604: 1453:World Health Organization 1324: 1320:International perspective 5376:Schools of public health 5168:Diffusion of innovations 4867:Health impact assessment 4579:Public health laboratory 4475:Management of depression 3619:Structural functionalism 3444:Porter, Dorothy (1999). 2972:Phillips, David (2000). 2602:Lindemann, Mary (1999). 2516:Porter, Dorothy (1999). 2149:10.1177/0022146510383495 2015:Health, Risk and Society 2011:Social Theory and Health 1942:was discovered during a 1806:North America's primary 989:Theoretical perspectives 209:Structural functionalism 5439:Social hygiene movement 5366:Doctor of Public Health 5198:Social cognitive theory 5000:Infectious and epidemic 4782:Fecal–oral transmission 4191:Industrial revolutions 3639:Symbolic interactionism 2787:CIA- the World Factbook 1505:such as individualism. 1390: 1176:National Health Service 1005:The Birth of the Clinic 229:Symbolic interactionism 124:Industrial revolutions 5434:Germ theory of disease 5213:Transtheoretical model 3629:Social constructionism 3425:Conrad, Peter (2008). 3187:Cite journal requires 3144:Cite journal requires 2247:10.1126/science.847460 2190:Conrad, Peter (2008). 1931: 1803: 1781: 1694: 1663:coronary heart disease 1631:Cardiovascular disease 1545: 1463: 1415: 1371: 1370:AIDS orphans in Malawi 1334: 1295: 1092: 1021: 219:Social constructionism 44: 5318:Public Health Service 5203:Social norms approach 5193:PRECEDE–PROCEED model 4639:Preventive healthcare 4532:Pharmaceutical policy 4381:Chief Medical Officer 4236:Social stratification 4118:Conversation analysis 3675:Cultural anthropology 3665:Comparative sociology 3591:Sociological practice 3382:. 2002. p. 672. 2844:Yang, Guoshu (2003). 2103:White, Kevin (2002). 1929: 1801: 1771: 1689: 1543: 1523:European colonization 1461: 1410: 1369: 1332: 1223: 1086: 1019: 1012:Historical background 975:sociology of the body 971:sociology of medicine 964:biopsychosocial model 594:Conversation analysis 169:Social stratification 29: 19:For the journal, see 5394:Sara Josephine Baker 5293:Public Health Agency 5178:Health communication 5043:Disease surveillance 5009:Asymptomatic carrier 4991:Statistical software 4679:Preventive nutrition 4507:Medical anthropology 4396:Environmental health 3685:Historical sociology 2693:www.encyclopedia.com 2198:Macmillan Publishers 2142:(1_suppl): S67–S79. 2029:Alternative medicine 2008:Illness and Medicine 1643:socioeconomic status 1469:social psychologists 942:that engages it are 5404:Carl Rogers Darnall 5399:Samuel Jay Crumbine 5173:Health belief model 5026:Notifiable diseases 4962:Regression analysis 4797:Waterborne diseases 4386:Cultural competence 4246:Social cycle theory 3705:Social anthropology 3695:Political sociology 3586:Sociological theory 2239:1977Sci...196..129E 1844:Wall Street Journal 1517:which includes the 1411:People living with 179:Social cycle theory 50:Part of a series on 16:Branch of sociology 5002:disease prevention 4937:Case–control study 4609:Security of person 4458:Health care reform 4315:Society portal 4216:Social environment 3840:race and ethnicity 3690:Industrial society 1934:The first sign of 1932: 1804: 1782: 1695: 1546: 1464: 1416: 1372: 1335: 1296: 1093: 1022: 865:Society portal 488:History of science 469:Race and ethnicity 149:Social environment 45: 5537:Medical sociology 5500:Library resources 5495: 5494: 5447: 5446: 5357:Higher education 5188:Positive deviance 5183:Health psychology 5159:Health behavioral 5086:safety management 5060:Social distancing 4834:Population health 4814:Smoking cessation 4762:Pharmacovigilance 4733:Injury prevention 4701:Infection control 4619:Social psychology 4569:Prisoners' rights 4512:Medical sociology 4480:Public health law 4376:Biological hazard 4323: 4322: 4211:Social complexity 4143:Social experiment 3888: 3887: 3715:Social psychology 3474:978-0-7619-6400-1 3455:978-0-415-12244-3 3436:978-1-4292-0558-0 3389:978-0-7614-7289-6 3343:978-0-415-30112-1 3293:978-1-74104-163-7 3084:978-0-521-83792-7 3050:978-0-415-35962-7 3016:978-0-472-11280-7 2985:978-0-415-22018-7 2958:978-0-415-27792-1 2918:978-0-8247-5436-5 2888:978-0-89789-715-0 2861:978-0-313-32463-5 2825:978-0-415-30871-7 2665:978-1-4051-5172-6 2621:978-0-521-41254-4 2574:10.1002/msj.20137 2527:978-0-415-12244-3 2438:"Michel Foucault" 2377:978-0-7456-3461-6 2233:(4286): 129–136. 2207:978-1-4292-0558-0 2200:. pp. 1–55. 2116:978-0-7619-6400-1 2081:978-0-7456-4600-8 1792:industrialization 1716:physical activity 1635:diabetes mellitus 1544:Old heroin bottle 1429:Confucian society 1293: 1292: 1060:who survived the 1054:Peloponnesian War 1000:The Social System 944:social constructs 901: 900: 619:Social experiment 499:Social psychology 144:Social complexity 5544: 5483: 5482: 5471: 5470: 5459: 5458: 5353:Health education 5230: 5229: 5084:Food hygiene and 5065:Tropical disease 4877:Infant mortality 4852:Community health 4728:Controlled Drugs 4664:Health promotion 4594:Right to housing 4438:Health economics 4350: 4343: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4313: 4312: 4298: 4297: 4286: 4285: 4262: 4261: 4241:Social structure 4138:Network analysis 3730: 3729: 3720:Sociolinguistics 3710:Social movements 3634:Social darwinism 3571:Public sociology 3520: 3513: 3506: 3497: 3496: 3478: 3459: 3440: 3421: 3394: 3393: 3376: 3370: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3281: 3271: 3265: 3262: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3249: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3208: 3197: 3196: 3190: 3185: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3154: 3153: 3147: 3142: 3140: 3132: 3128: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3089: 3088: 3068: 3055: 3054: 3034: 3021: 3020: 3009:. pp. 1–3. 