6703:
Bastos, Ana; Bastrikov, Vladislav; Becker, Meike; Bopp, Laurent; Buitenhuis, Erik; Chandra, Naveen; Chevallier, Frédéric; Chini, Louise P.; Currie, Kim I.; Feely, Richard A.; Gehlen, Marion; Gilfillan, Dennis; Gkritzalis, Thanos; Goll, Daniel S.; Gruber, Nicolas; Gutekunst, Sören; Harris, Ian; Haverd, Vanessa; Houghton, Richard A.; Hurtt, George; Ilyina, Tatiana; Jain, Atul K.; Joetzjer, Emilie; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kato, Etsushi; Klein
Goldewijk, Kees; Korsbakken, Jan Ivar; Landschützer, Peter; Lauvset, Siv K.; Lefèvre, Nathalie; Lenton, Andrew; Lienert, Sebastian; Lombardozzi, Danica; Marland, Gregg; McGuire, Patrick C.; Melton, Joe R.; Metzl, Nicolas; Munro, David R.; Nabel, Julia E. M. S.; Nakaoka, Shin-Ichiro; Neill, Craig; Omar, Abdirahman M.; Ono, Tsuneo; Peregon, Anna; Pierrot, Denis; Poulter, Benjamin; Rehder, Gregor; Resplandy, Laure; Robertson, Eddy; Rödenbeck, Christian; Séférian, Roland; Schwinger, Jörg; Smith, Naomi; Tans, Pieter P.; Tian, Hanqin; Tilbrook, Bronte; Tubiello, Francesco N.; van der Werf, Guido R.; Wiltshire, Andrew J.; Zaehle, Sönke (4 December 2019).
1042:
2244:
2206:
1731:
2221:, human activity has substantially disturbed the global carbon cycle by redistributing massive amounts of carbon from the geosphere. Humans have also continued to shift the natural component functions of the terrestrial biosphere with changes to vegetation and other land use. Man-made (synthetic) carbon compounds have been designed and mass-manufactured that will persist for decades to millennia in air, water, and sediments as pollutants. Climate change is amplifying and forcing further indirect human changes to the carbon cycle as a consequence of various positive and negative
1921:
2165:
2305:
2185:
899:
990:
77:
1498:
2104:
2043:
1281:(DIC) in the surface layer is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere, maintaining equilibrium. Partly because its concentration of DIC is about 15% higher but mainly due to its larger volume, the deep ocean contains far more carbon—it is the largest pool of actively cycled carbon in the world, containing 50 times more than the atmosphere—but the timescale to reach equilibrium with the atmosphere is hundreds of years: the exchange of carbon between the two layers, driven by
945:
9054:
7506:
654:
9042:
1350:
9078:
9066:
1811:
48:
1448:). It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change.
3771:
3619:
1409:
4642:
McKnight, Diane M.; Melack, John M.; Overholt, Erin; Porter, Jason A.; Prairie, Yves; Renwick, William H.; Roland, Fabio; Sherman, Bradford S.; Schindler, David W.; Sobek, Sebastian; Tremblay, Alain; Vanni, Michael J.; Verschoor, Antonie M.; von
Wachenfeldt, Eddie; Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A. (November 2009). "Lakes and reservoirs as regulators of carbon cycling and climate".
1971:
2137:) matches the inner core's wave speed and density. Therefore, the iron carbide model could serve as an evidence that the core holds as much as 67% of the Earth's carbon. Furthermore, another study found that in the pressure and temperature condition of the Earth's inner core, carbon dissolved in iron and formed a stable phase with the same Fe
903:
901:
907:
905:
900:
5208:
Yves; Goossens, Nicolas; Hartmann, Jens; Heinze, Christoph; Ilyina, Tatiana; Joos, Fortunat; LaRowe, Douglas E.; Leifeld, Jens; Meysman, Filip J. R.; Munhoven, Guy; Raymond, Peter A.; Spahni, Renato; Suntharalingam, Parvadha; Thullner, Martin (August 2013). "Anthropogenic perturbation of the carbon fluxes from land to ocean".
906:
2088:, and therefore drastic changes in carbonate compounds' properties in the lower mantle. As an example, preliminary theoretical studies suggest that high pressure causes carbonate melt viscosity to increase; the melts' lower mobility as a result of its increased viscosity causes large deposits of carbon deep into the mantle.
6480:
Plattner, Gian-Kasper; Rodgers, Keith B.; Sabine, Christopher L.; Sarmiento, Jorge L.; Schlitzer, Reiner; Slater, Richard D.; Totterdell, Ian J.; Weirig, Marie-France; Yamanaka, Yasuhiro; Yool, Andrew (September 2005). "Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms".
1838:. The biological pump is not so much the result of a single process, but rather the sum of a number of processes each of which can influence biological pumping. The pump transfers about 11 billion tonnes of carbon every year into the ocean's interior. An ocean without the biological pump would result in atmospheric CO
4520:
Raymond, Peter A.; Hartmann, Jens; Lauerwald, Ronny; Sobek, Sebastian; McDonald, Cory; Hoover, Mark; Butman, David; Striegl, Robert; Mayorga, Emilio; Humborg, Christoph; Kortelainen, Pirkko; DĂĽrr, Hans; Meybeck, Michel; Ciais, Philippe; Guth, Peter (21 November 2013). "Global carbon dioxide emissions
2277:
The exchanges of carbon between the atmosphere and other components of the Earth system, collectively known as the carbon cycle, currently constitute important negative (dampening) feedbacks on the effect of anthropogenic carbon emissions on climate change. Carbon sinks in the land and the ocean each
1739:
Carbon dioxide exchange, photosynthetic production and respiration of terrestrial vegetation, rock weathering, and sedimentation occur in terrestrial ecosystems. Carbon transports to the ocean through the land-river-estuary continuum in the form of organic carbon and inorganic carbon. Carbon exchange
936:
and enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules
6443:
Takahashi, Taro; Sutherland, Stewart C.; Sweeney, Colm; Poisson, Alain; Metzl, Nicolas; Tilbrook, Bronte; Bates, Nicolas; Wanninkhof, Rik; Feely, Richard A.; Sabine, Christopher; Olafsson, Jon; Nojiri, Yukihiro (2002). "Global sea–air CO2 flux based on climatological surface ocean pCO2, and seasonal
4207:
Schmidt, Michael W. I.; Torn, Margaret S.; Abiven, Samuel; Dittmar, Thorsten; Guggenberger, Georg; Janssens, Ivan A.; Kleber, Markus; Kögel-Knabner, Ingrid; Lehmann, Johannes; Manning, David A. C.; Nannipieri, Paolo; Rasse, Daniel P.; Weiner, Steve; Trumbore, Susan E. (October 2011). "Persistence of
2120:
moving through the inner core travel at about fifty percent of the velocity expected for most iron-rich alloys. Because the core's composition is believed to be an alloy of crystalline iron and a small amount of nickel, this seismic anomaly indicates the presence of light elements, including carbon,
2038:
as they descend into the mantle before being stabilised at depth by low oxygen fugacity environments. Magnesium, iron, and other metallic compounds act as buffers throughout the process. The presence of reduced, elemental forms of carbon like graphite would indicate that carbon compounds are reduced
968:
as it ages. The expected increased luminosity of the Sun will likely speed up the rate of surface weathering. This will eventually cause most of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to be squelched into the Earth's crust as carbonate. Once the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere falls
5207:
Regnier, Pierre; Friedlingstein, Pierre; Ciais, Philippe; Mackenzie, Fred T.; Gruber, Nicolas; Janssens, Ivan A.; Laruelle, Goulven G.; Lauerwald, Ronny; Luyssaert, Sebastiaan; Andersson, Andreas J.; Arndt, Sandra; Arnosti, Carol; Borges, Alberto V.; Dale, Andrew W.; Gallego-Sala, Angela; Goddéris,
4983:
Moran, Mary Ann; Kujawinski, Elizabeth B.; Stubbins, Aron; Fatland, Rob; Aluwihare, Lihini I.; Buchan, Alison; Crump, Byron C.; Dorrestein, Pieter C.; Dyhrman, Sonya T.; Hess, Nancy J.; Howe, Bill; Longnecker, Krista; Medeiros, Patricia M.; Niggemann, Jutta; Obernosterer, Ingrid; Repeta, Daniel J.;
3119:
Janowiak, M.; Connelly, W.J.; Dante-Wood, K.; Domke, G.M.; Giardina, C.; Kayler, Z.; Marcinkowski, K.; Ontl, T.; Rodriguez-Franco, C.; Swanston, C.; Woodall, C.W.; Buford, M. (2017). Considering Forest and
Grassland Carbon in Land Management (Report). United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
2281:
These feedbacks are expected to weaken in the future, amplifying the effect of anthropogenic carbon emissions on climate change. The degree to which they will weaken, however, is highly uncertain, with Earth system models predicting a wide range of land and ocean carbon uptakes even under identical
1899:
About 1% of the particles leaving the surface ocean reach the seabed and are consumed, respired, or buried in the sediments. The net effect of these processes is to remove carbon in organic form from the surface and return it to DIC at greater depths, maintaining a surface-to-deep ocean gradient of
1483:
of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere
904:
883:
The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth. The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and
6262:
Prescher, C.; Dubrovinsky, L.; Bykova, E.; Kupenko, I.; Glazyrin, K.; Kantor, A.; McCammon, C.; Mookherjee, M.; Nakajima, Y.; Miyajima, N.; Sinmyo, R.; Cerantola, V.; Dubrovinskaia, N.; Prakapenka, V.; RĂĽffer, R.; Chumakov, A.; Hanfland, M. (March 2015). "High
Poisson's ratio of Earth's inner core
3903:
Waterloo, Maarten J.; Oliveira, Sylvia M.; Drucker, Debora P.; Nobre, Antonio D.; Cuartas, Luz A.; Hodnett, Martin G.; Langedijk, Ivar; Jans, Wilma W. P.; Tomasella, Javier; de AraĂşjo, Alessandro C.; Pimentel, Tania P.; MĂşnera
Estrada, Juan C. (15 August 2006). "Export of organic carbon in run-off
1940:
is an important process, though it is not as well-understood as the relatively fast carbon movement through the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere, ocean, and geosphere. The deep carbon cycle is intimately connected to the movement of carbon in the Earth's surface and atmosphere. If the process did
6702:
Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; O'Sullivan, Michael; Andrew, Robbie M.; Hauck, Judith; Peters, Glen P.; Peters, Wouter; Pongratz, Julia; Sitch, Stephen; Le Quéré, Corinne; Bakker, Dorothee C. E.; Canadell, Josep G.; Ciais, Philippe; Jackson, Robert B.; Anthoni, Peter; Barbero, Leticia;
1895:
A single phytoplankton cell has a sinking rate around one metre per day. Given that the average depth of the ocean is about four kilometres, it can take over ten years for these cells to reach the ocean floor. However, through processes such as coagulation and expulsion in predator fecal pellets,
956:
Human activities over the past two centuries have increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere by nearly 50% as of year 2020, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning
2702:
Falkowski, P.; Scholes, R. J.; Boyle, E.; Canadell, J.; Canfield, D.; Elser, J.; Gruber, N.; Hibbard, K.; Högberg, P.; Linder, S.; MacKenzie, F. T.; Moore, III, B.; Pedersen, T.; Rosenthal, Y.; Seitzinger, S.; Smetacek, V.; Steffen, W. (2000). "The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our
Knowledge of
2440:
Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store comparatively small amounts of carbon so that the net result of the transition is that more
1941:
not exist, carbon would remain in the atmosphere, where it would accumulate to extremely high levels over long periods of time. Therefore, by allowing carbon to return to the Earth, the deep carbon cycle plays a critical role in maintaining the terrestrial conditions necessary for life to exist.
1074:
released by soil respiration was roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 3 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuel (this does not represent a net transfer of carbon from soil to atmosphere, as the respiration is largely offset by inputs to soil
980:
Once the oceans on the Earth evaporate in about 1.1 billion years from now, plate tectonics will very likely stop due to the lack of water to lubricate them. The lack of volcanoes pumping out carbon dioxide will cause the carbon cycle to end between 1 billion and 2 billion years into the future.
4641:
Tranvik, Lars J.; Downing, John A.; Cotner, James B.; Loiselle, Steven A.; Striegl, Robert G.; Ballatore, Thomas J.; Dillon, Peter; Finlay, Kerri; Fortino, Kenneth; Knoll, Lesley B.; Kortelainen, Pirkko L.; Kutser, Tiit; Larsen, Soren.; Laurion, Isabelle; Leech, Dina M.; McCallister, S. Leigh;
6479:
Orr, James C.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Aumont, Olivier; Bopp, Laurent; Doney, Scott C.; Feely, Richard A.; Gnanadesikan, Anand; Gruber, Nicolas; Ishida, Akio; Joos, Fortunat; Key, Robert M.; Lindsay, Keith; Maier-Reimer, Ernst; Matear, Richard; Monfray, Patrick; Mouchet, Anne; Najjar, Raymond G.;
1992:. Not much is known about carbon circulation in the mantle, especially in the deep Earth, but many studies have attempted to augment our understanding of the element's movement and forms within the region. For instance, a 2011 study demonstrated that carbon cycling extends all the way to the
6626:
Joos, F.; Roth, R.; Fuglestvedt, J. S.; Peters, G. P.; Enting, I. G.; von Bloh, W.; Brovkin, V.; Burke, E. J.; Eby, M.; Edwards, N. R.; Friedrich, T.; Frölicher, T. L.; Halloran, P. R.; Holden, P. B.; Jones, C.; Kleinen, T.; MacKenzie, F. T.; Matsumoto, K.; Meinshausen, M.; Plattner, G.-K.;
6531:
Le Quéré, Corinne; Andrew, Robbie M.; Canadell, Josep G.; Sitch, Stephen; Korsbakken, Jan Ivar; Peters, Glen P.; Manning, Andrew C.; Boden, Thomas A.; Tans, Pieter P.; Houghton, Richard A.; Keeling, Ralph F.; Alin, Simone; Andrews, Oliver D.; Anthoni, Peter; Barbero, Leticia; Bopp, Laurent;
2339:
As of 2020, about 450 gigatons of fossil carbon have been extracted in total; an amount approaching the carbon contained in all of Earth's living terrestrial biomass. Recent rates of global emissions directly into the atmosphere have exceeded the uptake by vegetation and the oceans. These
5400:
Sanders, Richard; Henson, Stephanie A.; Koski, Marja; De La Rocha, Christina L.; Painter, Stuart C.; Poulton, Alex J.; Riley, Jennifer; Salihoglu, Baris; Visser, Andre; Yool, Andrew; Bellerby, Richard; Martin, Adrian P. (December 2014). "The
Biological Carbon Pump in the North Atlantic".
1957:
extend from 660 to 2,891 km and 2,891 to 6,371 km deep into the Earth respectively. Accordingly, not much is conclusively known regarding the role of carbon in the deep Earth. Nonetheless, several pieces of evidence—many of which come from laboratory simulations of deep Earth
4481:
Cole, J. J.; Prairie, Y. T.; Caraco, N. F.; McDowell, W. H.; Tranvik, L. J.; Striegl, R. G.; Duarte, C. M.; Kortelainen, P.; Downing, J. A.; Middelburg, J. J.; Melack, J. (February 2007). "Plumbing the Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Inland Waters into the
Terrestrial Carbon Budget".
2145:
composition—albeit with a different structure from the one previously mentioned. In summary, although the amount of carbon potentially stored in the Earth's core is not known, recent studies indicate that the presence of iron carbides can explain some of the geophysical observations.
2091:
Accordingly, carbon can remain in the lower mantle for long periods of time, but large concentrations of carbon frequently find their way back to the lithosphere. This process, called carbon outgassing, is the result of carbonated mantle undergoing decompression melting, as well as
3861:
Riipinen, I.; Pierce, J. R.; Yli-Juuti, T.; Nieminen, T.; Häkkinen, S.; Ehn, M.; Junninen, H.; Lehtipalo, K.; Petäjä, T.; Slowik, J.; Chang, R.; Shantz, N. C.; Abbatt, J.; Leaitch, W. R.; Kerminen, V.-M.; Worsnop, D. R.; Pandis, S. N.; Donahue, N. M.; Kulmala, M. (27 April 2011).
