610:
resorts experienced annual revenues of about US$ 3 billion. Such high levels of revenue increase the demand for predictable and adequate amounts of snow cover, which can be achieved through artificial snowmaking practices. While the economic benefit of ski resorts has been around US$ 3 billion in recent years (see Figure 2), the additional economic value of winter tourism in the United States is estimated to be around US$ 12.2 billion per year. These additional benefits come in the form of spending at hotels, restaurants, gas stations, and other local businesses. Additionally, winter tourism supports around 211,900 jobs in the United States, which amounts to a total of approximately US$ 7 billion paid in benefits and salaries, US$ 1.4 billion paid in state and local taxes, and US$ 1.7 billion paid in federal taxes. The economic benefits of snow sports are great, but also fragile. It is estimated that in years of lower snowfall, there is about a US$ 1 billion decrease in economic activity.
747:. In 2004, Arizona Snowbowl was renting its slopes from the US Forest Service, and was looking to build new ski slopes and increase the production of artificial snow. The proposed project would involve the clearing of approximately 74 acres (30 ha) of forest, the use of reclaimed water to produce artificial snow, the construction of a three-acre holding pond for reclaimed water, and the installation of an underground pipeline. A group of plaintiffs made up of members from six Native American tribes and various other organizations filed a lawsuit against the US Forest Service and Arizona Snowbowl. Plaintiffs alleged that undertaking such a project would significantly alter and damage the cultural and spiritual nature of the mountain. This legal challenge ultimately failed in 2009.
639:
mountain reservoir. Many mountain reservoirs are embankment dams that feed underground water pipelines, and pose significant safety risks to nearby populations and ecosystems. In addition to the hazards posed by conventional reservoirs and dams, mountain reservoirs are subject to a variety of mountain-specific hazards. Such hazards include avalanches, rapid flows, and landslides. Approximately 20% of mountain reservoirs are built on avalanche-prone sites, and about 50% are prone to very high hazards. Additionally, mountain reservoirs expel water very quickly, causing massive floods, and significantly jeopardizing public safety. The severity of these hazards is augmented due to their potential impact on lower populations and properties.
239:
compressors which can be added to the system. Man fan-type snow guns have on-board electric air compressors, which allows for cheaper and more compact operation. A ski area may have the required high-output water pumps, but not an air pump. Onboard compressors are cheaper and easier than having a dedicated pumping house. The air is generally cooled and excess moisture is removed before it is sent out of the plant. Some systems even cool the water before it enters the system. This improves the snowmaking process as the less heat in the air and water, the less heat must be dissipated to the atmosphere to freeze the water. From this plant the air travels up a separate pipeline following the same path as the water pipeline.
557:
464:
of the atomized water takes place. The height and the slow rate of descent allow sufficient time for this process. This process uses less energy than a fan gun, but has a smaller range and lower snow quality; it also has greater sensitivity to wind. Advantages over fan gun are: lower investment (only cable system with air and water, central compressor station), much quieter, half the energy consumption for the same amount of snow, simpler maintenance due to lower wear and fewer moving parts, and regulation of snowmaking is possible in principle. The working pressure of snow lances is 20-60 bar. There are also small mobile systems for the home user that are operated by the garden connection (Home Snow).
42:
148:
619:
2335:
2325:
335:
277:
577:
decreased snowfall, thus forcing ski resorts to depend more heavily upon the use of artificial snow. However, once temperatures approach 6 °C (43 °F), snowmaking is not viable given the current technology. The photograph of
Parsenn to the right demonstrates the use of artificial snow to supplement natural snowfall. The strip of white going down the mountain is a ski slope that has been opened due to extensive use of snowmaking technology.
452:
195:
479:
319:
447:
nozzles (there are many different designs) and then the wind from the large fan blows this into a mist in the air to achieve a long hang time. Fan guns have anywhere from 12 to 360 water nozzles on a ring on the front of the gun through which the fan blows air. These banks can be controlled by valves. The valves are either manual, manual electric, or automatic electric (controlled by logic controller or computer).
351:
1636:
91:, the length of snow seasons in the northern hemisphere has decreased by five days each decade since the 1970s, thus increasing the demand for the production of artificial snow. Some ski resorts use artificial snow to extend their ski seasons and augment natural snowfall; however, there are some resorts that rely almost entirely upon artificial snow production. Artificial snow was used extensively at the
602:
581:
231:
719:
operational, thus increasing opportunities for people to participate in outdoor physical activities. Finally, the composition of snow produced using snow guns differs from that of natural snow, and as such provides for improved conditions for winter sports competitions. It is often favoured by professionals for being fast and "hyper-grippy" but also raises their fear of falling on it.
378:
443:
the water droplets to bond to as they freeze. External mixing guns are typically tower guns and rely on a longer hang time to freeze the snow. This allows them to use much less air. External mixing guns are usually reliant on high water pressure to operate correctly so the water supply is opened completely, though in some the flow can be regulated by valves on the gun.