2996: 2990: 2989: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2942: 2936: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2902: 2893: 2892: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2841: 2830: 2829: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2793:on June 13, 2007 2779: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2769: 2755: 2749: 2746: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2733: 2718: 2703: 2702: 2700: 2699: 2685: 2670: 2669: 2649: 2626: 2625: 2609: 2599: 2586: 2585: 2557: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2513: 2476: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2434: 2428: 2427: 2426: 2425: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2397: 2389: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2344: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2187: 2178: 2177: 2151: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2065: 1893:Falkland Islands 1711:musculo-skeletal 1449:herbal medicines 1287: 1281: 1275: 1269: 1263: 1255: 1249: 1243: 1237: 1231: 1225: 1137:Byzantine Empire 1056:was recorded by 959:biomedical model 913:health sociology 893: 886: 879: 863: 862: 614:Network analysis 504:Sociocybernetics 494:Social movements 224:Social darwinism 174:Social structure 66: 47: 46: 5552: 5551: 5547: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5522: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5518: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5496: 5491: 5443: 5414:Margaret Sanger 5382: 5341: 5225: 5223: 5217: 5160: 5154: 5126:Safety scandals 5085: 5079: 5001: 4995: 4929: 4923: 4919:Social medicine 4912:Race and health 4847:Child mortality 4828: 4787:Open defecation 4669:Human nutrition 4659:Family planning 4647:Behavior change 4633: 4589:Right to health 4502:Maternal health 4492:Health politics 4443:Health literacy 4359: 4354: 4324: 4319: 4307: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4221:Social equality 4154: 4153: 4152: 4079: 3893:Major theorists 3884: 3728: 3725:Urban sociology 3700:Rural sociology 3652: 3645: 3644: 3643: 3614:Critical theory 3609:Conflict theory 3595: 3576:Social research 3563:General aspects 3557: 3529: 3524: 3485:, Vol. 33 2011 3475: 3456: 3437: 3418: 3402: 3400:Further reading 3397: 3390: 3378: 3377: 3373: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3272: 3268: 3263: 3256: 3247: 3245: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3221: 3219: 3210: 3209: 3200: 3188: 3186: 3177: 3176: 3172: 3157: 3145: 3143: 3134: 3133: 3129: 3120: 3113: 3092: 3085: 3069: 3058: 3051: 3035: 3024: 3017: 2997: 2993: 2986: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2943: 2939: 2930: 2926: 2919: 2903: 2896: 2889: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2842: 2833: 2826: 2810: 2806: 2796: 2794: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2767: 2765: 2757: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2731: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2706: 2697: 2695: 2687: 2686: 2673: 2666: 2650: 2629: 2622: 2600: 2589: 2558: 2547: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2514: 2479: 2471: 2469: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2447: 2445: 2436: 2435: 2431: 2423: 2421: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2391: 2390: 2378: 2362: 2358: 2321: 2317: 2274: 2270: 2219: 2215: 2208: 2188: 2181: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2101: 2097: 2082: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2024: 2019: 1989: 1915:, delirium and 1867:There are many 1865: 1828:Body Mass Index 1787:life expectancy 1778:body mass index 1766: 1690:Regions of the 1607: 1575:type 2 diabetes 1519:Pacific Islands 1511: 1393: 1380:life expectancy 1363:with HIV/AIDS. 1327: 1322: 1289: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1245: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1188: 1014: 996:Talcott Parsons 991: 955:distinct spaces 940:medical science 897: 857: 850: 849: 810: 800: 799: 727: 653: 639: 637:Major theorists 629: 628: 564: 554: 553: 244: 234: 233: 204:Critical theory 199:Conflict theory 194: 184: 183: 154:Social equality 95: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5550: 5540: 5539: 5534: 5517: 5516: 5510: 5509: 5498: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5477: 5465: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5390: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5355: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5342: 5340: 5339: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5321: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5282: 5281: 5280: 5272: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5257: 5256: 5255: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5236: 5234: 5227: 5222:Organizations, 5219: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5164: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5152: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5135: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5089: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5011: 