2016:
However, carbonates descending to the lower mantle encounter other fates in addition to forming diamonds. In 2011, carbonates were subjected to an environment similar to that of 1800 km deep into the Earth, well within the lower mantle. Doing so resulted in the formations of
1061:
of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also be exported into the ocean through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon. Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers by
2008:
under lower mantle temperatures and pressures. Thus, the investigation's findings indicate that pieces of basaltic oceanic lithosphere act as the principle transport mechanism for carbon to Earth's deep interior. These subducted carbonates can interact with lower mantle
1433:. The fast or biological cycle can complete within years, moving carbon from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. The slow or geological cycle may extend deep into the mantle and can take millions of years to complete, moving carbon through the Earth's
4912:
Moore, W.S.; Beck, M.; Riedel, T.; Rutgers van der Loeff, M.; Dellwig, O.; Shaw, T.J.; Schnetger, B.; Brumsack, H.-J. (November 2011). "Radium-based pore water fluxes of silica, alkalinity, manganese, DOC, and uranium: A decade of studies in the German Wadden Sea".
2428:
Since the invention of agriculture, humans have directly and gradually influenced the carbon cycle over century-long timescales by modifying the mixture of vegetation in the terrestrial biosphere. Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused
929:. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide. Thus, carbon dioxide contributes more to the global greenhouse effect than methane.
4564:
Ward, Nicholas D.; Keil, Richard G.; Medeiros, Patricia M.; Brito, Daimio C.; Cunha, Alan C.; Dittmar, Thorsten; Yager, Patricia L.; Krusche, Alex V.; Richey, Jeffrey E. (July 2013). "Degradation of terrestrially derived macromolecules in the Amazon River".
2033:
observations—support this claim, indicating that magnesite is actually the most stable carbonate phase in most part of the mantle. This is largely a result of its higher melting temperature. Consequently, scientists have concluded that carbonates undergo
6532:
Chevallier, Frédéric; Chini, Louise P.; Ciais, Philippe; Currie, Kim; Delire, Christine; Doney, Scott C.; Friedlingstein, Pierre; Gkritzalis, Thanos; Harris, Ian; Hauck, Judith; Haverd, Vanessa; Hoppema, Mario; Klein
Goldewijk, Kees; et al. (2016).
5163:
Bouchez, Julien; Beyssac, Olivier; Galy, Valier; Gaillardet, JĂ©rĂ´me; France-Lanord, Christian; Maurice, Laurence; Moreira-Turcq, Patricia (2010). "Oxidation of petrogenic organic carbon in the Amazon floodplain as a source of atmospheric CO2".
51:
Carbon cycle schematic showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, and white are stored carbon. The effects of the
1357:
The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.
4007:
Myers-Pigg, Allison N.; Griffin, Robert J.; Louchouarn, Patrick; Norwood, Matthew J.; Sterne, Amanda; Cevik, Basak
Karakurt (6 September 2016). "Signatures of Biomass Burning Aerosols in the Plume of a Saltmarsh Wildfire in South Texas".
2437:, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere.
1007:. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in plants and other living organisms, while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon. Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon, while about a third of
742:. The carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of
2876:
O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. (2012). "Swansong Biospheres: Refuges for life and novel microbial biospheres on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes".
2270:, thus modifying marine ecosystems. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on highly sensitive ecosystems such as
1459:(see diagram on the right). The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form
1958:
conditions—have indicated mechanisms for the element's movement down into the lower mantle, as well as the forms that carbon takes at the extreme temperatures and pressures of said layer. Furthermore, techniques like
1365:. Much of the carbon stored in the Earth's mantle was stored there when the Earth formed. Some of it was deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere. Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80% is
902:
4445:
Richey, Jeffrey E.; Melack, John M.; Aufdenkampe, Anthony K.; Ballester, Victoria M.; Hess, Laura L. (April 2002). "Outgassing from Amazonian rivers and wetlands as a large tropical source of atmospheric CO2".
1952:
is actually greater than that on the Earth's surface by a factor of one thousand. Drilling down and physically observing deep-Earth carbon processes is evidently extremely difficult, as the lower mantle and
1849:
Most carbon incorporated in organic and inorganic biological matter is formed at the sea surface where it can then start sinking to the ocean floor. The deep ocean gets most of its nutrients from the higher
1611:
from rivers to the atmosphere that are the same order of magnitude as the amount of carbon sequestered annually by the terrestrial biosphere. Terrestrially-derived macromolecules such as lignin and
1353:
Diagram showing relative sizes (in gigatonnes) of the main storage pools of carbon on Earth. Cumulative changes (thru year 2014) from land use and emissions of fossil carbon are included for comparison.
6392:
Lade, Steven J.; Donges, Jonathan F.; Fetzer, Ingo; Anderies, John M.; Beer, Christian; Cornell, Sarah E.; Gasser, Thomas; Norberg, Jon; Richardson, Katherine; Rockström, Johan; Steffen, Will (2018).
5502:
Steinberg, Deborah K; Goldthwait, Sarah A; Hansell, Dennis A (August 2002). "Zooplankton vertical migration and the active transport of dissolved organic and inorganic nitrogen in the Sargasso Sea".
1795:
C y and 0.15–0.35 Pg C y respectively. On the other hand, POC can remain buried in sediment over an extensive period, and the annual global terrestrial to oceanic POC flux has been estimated at 0.20
4677:
Bastviken, David; Cole, Jonathan; Pace, Michael; Tranvik, Lars (December 2004). "Methane emissions from lakes: Dependence of lake characteristics, two regional assessments, and a global estimate".
3240:
Li, Mingxu; Peng, Changhui; Wang, Meng; Xue, Wei; Zhang, Kerou; Wang, Kefeng; Shi, Guohua; Zhu, Qiuan (2017). "The carbon flux of global rivers: A re-evaluation of amount and spatial patterns".
4360:
Pabich, Wendy J.; Valiela, Ivan; Hemond, Harold F. (2001). "Relationship between DOC concentration and vadose zone thickness and depth below water table in groundwater of Cape Cod, U.S.A.".
1570:
and root organic carbon mix with sedimentary material to form organic soils where plant-derived and petrogenic organic carbon is both stored and transformed by microbial and fungal activity.
5753:
Stagno, V.; Frost, D. J.; McCammon, C. A.; Mohseni, H.; Fei, Y. (February 2015). "The oxygen fugacity at which graphite or diamond forms from carbonate-bearing melts in eclogitic rocks".
1884:- which can be reingested, and sink or collect with other organic detritus into larger, more-rapidly-sinking aggregates. DOM is partially consumed by bacteria and respired; the remaining
2394:
from all long-lived greenhouse gases (year 2019); which includes forcing from the much larger concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane. Chlorofluorocarbons also cause stratospheric
4747:
Subramaniam, A.; Yager, P. L.; Carpenter, E. J.; Mahaffey, C.; Björkman, K.; Cooley, S.; Kustka, A. B.; Montoya, J. P.; Sañudo-Wilhelmy, S. A.; Shipe, R.; Capone, D. G. (29 July 2008).
5246:
Bauer, James E.; Cai, Wei-Jun; Raymond, Peter A.; Bianchi, Thomas S.; Hopkinson, Charles S.; Regnier, Pierre A. G. (5 December 2013). "The changing carbon cycle of the coastal ocean".
5128:
Blair, Neal E.; Leithold, Elana L.; Aller, Robert C. (2004). "From bedrock to burial: The evolution of particulate organic carbon across coupled watershed-continental margin systems".
6854:
4329:
Grøn, Christian; Tørsløv, Jens; Albrechtsen, Hans-Jørgen; Jensen, Hanne Møller (May 1992). "Biodegradability of dissolved organic carbon in groundwater from an unconfined aquifer".
3826:
Kerminen, Veli-Matti; Virkkula, Aki; Hillamo, Risto; Wexler, Anthony S.; Kulmala, Markku (16 April 2000). "Secondary organics and atmospheric cloud condensation nuclei production".
3401:
Kleypas, J. A.; Buddemeier, R. W.; Archer, D.; Gattuso, J. P.; Langdon, C.; Opdyke, B. N. (1999). "Geochemical Consequences of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Coral Reefs".
1892:
and mixed into the deep sea. DOM and aggregates exported into the deep water are consumed and respired, thus returning organic carbon into the enormous deep ocean reservoir of DIC.
1748:
transport, which acts as the main channel through which erosive terrestrially derived substances enter into oceanic systems. Material and energy exchanges between the terrestrial
1304:. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through thermohaline circulation.
5791:
Boulard, Eglantine; Gloter, Alexandre; Corgne, Alexandre; Antonangeli, Daniele; Auzende, Anne-Line; Perrillat, Jean-Philippe; Guyot, François; Fiquet, Guillaume (29 March 2011).
1377:
formed through the sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.
1896:
these cells form aggregates. These aggregates have sinking rates orders of magnitude greater than individual cells and complete their journey to the deep in a matter of days.