593:
to purchase a snow gun and develop the necessary infrastructure. Overall, approximately US$ 61 million have been invested in snowmaking technology in the French Alps, US$ 1,005 in
Austria, and US$ 415 in Switzerland. Furthermore, 50% of the average American ski resort's energy costs are generated by the production of artificial snow.
690:(up to Beijing 2022) would still have reliable weather conditions. These predicted changes in temperature and snowfall patterns will induce ski resorts to rely more heavily upon artificial snow which uses significant amounts of water and electricity. As a result, ski resorts will further contribute to the
727:
The most visible negative externalities resulting from snowmaking are the adverse environmental impacts. However, in addition to environmental impacts, the production of artificial snow results in significant negative cultural and social externalities. Such externalities include issues regarding land
718:
Positive externalities resulting from the production of artificial snow include positive impacts on local economies, increased opportunities for physical activity, and improved competition conditions. Furthermore, producing artificial snow allows ski resorts to extend the amount of time that they are
647:
Snowmaking machines generally require between 3,000 and 4,000 cubic meters of water per hectare of slope covered. Accordingly, it takes approximately 106 gallons (400 litres) of water to produce one cubic meter of snow, and snowmaking machines use about 107 gallons (405 litres) of water per minute. A
592:
ski resort. Such an action could cause significant deforestation, the loss of fragile and rare ecosystems, and cultural opposition. The high costs associated with the production of artificial snow serve as a barrier to entry for its use. It was estimated that in 2008 it cost approximately US$ 131,000
433:
Modern snow cannons are fully computerized and can operate autonomously or be remotely-controlled from a central location. Operational parameters are: starting and stopping time, quality of snow, maximum wet-bulb temperature in which to operate, maximum windspeed, horizontal and vertical orientation,
681:
forecasts temperatures to increase by between 0.28 °C (0.5 °F) and 4.8 °C (8.6 °F) globally with a likely increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), and an average increase in temperatures in the US of between 1.7 °C (3 °F) and 6.7 °C (12 °F) by 2100. Furthermore,
664:
Ski resorts often use mineralized water in the production of artificial snow, which has adverse impacts on surrounding ecosystems and water tables. Mountain reservoirs are often filled with highly mineralized water, and the runoff from these reservoirs affects the mineral and chemical composition of
609:
Snowmaking machines allow ski resorts to extend their seasons and sustain their businesses in times of low snowfall. With changing climate trends, snowfall is becoming increasingly unpredictable, thus jeopardizing the economic success of ski resorts. Between 2008 and 2013, American ski and snowboard
442:
External mixing guns have a nozzle spraying water as a stream and air nozzles shooting air through this water stream to break it up into much smaller water particles. These guns are sometimes equipped with a set of internal mixing nozzles that are known as nucleators. These help create a nucleus for
673:
As a result of changing weather patterns, snowmaking has become a major revenue-making activity due to a shortage in the supply of natural snow. However, it poses significant environmental threats that may serve to perpetuate the issue that resulted in an increased demand for artificial snow in the
463:
Snow lances are up to 12 meter long vertically inclined aluminum tubes at the head of which are placed water and/or air nucleators. Air is blown into the atomized water at the outlet from the water nozzle. The previously compressed air expands and cools, creating ice nuclei on which crystallization
287:
Whereas shelters for fan guns require only water, power and maybe communication, lance shelters usually need air hydrants as well. Hybrid shelters allow maximum flexibility to connect each snow machine type as they have all supplies available. The typical distance for lance shelters is 100–150 feet
217:
Snowmaking begins with a water supply such as a river or reservoir. Water is pumped up a pipeline on the mountain using very large electric pumps in a pump house. This water is distributed through an intricate series of valves and pipes to any trails that require snowmaking. Most resorts also add a
571:
By the 2009–2010 ski season, it was estimated that around 88% of ski resorts belonging to the US National Ski Areas
Association were using artificial snow to supplement natural snowfall. In the European Alps the proportion of ski slopes that can be covered by artificial snow varies among countries
429:
of the air is as high as −1 °C (30 °F). The lower the air temperature is, the more and the better snow a cannon can make. This is one of the main reasons snow cannons are usually operated in the night. The quality of the mixing of the water and air streams and their relative pressures is
367:
There are many forms of snowmaking guns; however, they all share the basic principle of combining air and water to form snow. For most guns the type or "quality" of snow can be changed by regulating the amount of water in the mixture. For others, the water and air are simply on or off and the snow
110:
is used as a metric since it takes air temperature and relative humidity into account. The bulb temperature is always below the outside temperature. The damper the air, the less moisture it can absorb. The higher the atmospheric humidity, the colder it must be to turn the small water droplets into
438:
Internal mixing guns have a chamber where the water and air are mixed together and forced through jets or through holes and fall to the ground as snow. These guns are typically low to the ground on a frame or tripod and require a lot of air to compensate for the short hang time (time the water is
131:
To start a snowmaking system a wet-bulb temperature of −2.5 °C (27.5 °F) is required. If the atmospheric humidity is very low, this level can be reached at temperatures slightly above 0 °C (32 °F), but if the air humidity is high, colder temperatures are required. Temperatures
701:
In addition to long-term environmental impacts, artificial snow production poses immediate environmental challenges. Artificial snow takes around two to three weeks longer to melt than does natural snow. As such, the use of artificial snow introduces new threats and challenges to local flora and
446:
Fan guns are very different from all other guns because they require electricity to power a fan as well as an on-board reciprocating piston air compressor; modern fan guns do not require compressed air from an external source. Compressed air and water are shot out of the gun through a variety of
238:
The next step in the snowmaking process is to add air using an air plant. This plant is often a building which contains electric or diesel industrial air compressors the size of a van or truck. However, in some instances air compression is provided using diesel-powered, portable trailer-mounted
638:
The implementation and use of artificial snow making technologies requires the undertaking of major infrastructural projects. These projects result in significant disruptions to local ecosystems. A major infrastructural project associated with the use of artificial snowmaking technology is the
576:
for the months of
November through February have consistently been above the average temperatures for those months measured between 1901 and 2000 as graphed in Figure 1. Such a trend both limits and encourages the use of artificial snow. Rising temperatures will result in greater snowmelt and
83:
The use of snowmaking machines has become more common as changing weather patterns and the popularity of indoor ski resorts create a demand for snow beyond that which is provided by nature. Snowmaking machines have addressed the shortage in the supply of snow; however, there are significant
185:
Snowmaking has achieved greater efficiency with increasing complexity. Traditionally, snowmaking quality depended upon the skill of the equipment operator. Today, computer control supplements that skill with greater precision, such that a snow gun operates only when snowmaking is optimal.