5005: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4987: 4986: 4978: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4933: 4931: 4928:Biological and 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4894: 4889: 4887:Multimorbidity 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4838: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4827: 4826: 4824:Vector control 4821: 4816: 4811: 4809:School hygiene 4806: 4805: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4792:Sanitary sewer 4789: 4784: 4779: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4750:Patient safety 4747: 4746: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4683: 4682: 4681: 4676: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4655: 4654: 4643: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4488: 4487: 4482: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4433:Harm reduction 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4360: 4353: 4352: 4345: 4338: 4330: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4304: 4292: 4280: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4177:Human behavior 4174: 4169: 4164: 4163: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4155: 4151: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3883: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3870:stratification 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3736: 3734: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3651:Related fields 3647: 3646: 3642: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3567: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3523: 3522: 3515: 3508: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3479: 3473: 3460: 3454: 3441: 3435: 3422: 3416: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3395: 3388: 3371: 3358: 3349: 3342: 3324: 3317: 3299: 3292: 3266: 3254: 3229: 3198: 3189:|journal= 3155: 3146:|journal= 3118: 3090: 3083: 3056: 3049: 3022: 3015: 2991: 2984: 2964: 2957: 2937: 2924: 2917: 2894: 2887: 2867: 2860: 2831: 2824: 2804: 2774: 2750: 2738: 2704: 2671: 2664: 2627: 2620: 2587: 2545: 2533: 2526: 2477: 2453: 2429: 2405: 2376: 2356: 2335:(5): 659–676. 2315: 2288:(2): 285–312. 2268: 2213: 2206: 2179: 2122: 2115: 2095: 2080: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2034:Medicalization 2031: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2017: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1864: 1861: 1765: 1762: 1743: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1655:United Kingdom 1606: 1603: 1535:Bubonic plague 1510: 1507: 1503:Western ideals 1484:antenatal care 1392: 1389: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1291: 1290: 1284: 1278: 1272: 1266: 1260: 1258: 1252: 1246: 1240: 1234: 1228: 1187: 1184: 1089:Ancient Greece 1030:Paleopathology 1013: 1010: 990: 987: 899: 898: 896: 895: 888: 881: 873: 870: 869: 868: 867: 852: 851: 848: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 811: 806: 805: 802: 801: 655: 654: 640: 635: 634: 631: 630: 627: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 565: 560: 559: 556: 555: 552: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 264:Astrosociology 261: 256: 251: 245: 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 195: 190: 189: 186: 185: 182: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 122: 117: 112: 110:Human behavior 107: 102: 96: 93: 92: 89: 88: 87: 86: 81: 76: 68: 67: 59: 58: 52: 51: 33:Fredericksburg 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5549: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5488: 5487: 5478: 5476: 5475: 5466: 5464: 5463: 5454: 5453: 5450: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5409:Joseph Lister 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5385: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5344: 5337: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5288:Health Canada 5286: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5233:Organizations 5231: 5228: 5220: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5157: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5091: 5090: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5070:Vaccine trial 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5024: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5004: 4998: 4992: 4989: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4947:Relative risk 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4926: 4920: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4907:Health equity 4905: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4872:Health system 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4862:Global health 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4842:Biostatistics 4840: 4839: 4837: 4835: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4711: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4636: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4584:Right to food 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4522: 4518: 4517:Mental health 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4465:Housing First 4463: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4453:Health system 4451: 4450: 