8778:
5850:
Dorfman, Susannah M.; Badro, James; Nabiei, Farhang; Prakapenka, Vitali B.; Cantoni, Marco; Gillet, Philippe (May 2018). "Carbonate stability in the reduced lower mantle".
1944:
Furthermore, the process is also significant simply due to the massive quantities of carbon it transports through the planet. In fact, studying the composition of basaltic
678:
6887:
1075:
carbon). There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of
3178:"Investigating the biochar effects on C-mineralization and sequestration of carbon in soil compared with conventional amendments using the stable isotope (δC) approach"
4137:
Bose, Samar K.; Francis, Raymond C.; Govender, Mark; Bush, Tamara; Spark, Andrew (February 2009). "Lignin content versus syringyl to guaiacyl ratio amongst poplars".
941:, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.
8954:
4877:
Dittmar, Thorsten; Lara, Rubén José; Kattner, Gerhard (March 2001). "River or mangrove? Tracing major organic matter sources in tropical Brazilian coastal waters".
2932:
Walker, James C. G.; Hays, P. B.; Kasting, J. F. (20 October 1981). "A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature".
765:. Fast carbon cycles can complete within years, moving substances from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles (also called
8622:
2970:
Heath, Martin J.; Doyle, Laurance R. (2009). Circumstellar Habitable Zones to Ecodynamic Domains: A Preliminary Review and Suggested Future Directions (Preprint).
6361:
6182:
Chen, Bin; Li, Zeyu; Zhang, Dongzhou; Liu, Jiachao; Hu, Michael Y.; Zhao, Jiyong; Bi, Wenli; Alp, E. Ercan; Xiao, Yuming; Chow, Paul; Li, Jie (16 December 2014).
5994:
Boulard, Eglantine; Pan, Ding; Galli, Giulia; Liu, Zhenxian; Mao, Wendy L. (18 February 2015). "Tetrahedrally coordinated carbonates in Earth's lower mantle".
3793:
Ward, Nicholas D.; Bianchi, Thomas S.; Medeiros, Patricia M.; Seidel, Michael; Richey, Jeffrey E.; Keil, Richard G.; Sawakuchi, Henrique O. (31 January 2017).
2824:; Lowe, D.C.; Myhre, G.; Nganga, J.; Prinn, R.; Raga, G.; Schulz, M.; Van Dorland, R. (2007). "Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing".
2406:
to control rapid growth in the industrial manufacturing and use of these environmentally potent gases. For some applications more benign alternatives such as
2344:
have been expected and observed to remove about half of the added atmospheric carbon within about a century. Nevertheless, sinks like the ocean have evolving
8795:
2308:
Detail of anthropogenic carbon flows, showing cumulative mass in gigatons during years 1850–2018 (left) and the annual mass average during 2009–2018 (right).
3972:
Baldock, J.A.; Masiello, C.A.; GĂ©linas, Y.; Hedges, J.I. (December 2004). "Cycling and composition of organic matter in terrestrial and marine ecosystems".
2116:
Although the presence of carbon in the Earth's core is well-constrained, recent studies suggest large inventories of carbon could be stored in this region.
2753:
Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergouvernmental Panel on Climate Change
1300:
and can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the oceans' deeper, more carbon-rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as
8231:
8057:
4294:
Qualls, Robert G.; Haines, Bruce L. (March 1992). "Biodegradability of Dissolved Organic Matter in Forest Throughfall, Soil Solution, and Stream Water".
3329:
Varney, Rebecca M.; Chadburn, Sarah E.; Friedlingstein, Pierre; Burke, Eleanor J.; Koven, Charles D.; Hugelius, Gustaf; Cox, Peter M. (2 November 2020).
2826:
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1475:
processes result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere by
6152:
5085:
SchlĂĽnz, B.; Schneider, R. R. (22 March 2000). "Transport of terrestrial organic carbon to the oceans by rivers: re-estimating flux- and burial rates".
4712:
Cooley, S. R.; Coles, V. J.; Subramaniam, A.; Yager, P. L. (September 2007). "Seasonal variations in the Amazon plume-related atmospheric carbon sink".
8226:
5643:
5340:
Galy, Valier; Peucker-Ehrenbrink, Bernhard; Eglinton, Timothy (May 2015). "Global carbon export from the terrestrial biosphere controlled by erosion".
7094:
8094:
2851:
2527:
2441:
carbon stays in the atmosphere. However, the effects on the atmosphere and overall carbon cycle can be intentionally and/or naturally reversed with
6956:
1869:
or dissolved form into the deep ocean. Inorganic nutrients and carbon dioxide are fixed during photosynthesis by phytoplankton, which both release
8031:
2616:
6912:
Morse, John W.; Morse, John W. Autor; Morse, John W.; MacKenzie, F. T.; MacKenzie, Fred T. (1990). "The Current Carbon Cycle and Human Impact".
6757:
965:
7185:
2991:
Crockford, Peter W.; Bar On, Yinon M.; Ward, Luce M.; Milo, Ron; Halevy, Itay (November 2023). "The geologic history of primary productivity".
2209:
Schematic representation of the overall perturbation of the global carbon cycle caused by anthropogenic activities, averaged from 2010 to 2019.
5709:
9129:
7740:
3560:
3500:
2262:, is the only explicitly modelled ocean stock of carbon; though to estimate carbon cycle feedbacks the total ocean carbon is also calculated.
2096:
carrying carbon compounds up towards the crust. Carbon is oxidised upon its ascent towards volcanic hotspots, where it is then released as CO
17:
7973:
6844:
5918:
Cottrell, Elizabeth; Kelley, Katherine A. (14 June 2013). "Redox Heterogeneity in Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts as a Function of Mantle Source".
7857:
2274:, thus limiting the ocean's ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.
5390:
Sigman DM & GH Haug. 2006. The biological pump in the past. In: Treatise on Geochemistry; vol. 6, (ed.). Pergamon Press, pp. 491–528
4600:
Myers-Pigg, Allison N.; Louchouarn, Patrick; Amon, Rainer M. W.; Prokushkin, Anatoly; Pierce, Kayce; Rubtsov, Alexey (28 January 2015).
1791:(DIC) are also exported to the ocean. In 2015, inorganic and organic carbon export fluxes from global rivers were assessed as 0.50–0.70
8116:
8074:
5297:
Cai, Wei-Jun (15 January 2011). "Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Carbon Paradox: CO 2 Sinks or Sites of Terrestrial Carbon Incineration?".
4801:
Cai, Wei-Jun (15 January 2011). "Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Carbon Paradox: CO 2 Sinks or Sites of Terrestrial Carbon Incineration?".
2781:
164:
8995:
8111:
7696:
7420:
1038:
because this hemisphere has more land mass than the southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.
1003:
The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive and dead, as well as carbon stored in
449:
122:
8326:
8047:
7765:
7542:
6679:
3444:
Langdon, C.; Takahashi, T.; Sweeney, C.; Chipman, D.; Goddard, J.; Marubini, F.; Aceves, H.; Barnett, H.; Atkinson, M. J. (2000).
1288:
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a small fraction of which is converted into
8682:
8471:
7639:
2467:
2316:, which directly transfer carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is also produced and released during the
1026:
Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle. In CO
622:
149:
6789:
6627:
Reisinger, A.; Segschneider, J.; Shaffer, G.; Steinacher, M.; Strassmann, K.; Tanaka, K.; Timmermann, A.; Weaver, A. J. (2013).
4602:"Labile pyrogenic dissolved organic carbon in major Siberian Arctic rivers: Implications for wildfire-stream metabolic linkages"
8331:
8294:
8148:
8133:
8052:
7701:
7645:
6877:
6584:
3534:
Information sheet for Columbia University Summer Session 2012 Earth and Environmental Sciences Introduction to Earth Sciences I
3154:
685:
503:
2194:
emissions show that most emissions are being absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (
2004:, determining that the bulk composition of some of the diamonds' inclusions matched the expected result of basalt melting and
8990:
8128:
7022:"Carbon dioxide and climate impulse response functions for the computation of greenhouse gas metrics: A multi-model analysis"
6629:"Carbon dioxide and climate impulse response functions for the computation of greenhouse gas metrics: A multi-model analysis"
5978:
5902:
5586:
4861:
3597:
3100:
2879:
2671:
2646:
2567:
2349:
627:
2312:
The largest and one of the fastest growing human impacts on the carbon cycle and biosphere is the extraction and burning of
1643:
to the atmosphere that is roughly one order of magnitude less than rivers. Methane production is also typically high in the
9012:
7968:
7963:
7352:
8493:
8271:
8089:
8021:
8011:
7994:
7901:
7708:
2238:
998:
92:
8026:
2556:"Blue planet: The role of the oceans in nutrient cycling, maintain the atmosphere system, and modulating climate change"
1783:(POC)) from terrestrial to oceanic systems. During transport, part of DOC will rapidly return to the atmosphere through
1083:. The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course of
9134:
8922:
8783:
8740:
8236:
7456:
7332:
7178:
3275:
Bond-Lamberty, Ben; Thomson, Allison (2010). "Temperature-associated increases in the global soil respiration record".