682:
scientists predict that snow cover in the northern hemisphere will decrease by 15% by the end of the century with snowpack decreasing and snow seasons shortening concurrently. It's been projected that by the 2050s, fewer than half of the 21 locations historically used for the
547:
Volumes of snow output by home snowmakers depend on the air/water mixture, temperature, wind variations, pumping capacity, water supply, air supply, and other factors. Using a household spray bottle will not work unless temperatures are well below the freezing point of water.
380:
384:
383:
379:
385:
948:
648:
significant amount of this water is lost due to evaporation, and thus is not returned to the water table. Furthermore, it takes approximately 3.5 to 4.3 kWh of energy to produce one cubic meter of snow; however, this number can be as high as 14
544:, which makes more snow per hour. Plans also exist for do-it-yourself snowmaking machines made out of plumbing fittings and special nozzles, or pressure washer nozzles. Pressurized air is typically supplied from standard air compressors.
382:
439:
airborne). Some newer guns are built in a tower form and use much less air because of the increased hang time. The amount of water flow determines the type of snow that is to be made and is controlled by an adjustable water valve.
539:
Smaller versions of the snow machines found at ski resorts exist, scaled down to run off household size air and water supplies. Home snowmakers receive their water supply either from a garden hose or from a
209:
when using lances – that are both very large and expensive. The energy required to make artificial snow is about 0.6–0.7 kW h/m for lances and 1–2 kW h/m for fan guns. The
743:, a ski resort in Northern Arizona. Arizona Snowbowl is situated in the San Francisco peaks, which are one of the holiest sites for various Native American tribes in the Four Corners area, including the
222:
agent to ensure that as much water as possible freezes and turns into snow. These products are organic or inorganic materials that facilitate the water molecules to form the proper shape to freeze into
374:
An air water gun can be mounted on a tower or on a stand on the ground. It uses higher pressure water and air, while a fan gun uses a powerful axial fan to propel the water jet to a great distance.
665:
groundwater, which in turn pollutes drinking water. Furthermore, mountain reservoirs do not allow water to seep back into the ground, so water is only returned to the water table through runoff.
305:
The infrastructure to support snowmaking may have a negative environmental impact, altering water tables near reservoirs and mineral and nutrient content of the soil under the snow itself.
1044:
381:
702:
fauna. Furthermore, the high mineral and nutrient content of the water used to produce artificial snow changes soil composition, which in turn affects which plants are able to grow.
132:
around freezing point are referred to as borderline temperatures or limit temperatures. If the wet-bulb temperature drops, more snow can be produced faster and more efficiently.
264:
to initiate the formation of ice crystals at relatively high temperatures, so that the droplets will turn into ice before falling to the ground. The bacterium itself uses these
371:
In general there are three types of snowmaking guns: internal mixing, external mixing and fan guns. These come in two main styles of makers: air water guns and fan guns.
1370:
1016:
1170:
816:
76:
to supplement natural snow. This allows ski resorts to improve the reliability of their snow cover and to extend their ski seasons from late autumn to early spring.
182:
became the first in the world to use artificial snow. Snowmaking began to be used extensively in the early 1970s. Many ski resorts depend heavily upon snowmaking.
325:
401:
and produces the nucleation points for the snow crystals. The small droplets of water and the tiny ice crystals are then mixed and propelled out by a powerful
656:
kWh per cubic meter of snow. Snowmaking accounts for approximately 50% of the average
American ski resort's energy costs, which amounts to about $ 500,000.