4449: 4448:Health policy 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4357:Public health 4351: 4346: 4344: 4339: 4337: 4332: 4331: 4328: 4317: 4316: 4311: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4293: 4291: 4290: 4281: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4266: 4257: 4254: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4226:Social equity 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4172:Globalization 4170: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4108:Computational 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3750:consciousness 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3653:and subfields 3648: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3581:Social theory 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3535: 3532: 3528: 3521: 3516: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3502: 3501: 3498: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3451: 3448:. Routledge. 3447: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3429:. Macmillan. 3428: 3423: 3419: 3417:0-7456-2828-1 3413: 3409: 3404: 3403: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3375: 3368: 3362: 3353: 3345: 3339: 3335: 3328: 3320: 3318:0-309-05136-3 3314: 3310: 3303: 3295: 3289: 3285: 3280: 3279: 3270: 3261: 3259: 3243: 3239: 3233: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3194: 3181: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3151: 3138: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3086: 3080: 3076: 3075: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3052: 3046: 3042: 3041: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3018: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3003: 2995: 2987: 2981: 2977: 2976: 2968: 2960: 2954: 2950: 2949: 2941: 2934: 2928: 2920: 2914: 2910: 2909: 2901: 2899: 2890: 2884: 2880: 2879: 2871: 2863: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2848: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2827: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2808: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2764: 2760: 2754: 2745: 2743: 2727: 2723: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2656: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2623: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2607: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2543: 2537: 2529: 2523: 2519: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2467: 2463: 2457: 2443: 2439: 2433: 2419: 2415: 2409: 2401: 2395: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2369: 2368: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2217: 2209: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2194: 2186: 2184: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2118: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2099: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2064: 2060: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1960:South America 1957: 1952: 1948: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1928: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1873:South America 1870: 1863:South America 1860: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1848:New York City 1845: 1841: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1800: 1796: 1793: 1788: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1764:North America 1761: 1759: 1754: 1752: 1751:authoritarian 1748: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1720: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1649:The study of 1647: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1633:, cancer and 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1542: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1531:typhoid fever 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1491:aging rapidly 1487: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1460: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1425:Globalization 1421: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1388: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1344: 1341: 1340:immune system 1331: 1317: 1314: 1309: 1307: 1302: 1270: 65–67.5 1264: 67.5–70 1256: 70–72.5 1250: 72.5–75 1244: 75–77.5 1238: 77.5–80 1226: 1222: 1218: 1216: 1211: 1205: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1128: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1113:Talmudic code 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1090: 1087:Physician in 1085: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1044: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1018: 1009: 1006: 1001: 997: 986: 984: 980: 976: 972: 967: 965: 960: 956: 952: 947: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 924: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 894: 889: 887: 882: 880: 875: 874: 872: 871: 866: 861: 856: 855: 854: 853: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 830:Organizations 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 812: 809: 804: 803: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 779: · 778: 775: · 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 735: · 734: 731: 728: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 667: · 666: 662: 659: 652: 648: 645: 642: 641: 638: 633: 632: 625: 622: 620: 617: 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