1507:
The movement of terrestrial carbon in the water cycle is shown in the diagram on the right and explained below:
7141:
3527:
2053:
alters carbonate compounds' stability at different depths within the Earth. To illustrate, laboratory simulations and
8849:
8725:
8542:
7745:
6929:
6821:
6610:
977:
will no longer be possible. This has been predicted to occur 600 million years from the present, though models vary.
1273:
within which water makes frequent (daily to annual) contact with the atmosphere, and a deep layer below the typical
9082:
8720:
8700:
8647:
8599:
7661:
3864:"Organic condensation: a vital link connecting aerosol formation to cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations"
2050:
6082:
Dasgupta, Rajdeep; Hirschmann, Marc M. (September 2010). "The deep carbon cycle and melting in Earth's interior".
2286:
indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle and contribute to further warming.
2195:
1400:. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy and emit the carbon they store into the atmosphere.
912:
Computer model showing a year in the life of atmospheric carbon dioxide and how it travels around the globe
8839:
8790:
8216:
8178:
8123:
7593:
7481:
1530:
7122:
1277:
depth of a few hundred meters or less, within which the time between consecutive contacts may be centuries. The
9104:
8907:
8191:
7948:
5736:"Carbon cycle reaches Earth's lower mantle: Evidence of carbon cycle found in 'superdeep' diamonds From Brazil"
2058:
1041:
1589:). Biogeochemical transformations take place as water soaks into soil solution and groundwater reservoirs and
9017:
8552:
8084:
7509:
7171:
6160:
5602:
Wong, Kevin; Mason, Emily; Brune, Sascha; East, Madison; Edmonds, Marie; Zahirovic, Sabin (11 October 2019).
2243:
1904:
returns deep-ocean DIC to the atmosphere on millennial timescales. The carbon buried in the sediments can be
960:
In the far future (2 to 3 billion years), the rate at which carbon dioxide is absorbed into the soil via the
738:. Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as
5651:
9000:
8672:
8201:
8196:
8101:
7978:
7535:
7461:
7316:
7215:
7083:
2479:
1344:
961:
557:
552:
542:
222:
39:
7491:
2839:
2519:
1858:. This is made up of dead or dying animals and microbes, fecal matter, sand and other inorganic material.
1070:. Between 1989 and 2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1% per year. In 2008, the global total of CO
8211:
8064:
6945:
2100:. This occurs so that the carbon atom matches the oxidation state of the basalts erupting in such areas.
1740:
at the air-water interface, transportation, transformation and sedimentation occur in oceanic ecosystems.
5604:"Deep Carbon Cycling Over the Past 200 Million Years: A Review of Fluxes in Different Tectonic Settings"
5050:"Carbon transportation, transformation, and sedimentation processes at the land-river-estuary continuum"
2065:. A 2015 study indicates that the lower mantle's high pressure causes carbon bonds to transition from sp
9070:
8834:
8637:
8594:
8367:
8289:
8143:
7154:
4100:"Soil organic carbon content and composition of 130-year crop, pasture and forest land-use managements"
2370:
Halocarbons are less prolific compounds developed for diverse uses throughout industry; for example as
1866:
1862:
1788:
1780:
1593:
occurs when soils are completely saturated, or rainfall occurs more rapidly than saturation into soils.
1578:
1278:
952:
concentrations over the last 800,000 years as measured from ice cores (blue/green) and directly (black)
612:
510:
216:
210:
6754:
3446:"Effect of calcium carbonate saturation state on the calcification rate of an experimental coral reef"
8939:
8614:
8589:
8562:
8524:
8441:
8259:
8106:
8069:
7819:
7588:
7583:
7578:
5471:"Phytoplankton as Key Mediators of the Biological Carbon Pump: Their Responses to a Changing Climate"
4180:
Schlesinger, William H.; Andrews, Jeffrey A. (2000). "Soil respiration and the global carbon cycle".
2461:
2054:
1603:
is decomposed by microbial communities in rivers and streams along with physical decomposition (i.e.
1512:
925:. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the
617:
237:
8454:
4251:
Lehmann, Johannes; Kleber, Markus (December 2015). "The contentious nature of soil organic matter".
4051:
Field, Christopher B.; Behrenfeld, Michael J.; Randerson, James T.; Falkowski, Paul (10 July 1998).
1787:, causing "carbon degassing" to occur between land-atmosphere storage layers. The remaining DOC and
8949:
8944:
8934:
8875:
8715:
8221:
8186:
8079:
8006:
7847:
7676:
7612:
7573:
7449:
7444:
5713:
3765:
3613:
2751:
Prentice, I.C. (2001). "The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide". In Houghton, J.T. (ed.).
2283:
2205:
2062:
1901:
1870:
1776:
1772:
1574:
1553:
1480:
1388:
into the Earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through
1293:
1282:
893:
592:
520:
515:
498:
343:
204:
102:
3545:
3496:
9119:
9109:
9058:
8980:
8890:
8632:
8604:
8284:
7943:
7921:
7528:
7383:
6583:
Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, ed. (2014). "Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles".
5735:
4749:"Amazon River enhances diazotrophy and carbon sequestration in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean"
2491:
2299:
2234:
1730:
1035:
884:
sediments are fairly balanced; so carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.
602:
117:
7084:"The Transition from HFC- 134a to a Low -GWP Refrigerant in Mobile Air Conditioners HFO -1234yf"
6394:"Analytically tractable climate–carbon cycle feedbacks under 21st century anthropogenic forcing"
8657:
8477:
8419:
8336:
8321:
8206:
7852:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7272:
3697:"Correlation between the Fluctuations in Worldwide Seismicity and Atmospheric Carbon Pollution"
3176:
Yousaf, Balal; Liu, Guijian; Wang, Ruwei; Abbas, Qumber; Imtiaz, Muhammad; Liu, Ruijia (2016).
855:
422:
198:
159:
127:
1019:
extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it to organic carbon, while
9124:
9114:
9046:
8692:
8569:
8377:
7837:
7760:
7476:
6339:
5574:
3076:
2555:
2329:
2214:
2175:
2073:
2035:
1962:
have led to a greater understanding of the potential presence of carbon in the Earth's core.
671:
658:
607:
338:
6095:
5863:
4315:
3728:
Rothman, Daniel H. (17 September 2014). "Earth's carbon cycle: A mathematical perspective".
3331:"A spatial emergent constraint on the sensitivity of soil carbon turnover to global warming"
2774:
1948:
and measuring carbon dioxide flux out of volcanoes reveals that the amount of carbon in the
1771:
Riverine transport, being the main connective channel of these pools, will act to transport
1396:. It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of
796:
in the atmosphere has increased nearly 52% over pre-industrial levels by 2020, resulting in
8885:
8763:
8424:
7999:
7926:
7395:
7225:
7202:
7194:
6986:
6716:
6640:
6545:
6489:
6453:
6405:
6272:
6216:
6138:
6126:
6091:
6056:
6013:
5927:
5859:
5804:
5762:
5682:
5615:
5511:
5410:
5349:
5306:
5255:
5217:
5173:
5137:
5094:
4997:
4922:
4886:
4810:
4721:
4686:
4651:
4613:
4574:
4530:
4491:
4419:
4334:
4303:
4260:
4217:
4146:
4111:
4064:
4017:
3981:
3913:
3875:
3835:
3649:
3457:
3410:
3342:
3284:
3249:
3047:
3000:
2941:
2898:
2712:
2473:
2455:
2352:) of the added carbon is projected to remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia.
1993:
1264:
1058:
743:
703:
534:
436:
192:
97:
6602:
6117:
Frost, Daniel J.; McCammon, Catherine A. (May 2008). "The Redox State of Earth's Mantle".