892:
588:
As the use of artificial snow becomes more common and efficient, developers may seek to build new or expand existing ski resorts, as was the case with the
202:
The key considerations in snow production are increasing water and energy efficiency and increasing the environmental window in which snow can be made.
1668:
1611:
1557:
1474:
1585:
843:
1057:
1082:
284:
The pipes following the trails are equipped with shelters containing hydrants, electrical power and, optionally, communication lines mounted.
678:
732:, which raises questions surrounding how the land can and should be used, and who should be the arbiter of determining appropriate uses.
968:, accessed December 20, 2006. "The first artificial snow was made two years later, in 1952, at Grossinger's resort in New York, USA. "
1697:
127:+2.0 °C (35.6 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 30% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature of −2.8 °C (27.0 °F)
124:+2.0 °C (35.6 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 90% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature of +1.5 °C (34.7 °F)
710:
In addition to the direct effects of the production of artificial snow, snowmaking practices result in various secondary effects.
405:, after which they further cool through evaporation in the surrounding air as they fall to the ground. The crystals of ice act as
214:
of artificial snow is between 400 and 500 kg/m and the water consumption for producing snow is roughly equal to that number.
178:
Americans Art Hunt, Dave Richey, and Wayne Pierce invented the snow cannon in 1950, but secured a patent sometime later. In 1952,
1089:
918:
121:
0 °C (32 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 30% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature of −4.3 °C (24.3 °F)
118:
0 °C (32 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 90% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature of −0.6 °C (30.9 °F)
1167:
1661:
1052:
179:
106:
The production of snow requires low temperatures. The threshold temperature for snowmaking increases as humidity decreases.
1450:
302:–2 in (38–51 mm) pressure resistant hoses are connected similar to fire hoses with camlocks to the snow machine.
1428:
1267:
961:
397:
which inject water into the fan air stream. A separate nozzle or small group of nozzles is fed with a mix of water and
1298:"Environmental Risks and Impacts of Mountain Reservoirs for Artificial Snow Production in a Context of Climate Change"
572:(Germany 25%, France 37%, Switzerland 53%, Austria 70%, Italy 90%). Since 1985, average aggregate temperatures in the
1334:
1119:
526:
248:
508:
1923:
1654:
556:
1727:
998:
756:
135:
Snowmaking is an energy-intense process, and has environmental impacts, both of which inherently limit its use.
2364:
1141:
504:
341:
2359:
1722:
729:
17:
198:
A graph of air temperature against relative humidity: if conditions are below the curve, snow can be made.
979:
500:
88:
2234:
1847:
943:
2024:
1961:
1489:
434:
and sweep angle (to cover a wider or narrower area). Sweep angle and area may follow wind direction.
46:
103:
in
Beijing to supplement natural snowfall and provide the best possible conditions for competition.
2014:
691:
573:
489:
80:
use snowmaking. They can generally do so year-round as they have climate-controlled environments.
791:
493:
159:
2029:
1852:
35:
2338:
2294:
1199:"Climate Response by the Ski Industry: The Shortcomings of Snowmaking for Australian Resorts"
946:, W. M. Pierce, Jr., "Method for Making and Distributing Snow", issued 1950-12-14
780:
30:
This article is about making snow artificially from water. For simulated snow products, see
2289:
2262:
1788:
1210:
867:
426:
256:
107:
100:
96:
92:
922:
8:
2080:
2009:
1640:
1214:
2156:
1928:
1883:
1793:
1517:
1239:
1226:
1198:
687:
564:
1296:
Evette, André; Peyras, Laurent; François, Hugues; Gaucherand, Stéphanie (2011-09-30).
1692:
1521:
1509:
1490:"The changing geography of the Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games in a warmer world"
1468:
1342:
1315:
1244:
2049:
1971:
1943:
1767:
1501:
1407:
1305:
1234:
1218:
760:
740:
589:
402:
357:
77:
50:
1535:
1505:
2328:
2085:
2044:
1933:
1746:
683:
541:
1371:"A Slippery Slope: Artificial Snow Harming Alpine Environment, Researchers Warn"
1045:"What processes control ice nucleation and its impact on ice-containing clouds?"
2252:
1868:
1396:"Water Losses During Technical Snow Production: Results from Field Experiments"
1021:
897:
695:
623:
398:
206:
1222:
288:(30–46 m), for fan guns 250–300 feet (76–91 m). From these hydrants
2369:
2353:
2224:
2192:
2100:
2090:
2075:
1951:
1913:
1832:
1817:
1798:
1707:
1513:
1412:
1395:
1346:
1319:
1171:"Climate at a Glance | National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI)"
796:
744:
728:
use and land rights. Many ski resorts rent out mountains and slopes from the
2306:
2284:
2105:
2001:
1976:
1918:
1888:
1873:
1837:
1762:
1681:
1562:
1297:
1248:
418:
224:
54:
1646:
1488:
Scott, Daniel; Steiger, Robert; Rutty, Michelle; Fang, Yan (3 July 2019).
64:
is the production of snow by forcing water and pressurized air through a "
2301:
2121:
2065:
1772:
1734:
1083:"Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens Strains Active in Ice Nucleation"
736:
627:
618:
41:
1558:"Mounting concern over the environmental cost of fake snow for Olympics"
1230:
147:
2219:
2183:
2131:
2095:
2039:
1991:
1981:
1966:
1878:
1739:
764:
414:
406:
261:
219:
84:
environmental costs associated with the artificial production of snow.
73:
584:
Figure 1. Average winter temperatures for the contiguous United States
451:
334:
2269:
2257:
2202:
2197:
2163:
2146:
2070:
2034:
1986:
1803:
1310:
977:
456:
276:
205:
Snowmaking plants require water pumps – and sometimes
31:
1586:"Olympic champ says man-made snow in Beijing like 'bulletproof ice'"
1120:"Climate Impacts on the Winter Tourism Economy in the United States"
478:
194:
2244:
2214:
2168:
2141:
2126:
1908:
965:
785:
422:
868:"Frequently asked questions about TechnoAlpin and artificial snow"
2279:
2274:
2173:
2136:
2019:
1956:
1842:
768:
560:
410:
211:
34:. For artificial snow made from hydrated artificial polymer, see
1677:
1635:
394:
318:
1295:
1017:"Artificial Snow Harming Alpine Environment, Researchers Warn"
601:
580:
350:
2209:
613:
230:
1592:. France Médias Monde. Agence France Presse. 2 February 2022
605:
Figure 2. Models trends in ski and snowboard resort revenues
567:, compensating for low snowfall by producing artificial snow
1268:"U.S. ski & snowboard resorts revenue 2013 | Statistic"
1118:
Burakowski, Elizabeth; Magnusson, Matthew (December 2012).
393:
A modern snow fan usually consists of one or more rings of
368:
quality is determined by the air temperature and humidity.
2151:
999:"From Trees and Grass, Bacteria That Cause Snow and Rain"
668:
739:
is the contention surrounding use of artificial snow at
978:
Jörgen
Rogstam & Mattias Dahlberg (April 1, 2011),
659:
1197:
Pickering, Catherine Marina; Buckley, Ralf C. (2010).
1143:
Fakten & Zahlen zur
Schweizer Seilbahnbranche 2021
893:"Machines Let Resorts Please Skiers When Nature Won't"
788:– optical display caused by snowgun ice crystal clouds
1487:
1427:
Rogstam, Jörgen; Dahlberg, Mattias (April 1, 2011).
1393:
430:
crucial to the amount of snow made and its quality.
1117:
1139:
242:
2351:
1549:
1196:
1166:
227:. The products are non-toxic and biodegradable.
1426:
1394:Grünewald, Thomas; Wolfsperger, Fabian (2019).
767:is not yet frozen in January, cold winds from
1662:
1555:
356:Full blast snow cannon at The Nordic Centre,
1612:"Native Americans Fight to Save Sacred Site"
1473:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1676:
1578:
1448:
507:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1669:
1655:
817:"Snow-making companies in a warming world"
735:A specific example of a negative cultural
614:Environmental impact and future conditions
417:). Without these crystals the water would
1698:Glossary of skiing and snowboarding terms
1411:
1309:
1238:
844:"Fake snow dominates the Winter Olympics"
527:Learn how and when to remove this message
2243:
1332:
763:weather phenomenon. For example, if the
622:A Water reservoir for snowmaking in the
617:
600:
579:
555:
450:
425:. This method can produce snow when the
409:to make the water droplets freeze at 0 °
376:
275:
229:
193:
40:
1368:
1014:
996:
890:
642:
14:
2352:
1556:Ungoed-Thomas, Jon (6 November 2021).
1162:
1160:
1090:The American Phytopathological Society
755:In Swedish, the phrase "snow cannon" (
669:Environmental conditions and forecasts
633:
1650:
1364:
1362:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1192:
1190:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1053:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
838:
836:
1335:"An Olympian Snow Endeavor in Sochi"
705:
660:Effects on ground and drinking water
505:adding citations to reliable sources
472:
268:proteins in order to injure plants.
260:. These proteins serve as effective
234:Pump house and air plant combination
142:
1604:
1157:
1080:
1042:
328:, Austria, showing the powerful fan
24:
1528:
1442:
1420:
1359:
1326:
1284:
1255:
1187:
1102:
833:
771:may lead to significant snowfall.
468:
308:
247:The water is sometimes mixed with
180:Grossinger's Catskill Resort Hotel
25:
2381:
1628:
1015:Dambeck, Holger (18 April 2008).
809:
271:
27:A device to spray artificial snow
2334:
2333:
2324:
2323:
1634:
551:
477:
455:Snow lance used at Flottsbro in
349:
333:
317:
252:(ice nucleation-active) proteins
146:
72:". Snowmaking is mainly used at
1481:
1387:
1133:
1074:
1036:
1008:
891:Selingo, Jeffrey (2001-02-02).
1369:Dambeck, Holger (2008-04-18).
1333:Fountain, Henry (2014-02-03).