2820:
Forster, P.; Ramawamy, V.; Artaxo, P.; Berntsen, T.; Betts, R.; Fahey, D.W.; Haywood, J.;
2639:
The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science
1053:
Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales. The
8:
8902:
8677:
7911:
7906:
7486:
7427:
6047:
Jones, A. P.; Genge, M.; Carmody, L. (January 2013). "Carbonate Melts and Carbonatites".
5318:
4822:
2612:
2485:
2085:
1920:
1691:
1324:
1316:
1076:
801:
727:
483:
299:
154:
6998:
6990:
6720:
6644:
6549:
6493:
6457:
6409:
6276:
6220:
6130:
6060:
6017:
5931:
5808:
5766:
5742:(Press release). American Association for the Advancement of Science. 15 September 2011.
5686:
5619:
5515:
5414:
5353:
5310:
5259:
5221:
5177:
5141:
5098:
5001:
4926:
4890:
4814:
4725:
4690:
4655:
4617:
4578:
4534:
4495:
4423:
4338:
4307:
4264:
4221:
4150:
4115:
4068:
4021:
3985:
3917:
3879:
3839:
3653:
3461:
3414:
3346:
3288:
3253:
3051:
3004:
2945:
2902:
2716:
2378:. Nevertheless, the buildup of relatively small concentrations (parts per trillion) of
1526:
through particle scavenging and adsorption of organic vapors while falling toward Earth.
1444:
processes between the environment and living organisms in the biosphere (see diagram at
8730:
8662:
8579:
8429:
8394:
8351:
8346:
8341:
7916:
6849:
6513:
6239:
6183:
6003:
5827:
5792:
5373:
5279:
5189:
5110:
5067:
5020:
4985:
4775:
4748:
3941:"Dissolved Organic and Inorganic Carbon Flow Paths in an Amazonian Transitional Forest"
3475:
3363:
3330:
3308:
2971:
2914:
2888:
2379:
2304:
2122:
1835:
1635:
typically store large amounts of organic carbon and sediments, but also experience net
1600:
970:
879:). These carbon stores interact with the other components through geological processes.
562:
330:
314:
309:
232:
6921:
6465:
5523:
4898:
3672:
3637:
1912:
and stored for millions of years as part of the slow carbon cycle (see next section).
1380:
Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the
8964:
8627:
8372:
8138:
7931:
7894:
7681:
7635:
7471:
7439:
7373:
7220:
6925:
6779:
6606:
6505:
6321:
6299:
6244:
6029:
5974:
5943:
5898:
5894:
5832:
5582:
5377:
5365:
5322:
5271:
5114:
5071:
5025:
4965:
4857:
4826:
4780:
4663:
4546:
4463:
4392:
4346:
4276:
4233:
4162:
4123:
4080:
4053:"Primary Production of the Biosphere: Integrating Terrestrial and Oceanic Components"
4033:
3677:
3593:
3479:
3426:
3368:
3300:
3096:
3016:
2728:
2667:
2642:
2563:
2458: – Chemical transfer pathway between Earth's biological and non-biological parts
2434:
2407:
2399:
2391:
2383:
2365:
2164:
1937:
1931:
1909:
1843:
1625:
1497:
1472:
1468:
1393:
1370:
1328:
1301:
1012:
926:
817:
766:
493:
272:
107:
6300:"Precision and bias of carbon storage estimations in wetland and mangrove sediments"
5193:
4099:
3939:
Neu, Vania; Ward, Nicholas D.; Krusche, Alex V.; Neill, Christopher (28 June 2016).
3741:
3142:
2918:
2760:
1970:
753:
To describe the dynamics of the carbon cycle, a distinction can be made between the
9007:
8574:
8557:
8498:
8389:
8153:
7877:
7750:
7686:
7390:
7378:
7309:
7279:
7043:
7033:
7002:
6994:
6917:
6734:
6724:
6658:
6648:
6598:
6590:
6563:
6553:
6517:
6497:
6461:
6423:
6413:
6311:
6280:
6234:
6224:
6134:
6099:
6064:
6021:
5966:
5935:
5890:
5867:
5822:
5812:
5770:
5690:
5623:
5553:
5519:
5482:
5449:
5418:
5357:
5314:
5283:
5263:
5225:
5181:
5145:
5102:
5057:
5015:
5005:
4957:
4930:
4894:
4849:
4818:
4770:
4760:
4729:
4694:
4659:
4621:
4582:
4538:
4499:
4455:
4427:
4410:
Horton, Robert E. (June 1933). "The RĂ´le of infiltration in the hydrologic cycle".
4369:
4342:
4311:
4268:
4225:
4189:
4158:
4154:
4119:
4072:
4025:
3989:
3952:
3921:
3883:
3843:
3806:
3745:
3737:
3708:
3667:
3657:
3585:
3465:
3418:
3358:
3350:
3312:
3292:
3257:
3222:
3189:
3121:
3088:
3055:
3008:
2949:
2906:
2756:
2720:
2325:
2107:
Knowledge about carbon in the core can be gained by analysing shear wave velocities
1949:
1523:
1479:
and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the
1460:
1434:
1067:
872:
821:
805:
770:
459:
353:
348:
5438:"Toward quantifying the response of the oceans' biological pump to climate change"
5149:
3993:
3261:
8959:
8880:
8844:
8773:
8747:
8735:
8652:
8584:
8459:
8316:
7938:
7889:
7867:
7410:
7368:
7158:
7145:
6761:
6594:
5422:
4076:
3795:"Where Carbon Goes When Water Flows: Carbon Cycling across the Aquatic Continuum"
3531:
3422:
2724:
2395:
2387:
2345:
2278:
currently take up about one-quarter of anthropogenic carbon emissions each year.
2254:
Carbon stored on land in vegetation and soils is aggregated into a single stock c
2005:
1985:
1954:
1827:
1821:
1714:
1706:
1604:
993:
Amount of carbon stored in Earth's various terrestrial ecosystems, in gigatonnes.
876:
777:
587:
454:
387:
375:
304:
178:
35:
7021:
3589:
1873:(DOM) and are consumed by herbivorous zooplankton. Larger zooplankton - such as
1327:. The projected rate of pH reduction could slow the biological precipitation of
776:
Humans have disturbed the carbon cycle for many centuries. They have done so by
769:) can take millions of years to complete, moving substances through the Earth's
8912:
8768:
8710:
8705:
8547:
8436:
8168:
8163:
8158:
8016:
7953:
7691:
7671:
7630:
7551:
7289:
7262:
7257:
7237:
7232:
7128:
7064:
7038:
6739:
6103:
5871:
5062:
5049:
3354:
2403:
1885:
1784:
1757:
1549:
1519:
1441:
1430:
1297:
1084:
933:
918:
797:
793:
731:
597:
567:
547:
488:
402:
285:
280:
141:
7048:
6729:
6704:
6663:
5774:
4934:
4853:
4503:
4373:
4193:
3012:
2910:
2464: – Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change
2184:
1564:
represent as much as 80% of the organic carbon in forests and 60% in pastures.
989:
9098:
8985:
8917:
8642:
8464:
8449:
8384:
8279:
7466:
7252:
7247:
6653:
6628:
6325:
5628:
5603:
5454:
5437:
5048:
Gao, Yang; Jia, Junjie; Lu, Yao; Sun, Kun; Wang, Jing; Wang, Shuoyue (2022).
3957:
3940:
3888:
3863:
3811:
3794:
3775:
3623:
3092:
3080:
2442:
2423:
1669:
1644:
1590:
1270:
1031:
938:
6558:
6533:
6229:
5970:
5939:
5817:
5673:
Wilson, Mark (2003). "Where do Carbon Atoms Reside within Earth's Mantle?".
5558:
5541:
5010:
4765:
4431:
4396:
4052:
4029:
2953:
2558:. In Smith, Hance D.; Suárez de Vivero, Juan Luis; Agardy, Tundi S. (eds.).