990:
971:
955:
936:
911:
884:
860:
692:production of greenhouse gases
342:Smiggin Holes, New South Wales
243:Ice nucleation-active proteins
13:
1:
1506:10.1080/13683500.2018.1436161
1455:19january2017snapshot.epa.gov
1429:"Energy usage for snowmaking"
997:Robbins, Jim (May 24, 2010),
802:
750:
596:
324:Rear view of snow cannon at
189:
7:
1140:Seilbahnen Schweiz (2021).
981:Energy usage for snowmaking
921:. About.com. Archived from
774:
759:) is used to designate the
722:
713:
89:European Environment Agency
10:
2386:
1451:"Future of Climate Change"
1400:Frontiers in Earth Science
1302:Revue de géographie alpine
138:
29:
2319:
2182:
2114:
2058:
2000:
1942:
1901:
1861:
1825:
1816:
1781:
1755:
1715:
1706:
1688:
1494:Current Issues in Tourism
1223:10.1007/s13280-010-0039-y
1081:Kim, H. K. (1987-07-07).
942:
340:A snow making machine at
47:Camelback Mountain Resort
45:Snow gun in operation at
1566:. London, United Kingdom
1413:10.3389/feart.2019.00078
574:contiguous United States
792:Pumpable ice technology
99:in Pyeongchang and the
1043:Liu, Xiaohong (2012).
630:
606:
585:
568:
459:
390:
389:Snowmaker in operation
281:
235:
199:
58:
36:Superabsorbent polymer
2365:Ski areas and resorts
2339:Category:Snowboarding
1536:"Facts on Snowmaking"
1449:EPA,OAR,OAP,CCD, US.
962:On This Day: March 25
944:US patent 2676471
781:Artificial ski slopes
621:
604:
583:
559:
454:
388:
279:
233:
197:
44:
2059:Technique / learning
1789:Cross-country skiing
1723:Cross-country skiing
1643:at Wikimedia Commons
1304:(in French) (99–4).
643:Water and energy use
501:improve this section
427:wet-bulb temperature
257:Pseudomonas syringae
108:Wet-bulb temperature
101:2022 Winter Olympics
97:2018 Winter Olympics
93:2014 Winter Olympics
68:", also known as a "
2360:American inventions
1826:Olympic disciplines
1215:2010Ambio..39..430P
872:www.technoalpin.com
652:kWh, or as low as 1
634:Mountain reservoirs
326:Mölltaler Gletscher
254:from the bacterium
2157:List of ski brands
1929:Ski mountaineering
1884:Para-alpine skiing
1794:Backcountry skiing
1339:The New York Times
1003:The New York Times
631:
607:
586:
569:
565:Davos, Switzerland
460:
391:
282:
236:
200:
158:. You can help by
59:
2347:
2346:
2315:
2314:
1897:
1896:
1862:Other disciplines
1812:
1811:
1693:History of skiing
1639:Media related to
1500:(11): 1301–1311.
1175:www.ncdc.noaa.gov
730:US Forest Service
706:Secondary effects
694:and the issue of
537:
536:
529:
386:
176:
175:
87:According to the
78:Indoor ski slopes
16:(Redirected from
2377:
2337:
2336:
2327:
2326:
2241:
2240:
2050:Snowboard racing
1972:Half-pipe skiing
1944:Freestyle skiing
1823:
1822:
1768:Ski orienteering
1713:
1712:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1638:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1540:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1472:
1464:
1462:
1461:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1433:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1366:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1313:
1311:10.4000/rga.1481
1293:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1264:
1253:
1252:
1242:
1209:(5/6): 430–438.
1194:
1185:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1164:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1115:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1087:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1062:
1056:. Archived from
1049:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1012:
1006:
1005:
994:
988:
987:
986:
975:
969:
959:
953:
952:
951:
947:
940:
934:
933:
931:
930:
915:
909:
908:
906:
905:
888:
882:
881:
879:
878:
864:
858:
857:
855:
854:
840:
831:
830:
828:
827:
813:
761:lake-effect snow
741:Arizona Snowbowl
655:
651:
590:Arizona Snowbowl
563:ski resort near
532:
525:
521:
518:
512:
481:
473:
387:
358:Canmore, Alberta
353:
337:
321:
301:
300:
296:
293:
171:
168:
150:
143:
51:Pocono Mountains
21:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2329:Category:Skiing
2311:
2239:
2178:
2110:
2054:
2045:Snowboard cross
1996:
1938:
1934:Telemark skiing
1893:
1857:
1808:
1777:
1751:
1747:Nordic combined
1702:
1684:
1675:
1631:
1626:
1625:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1593:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1554:
1550:
1538:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1486:
1482:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1457:
1447:
1443:
1431:
1425:
1421:
1392:
1388:
1379:
1377:
1367:
1360:
1351:
1349:
1331:
1327:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1274:
1266:
1265:
1256:
1195:
1188:
1179:
1177:
1165:
1158:
1148:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1122:
1116:
1103:
1094:
1092:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1047:
1041:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1013:
1009:
995:
991:
984:
976:
972:
960:
956:
949:
941:
937:
928:
926:
925:on May 25, 2012
917:
916:
912:
903:
901:
889:
885:
876:
874:
866:
865:
861:
852:
850:
842:
841:
834:
825:
823:
815:
814:
810:
805:
777:
753:
725:
716:
708:
684:Winter Olympics
671:
662:
653:
649:
645:
636:
616:
599:
554:
542:pressure washer
533:
522:
516:
513:
498:
482:
471:
469:Home snowmaking
377:
365:
364:
363:
362:
361:
354:
346:
345:
338:
330:
329:
322:
311:
309:Snowmaking guns
298:
294:
291:
289:
274:
245:
207:air compressors
192:
172:
166:
163:
156:needs expansion
141:
111:snow crystals.