2042:
76:
30:
For the thermonuclear reaction involving carbon that powers some stars, see
8667:
8311:
8301:
7958:
7842:
7755:
7299:
7294:
7267:
7138:
6974:
6509:
6418:
6393:
6316:
6248:
6068:
6033:
5947:
5836:
5369:
5326:
5275:
5029:
4969:
4830:
4784:
4550:
4467:
4280:
4237:
4166:
4037:
3681:
3662:
3524:
3430:
3372:
3304:
3020:
2732:
2313:
2093:
1881:
1851:
1636:
1613:
1537:) that is returned to the atmosphere along with greenhouse gases such as CO
1534:
1397:
1381:
1020:
828:. The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major
825:
380:
294:
248:
186:
7134:
Global Carbon Project – initiative of the Earth System Science Partnership
6811:
6184:"Hidden carbon in Earth's inner core revealed by shear softening in dense
5106:
4084:
2840:"Many Planets, One Earth // Section 4: Carbon Cycling and Earth's Climate"
2103:
1925:
Movement of oceanic plates—which carry carbon compounds—through the mantle
969:
below approximately 50 parts per million (tolerances vary among species),
8897:
8414:
8406:
7666:
7415:
7405:
7400:
7304:
6582:
4733:
4698:
4626:
4601:
3847:
3470:
3445:
3085:
Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth
3060:
3035:
2821:
2419:
2390:
gases in the atmosphere is responsible for about 10% of the total direct
2375:
2361:
2341:
2317:
2295:
1855:
1753:
1673:
1651:
1582:
1452:
1373:
stored in the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as
1362:
1274:
1154:
1008:
865:
833:
789:
747:
735:
723:
444:
417:
412:
407:
397:
367:
253:
112:
7163:
6680:"Analysis: How 'carbon-cycle feedbacks' could make global warming worse"
6501:
5361:
5267:
4542:
4272:
4229:
3750:
3296:
2080:
trigonal groups cannot form polymerisable networks, while tetrahedral CO
1760:
fixation and oxidation processes together regulate ecosystem carbon and
1425:
There is a fast and a slow carbon cycle. The fast cycle operates in the
1015:. Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms living on Earth.
944:
8929:
8306:
7284:
7242:
6701:
6568:
6428:
6025:
5487:
5470:
3713:
3696:
3194:
3177:
2271:
2266:
Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures and
1989:
1959:
1695:
1632:
1567:
1456:
1385:
1349:
1054:
1016:
840:
715:
392:
7133:
7006:
5694:
3126:
2809:(Press release). NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. 17 November 2014.
2586:
2174:
have been caused by different sources ramping up one after the other (
1988:
of ocean crust, which pull the carbon into the mantle upon undergoing
7884:
7432:
7337:
6812:"Audio (66:01) - NASA News Conference - Carbon & Climate Telecon"
6284:
5229:
5185:
4586:
3925:
3226:
2875:
2321:
2126:
2030:
2018:
1981:
1905:
1749:
1659:
1561:
1476:
1464:
1426:
1416:
The fast carbon cycle operates through the biosphere, see diagram at
1389:
1366:
1289:
846:
785:
739:
719:
711:
31:
4961:
4911:
4459:
4098:
Martens, Dean A.; Reedy, Thomas E.; Lewis, David T. (January 2004).
6008:
5206:
2430:
2222:
2026:
2022:
2010:
1889:
1834:
from the atmosphere and land runoff to the deep ocean interior and
1810:
1799:
1792:
1761:
1745:
1586:
861:
5710:"From Magma Ocean to Crustal Recycling: Earth's Deep Carbon Cycle"
4948:
Wehrli, Bernhard (November 2013). "Conduits of the carbon cycle".
4599:
4006:
3638:"Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels for the last 500 million years"
2976:
2893:
2806:
2001:
7862:
7520:
6953:
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report
6916:. Developments in Sedimentology. Vol. 48. pp. 447–510.
6882:
6778:
Buis, Alan; Ramsayer, Kate; Rasmussen, Carol (12 November 2015).
6442:
4746:
4050:
3774:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
3622:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
3328:
2371:
2267:
1997:
1874:
1681:
1655:
1617:
1408:
1374:
1171:
1063:
922:
475:
258:
7071:
Global Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories.
6261:
4444:
3764:
NASA Earth Observatory (16 June 2011). "The Slow Carbon Cycle".
3612:
NASA Earth Observatory (16 June 2011). "The Fast Carbon Cycle".
1744:
Terrestrial and marine ecosystems are chiefly connected through
1308:
932:
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through
8865:
3860:
3118:
2593:
Global Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories
2587:"The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) - An Introduction"
2333:
2117:
1831:
1557:
1315:
shifts the pH of the ocean towards neutral in a process called
780:
and by mining and burning carbon from ancient organic remains (
707:
637:
47:
5790:
5339:
4982:
3443:
3400:
2125:
to replicate the conditions in the Earth's core indicate that
1709:
sequesters a small but significant fraction of the absorbed CO
1091:
Size of major carbon pools on the Earth (year 2000 estimates)
8779:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
7872:
7342:
6878:"UK: In 1st, global temps average could be 1 degree C higher"
5399:
4519:
3825:
2819:
2701:
2013:, eventually forming super-deep diamonds like the one found.
1945:
1878:
1677:
1451:
The slow (or deep) carbon cycle involves medium to long-term
851:
632:
5849:
5162:
4640:
4328:
3971:
3902:
1361:
Most of the Earth's carbon is stored inertly in the Earth's
7347:
7151:
7068:
7020:
Joos, F.; Roth, R.; Fuglestvedt, J.D.; et al. (2013).
6845:"Atmospheric Greenhouse Gas Levels Hit Record, Report Says"
6816:
6784:
6530:
5384:
4711:
2590:
2218:
1296:. It is converted by organisms into organic carbon through
1246:
1004:
917:
Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms:
781:
6446:
Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography
5752:
5540:
Ducklow, Hugh; Steinberg, Deborah; Buesseler, Ken (2001).
5501:
1596:
Organic carbon derived from the terrestrial biosphere and
1369:
and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of
56:, such as volcanic and tectonic activity are not included.
8955:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
6625:
5539:
4480:
3792:
3379:
2076:, resulting in carbon tetrahedrally bonding to oxygen. CO
1915:
1487:
6911:
6391:
6342:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 23 December 2015
4676:
4206:
3390:. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, US.
3036:"Biotic feedback extends the life span of the biosphere"
2410:
have been developed and are being gradually introduced.
1529:
Burning and volcanic eruptions produce highly condensed
1492:
5504:
Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers
5093:(4). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 599–606.
4136:
2990:
2289:
2149:
5245:
1552:, returning a fraction back to the atmosphere through
1413:
The slow (or deep) carbon cycle operates through rocks
868:, freshwater systems, and non-living organic material.
8796:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
6777:
4563:
4389:
Solutions Manual to Accompany Hydrology for Engineers
2061:
carbonates are most stable at depths approaching the
1502:
Where terrestrial carbon goes when water flows
1440:
The fast carbon cycle involves relatively short-term
6975:"Atmospheric lifetime of fossil fuel carbon dioxide"
5469:
Basu, Samarpita; Mackey, Katherine (19 March 2018).
3904:
from an Amazonian rainforest blackwater catchment".
3274:
3209:
Lal, Rattan (2008). "Sequestration of atmospheric CO
3077:"Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales"
2746:
2744:
2742:
2560:
Routledge Handbook of Ocean Resources and Management
2482: – Geochemical transformation of silicate rocks
1980:
Carbon principally enters the mantle in the form of
1861:
The biological pump is responsible for transforming
1830:
is the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of
1045:
A portable soil respiration system measuring soil CO
7019:
5786:
5784:
5542:"Upper Ocean Carbon Export and the Biological Pump"
4359:
3938:
3694:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2494: – Sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle
1616: are decomposed into smaller components and
1331:, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb CO
761:. The fast carbon cycle is also referred to as the
34:. For organic chemical ring-shaped structures, see
6768:: Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change,
6678:Hausfather, Zeke; Betts, Richard (14 April 2020).
6478:
6081:
5993:
5601:
5127:
4876:
4846:Ecological Processes in Coastal and Marine Systems
4179:
3175:
2470: – Atmospheric constituent and greenhouse gas
2249:Climate–carbon cycle feedbacks and state variables
1975:Carbon outgassing through various processes
1725:
1639:in the water column, resulting in a net flux of CO
6771:
6153:"Does Earth's Core Host a Deep Carbon Reservoir?"
6046:
4097:
3034:Lenton, Timothy M.; von Bloh, Werner (May 2001).
2931:
2739:
2282:atmospheric concentration or emission scenarios.
808:. Carbon dioxide is critical for photosynthesis.
800:. The increased carbon dioxide has also caused a
9096:
8996:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
7139:UNEP – The present carbon cycle – Climate Change
6589:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 465–570.
6586:Climate Change 2013 - the Physical Science Basis
5781:
5644:"The Deep Carbon Cycle and our Habitable Planet"
5084:
2680:
1736:How carbon moves from inland waters to the ocean
1647:sediments of floodplains, lakes, and reservoirs.