57:, United States
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2383:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2331:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2253:Aerial tramway
2249:
2247:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2195:
2189:
2187:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2006:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1948:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1869:Extreme skiing
1865:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1742:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1719:
1717:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1674:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1630:
1629:External links
1627:
1624:
1623:
1603:
1577:
1548:
1527:
1480:
1441:
1419:
1386:
1375:Spiegel Online
1358:
1325:
1283:
1254:
1186:
1156:
1132:
1101:
1073:
1035:
1022:Spiegel Online
1007:
989:
970:
954:
935:
910:
898:New York Times
883:
859:
832:
807:
806:
804:
801:
800:
799:
794:
789:
783:
776:
773:
752:
749:
724:
721:
715:
712:
707:
704:
696:water scarcity
670:
667:
661:
658:
644:
641:
635:
632:
624:Austrian Tyrol
615:
612:
598:
595:
553:
550:
535:
534:
485:
483:
476:
470:
467:
466:
465:
449:
448:
444:
440:
399:compressed air
355:
348:
347:
339:
332:
331:
323:
316:
315:
314:
313:
312:
310:
307:
280:Piping diagram
273:
272:Infrastructure
270:
244:
241:
191:
188:
174:
173:
153:
151:
140:
137:
129:
128:
125:
122:
119:
95:in Sochi, the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2382:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2340:
2332:
2330:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2225:Snow grooming
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2193:Dry ski slope
2191:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2101:Ski simulator
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2091:Stem christie
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2076:Parallel turn
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1952:Aerial skiing
1950:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1914:Indoor skiing
1912:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1818:Alpine skiing
1815:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1799:Roller skiing
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1708:Nordic skiing
1705:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1653:
1652:
1649:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1632:
1613:
1607:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1552:
1544:
1537:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1476:
1470:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1437:
1430:
1423:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1390:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1363:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1329:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1161:
1145:
1144:
1136:
1128:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1091:
1084:
1077:
1063:on 2016-11-24
1059:
1055:
1054:
1046:
1039:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1011:
1004:
1000:
993:
983:
982:
974:
967:
963:
958:
945:
939:
924:
920:
919:"Making Snow"
914:
900:
899:
894:
887:
873:
869:
863:
849:
845:
839:
837:
822:
821:The Economist
818:
812:
808:
798:
797:Snow grooming
795:
793:
790:
787:
784:
782:
779:
778:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
748:
746:
745:Navajo Nation
742:
738:
733:
731:
720:
711:
703:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
680:
675:
674:first place.
666:
657:
640:
629:
625:
620:
611:
603:
594:
591:
582:
578:
575:
566:
562:
558:
552:Extent of use
549:
545:
543:
531:
528:
520:
510:
506:
502:
496:
495:
491:
486:This section
484:
480:
475:
474:
462:
461:
458:
453:
445:
441:
437:
436:
435:
431:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
375:
372:
369:
359:
352:
343:
336:
327:
320:
306:
303:
285:
278:
269:
267:
263:
259:
258:
253:
251:
240:
232:
228:
226:
221:
215:
213:
208:
203:
196:
187:
183:
181:
170:
167:November 2022
161:
157:
154:This section
152:
149:
145:
144:
136:
133:
126:
123:
120:
117:
116:
115:
112:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
56:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
2307:Surface lift
2285:Gondola lift
2229:
2106:Skate skiing
2002:Snowboarding
1919:Night skiing
1902:Other skiing
1889:Speed skiing
1874:Glade skiing
1838:Giant slalom
1782:Recreational
1763:Ski marathon
1682:snowboarding
1615:. Retrieved
1606:
1594:. Retrieved
1589:
1580:
1568:. Retrieved
1563:The Guardian
1561:
1551:
1542:
1530:
1497:
1493:
1483:
1458:. Retrieved
1454:
1444:
1435:
1422:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1378:. Retrieved
1374:
1350:. Retrieved
1338:
1328:
1301:
1275:. Retrieved
1271:
1206:
1202:
1178:. Retrieved
1174:
1149:12 September
1147:. Retrieved
1142:
1135:
1126:
1093:. Retrieved
1076:
1065:. Retrieved
1058:the original
1051:
1038:
1026:. Retrieved
1020:
1010:
1002:
992:
980:
973:
957:
938:
927:. Retrieved
923:the original
913:
902:. Retrieved
896:
886:
875:. Retrieved
871:
862:
851:. Retrieved
847:
824:. Retrieved
820:
811:
754:
734:
726:
717:
709:
700:
676:
672:
663:
646:
637:
608:
587:
570:
546:
538:
523:
514:
499:Please help
487:
432:
392:
373:
370:
366:
304:
286:
283:
265:
255:
249:
246:
237:
225:ice crystals
216:
204:
201:
184:
177:
164:
160:adding to it
155:
134:
130:
113:
105:
86:
82:
69:
65:
61:
60:
55:Pennsylvania
18:Snow cannons
2302:Hybrid lift
2066:Carved turn
2015:Backcountry
1924:Ski archery
1773:Ski touring
1735:Ski jumping
1716:Competitive
1641:Snow cannon
1028:23 February
737:externality
688:Paralympics
628:Stubai Alps
517:August 2024
421:instead of
344:, Australia
74:ski resorts
70:snow cannon
2354:Categories
2263:detachable
2230:Snowmaking
2220:Ski tunnel
2096:Ski school
2086:Snowplough
2081:Pivot turn
2040:Slopestyle
2025:Freeriding
1992:Slopestyle
1982:Ski ballet
1967:Freeskiing
1962:Freeriding
1879:Heliskiing
1740:Ski flying
1728:Paralympic
1617:2018-03-04
1596:3 February
1570:19 January
1460:2018-03-04
1380:2018-03-04
1352:2018-03-04
1277:2018-03-04
1180:2018-03-04
1095:2016-11-23
1067:2019-10-26
929:2006-12-16
904:2010-05-23
877:2023-09-27
853:2018-03-06
826:2018-03-04
803:References
765:Baltic Sea
751:Other uses
220:nucleating
114:Examples:
62:Snowmaking
2270:Funicular
2258:Chairlift
2245:Ski lifts
2203:Superpipe
2198:Half-pipe
2186:amenities
2164:Snowboard
2115:Equipment
2071:Jump turn
2035:Half-pipe
2030:Freestyle
1987:Ski cross
1804:Skijoring
1756:Endurance
1590:France 24
1522:134690685
1514:1368-3500
1347:0362-4331
1320:0035-1121
848:USA TODAY
597:Economics
488:does not
457:Stockholm
419:supercool
190:Operation
32:Fake snow
2295:tricable
2215:Ski area
2122:Bindings
1909:Biathlon
1853:Combined
1848:Downhill
1543:nsaa.org
1469:cite web
1272:Statista
1249:21053726
1231:40801536
1127:nrdc.org
966:BBC News
786:Kern arc
775:See also
757:Snökanon
723:Negative
714:Positive
423:freezing
360:, Canada
66:snow gun
2290:bicable
2280:Funitel
2275:Funifor
2137:Monoski
2020:Big air
1957:Big air
1843:Super-G
1436:Bächler
1240:3357717
1211:Bibcode
769:Siberia
626:of the
561:Parsenn
509:removed
494:sources
395:nozzles
297:⁄
212:density
139:History
49:in the
2184:Resort
2132:Helmet
2010:Alpine
1833:Slalom
1678:Skiing
1520:
1512:
1345:
1318:
1247:
1237:
1229:
950:
654:
650:
262:nuclei
2235:Trail
2210:Piste
2147:Skins
2142:Poles
2127:Boots
1977:Mogul
1539:(PDF)
1518:S2CID
1432:(PDF)
1227:JSTOR
1203:Ambio
1123:(PDF)
1086:(PDF)
1061:(PDF)
1048:(PDF)
985:(PDF)
413:(32 °
407:seeds
2370:Snow
2169:Suit
2152:Skis
1680:and
1598:2022
1572:2022
1510:ISSN
1475:link
1343:ISSN
1316:ISSN
1245:PMID
1151:2022
1030:2018
686:and
677:The
492:any
490:cite
2174:Wax
1502:doi
1408:doi
1306:doi
1235:PMC
1219:doi
679:EPA
503:by
403:fan
266:ina
250:ina
162:.
53:of
2356::
1588:.
1560:.
1541:.
1516:.
1508:.
1498:22
1496:.
1492:.
1471:}}
1467:{{
1453:.
1434:.
1406:.
1402:.
1398:.
1373:.
1361:^
1341:.
1337:.
1314:.
1300:.
1286:^
1270:.
1257:^
1243:.
1233:.
1225:.
1217:.
1207:39
1205:.
1201:.
1189:^
1173:.
1169:.
1159:^
1125:.
1104:^
1088:.
1050:.
1019:.
1001:,
964:,
895:.
870:.
846:.
835:^
819:.
698:.
1670:e
1663:t
1656:v
1620:.
1600:.
1574:.
1545:.
1524:.
1504::
1477:)
1463:.
1438:.
1416:.
1410::
1404:7
1383:.
1355:.
1322:.
1308::
1280:.
1251:.
1221::
1213::
1183:.
1153:.
1129:.
1098:.
1070:.
1032:.
932:.
907:.
880:.
856:.
829:.
530:)
524:(
519:)
515:(
511:.
497:.
415:F
411:C
299:2
295:1
292:+
290:1
169:)
165:(
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