1573:Water absorbs plant and settled aerosol-derived
1292:. It can also enter the ocean through rivers as
730:. Other major biogeochemical cycles include the
6804:
6677:
6209:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5961:Kono, Yoshio; Sanloup, Chrystèle, eds. (2018).
5797:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4990:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4753:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4740:
4208:soil organic matter as an ecosystem property".
4173:
3695:Carpinteri, Alberto; Niccolini, Gianni (2019).
3642:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3520:
3518:
3385:
2617:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2348:, and a substantial fraction (20–35%, based on
1805:
1718:
6387:
6385:
6383:
6181:
5917:
5535:
5533:
4986:"Deciphering ocean carbon in a changing world"
4593:
4515:
4513:
4000:
3688:
3033:
2398:. International efforts are ongoing under the
1684:are suggested to have an equivalent flux of CO
1581:(DIC) as it passes over forest canopies (i.e.
1311:of 8.1 to 8.2). The increase in atmospheric CO
1030:measurements, this feature is apparent in the
7741:History of climate change policy and politics
7536:
7179:
7065:"The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI)"
7062:
6979:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
6836:
6119:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
6116:
5885:Albarede, Francis (2014). "Oxygen Fugacity".
5495:
5172:(3). Geological Society of America: 255–258.
4670:
4250:
3730:Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society
3239:
1965:
1865:(DIC) into organic biomass and pumping it in
1269:The ocean can be conceptually divided into a
1023:receive carbon by consuming other organisms.
679:
6869:
5241:
5239:
4412:Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union
4293:
3896:
3854:
3828:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
3819:
3580:Bush, Martin J. (2020). "The Carbon Cycle".
3515:
2775:"An Introduction to the Global Carbon Cycle"
2666:. Princeton University Press. pp. 5–6.
2433:and land cover change (LUCC) has led to the
1650:Primary production is typically enhanced in
773:between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.
7858:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
6380:
5960:
5572:
5530:
5047:
4870:
4634:
4510:
4380:
4244:
4200:
4091:
3965:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3575:
3573:
3437:
3394:
2871:
2869:
2813:
2549:
2547:
2545:
1437:between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.
9077:
9065:
8522:
7543:
7529:
7186:
7172:
7129:NOAA's Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group
5468:
5043:
5041:
5039:
4941:
4843:
4796:
4794:
4705:
4438:
4403:
4353:
3546:"A New Look at the Long-term Carbon Cycle"
3537:
3087:. Cambridge University Press. p. 94.
2969:
2488: – Decrease of pH levels in the ocean
836:) interconnected by pathways of exchange:
686:
672:
8817:
8623:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
7766:United Nations Climate Change conferences
7193:
7047:
7037:
6842:
6738:
6728:
6697:
6695:
6693:
6662:
6652:
6567:
6557:
6427:
6417:
6362:"The known unknowns of plastic pollution"
6315:
6238:
6228:
6007:
5826:
5816:
5755:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology
5627:
5566:
5557:
5486:
5453:
5236:
5061:
5019:
5009:
4976:
4905:
4774:
4764:
4625:
4044:
3956:
3887:
3810:
3749:
3712:
3671:
3661:
3469:
3362:
3324:
3322:
3193:
3125:
3059:
2975:
2892:
2157:Carbon dioxide emissions and partitioning
957:fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.
8327:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
6843:St. Fleur, Nicholas (10 November 2015).
6354:
5884:
5707:
5595:
5462:
4837:
4557:
4474:
4322:
4130:
3781:
3758:
3606:
3570:
3202:
3114:
3112:
3074:
2866:
2750:
2581:
2579:
2542:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2303:
2242:
2204:
2102:
2084:can, signifying an increase in carbon's
2046:Carbon is tetrahedrally bonded to oxygen
2041:
1969:
1919:
1809:
1729:
1496:
1407:
1348:
1066:or released into the atmosphere through
1040:
988:
984:
943:
897:
816:The carbon cycle was first described by
46:
8683:National Adaptation Programme of Action
8472:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
7081:
6297:
5793:"New host for carbon in the deep Earth"
5087:International Journal of Earth Sciences
5036:
4791:
4386:
4316:10.2136/sssaj1992.03615995005600020038x
4296:Soil Science Society of America Journal
3932:
3727:
3635:
3491:
3489:
2934:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
2517:
2476: – Storing carbon in a carbon pool
623:Territorialisation of carbon governance
14:
9097:
8332:Economics of climate change mitigation
8295:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
7818:
7646:Scientific consensus on climate change
6972:
6914:Geochemistry of Sedimentary Carbonates
6907:
6905:
6875:
6690:
6139:10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124322
6049:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
5708:Dasgupta, Rajdeep (10 December 2011).
5672:
4947:
4409:
4010:Environmental Science & Technology
3566:from the original on 13 February 2019.
3543:
3319:
3143:"Storing carbon in soil: Why and how?"
2832:
2661:
2636:
1996:. The study analyzed rare, super-deep
1916:Sub-processes within slow carbon cycle
1688:to the atmosphere as rivers, globally.
1488:Sub-processes within fast carbon cycle
1323:is one of the most important forms of
1011:is stored in inorganic forms, such as
858:and living and non-living marine biota
53:
8991:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
8816:
8521:
8257:
7817:
7729:
7610:
7562:
7524:
7167:
6890:from the original on 17 November 2015
6857:from the original on 11 November 2015
6824:from the original on 17 November 2015
6792:from the original on 14 November 2015
6444:biological and temperature effects".
4984:Waldbauer, Jacob R. (22 March 2016).
3109:
2965:
2963:
2880:International Journal of Astrobiology
2780:. University of New Hampshire. 2009.
2576:
2553:
2506:
2328:production. Clinker is an industrial
2111:
1815:Flow of carbon through the open ocean
1585:) and along plant trunks/stems (i.e.
1544:Terrestrial plants fix atmospheric CO
1493:Terrestrial carbon in the water cycle
628:Total Carbon Column Observing Network
9130:Numerical climate and weather models
9013:Representative Concentration Pathway
7964:Tipping points in the climate system
7640:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
7100:from the original on 15 October 2015
6298:Ezcurra, Exequiel (23 August 2024).
5435:
5319:10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142723
4823:10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142723
3579:
3525:The Carbon Cycle and Earth's Climate
3486:
3386:Sarmiento, J.L.; Gruber, N. (2006).
3140:
2468:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
2290:Fossil carbon extraction and burning
2150:Human influence on fast carbon cycle
2121:in the core. In fact, studies using
1079:, which has increased the flow of CO
811:
27:Natural processes of carbon exchange
8784:Nationally determined contributions
8494:Individual action on climate change
7709:World energy supply and consumption
7091:General Motors Public Policy Center
6999:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100206
6962:from the original on 13 March 2019.
6902:
6084:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5852:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5666:
5436:Boyd, Philip W. (13 October 2015).
5296:
4844:Livingston, Robert J., ed. (1979).
4800:
3582:Climate Change and Renewable Energy
3544:Berner, Robert A. (November 1999).
3208:
2807:"A Year In The Life Of Earth's CO2"
2787:from the original on 8 October 2016
2413:
2239:Effects of climate change on oceans
1854:when they sink down in the form of
1403:
999:Terrestrial biological carbon cycle
24:
8923:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
7550:
7457:Human impact on the nitrogen cycle
7152:NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory
5579:The Oceans and Marine Geochemistry
2960:
2854:from the original on 17 April 2012
2630:
2251:as represented in a stylised model
2217:, and especially since the end of
1620:, ultimately being converted to CO
1034:. It is strongest in the northern
25:
9146:
8850:Satellite temperature measurement
8455:forestry for carbon sequestration
7746:History of climate change science
7116:
7082:Sciance, Fred (29 October 2013).
7026:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
6780:"A Breathing Planet, Off Balance"
6633:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
3868:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
3503:from the original on 16 June 2012
3157:from the original on 5 April 2018
3141:Rice, Charles W. (January 2002).
2530:from the original on 5 March 2016
2228:
2039:as they descend into the mantle.
1384:of carbonate rocks when they are
1307:Oceans are basic (with a current
802:reduction in the ocean's pH value
38:. For the geochemical cycle, see
9076:
9064:
9053:
9052:
9040:
8701:Climate Change Performance Index
7505:
7504:
7075:
7063:Butler, J.; Montzka, S. (2020).
7056:
7013:
6966:
6938:
6876:Ritter, Karl (9 November 2015).
6747:
6671:
6619:
6576:
6524:
6472:
6436:
6332:
6291:
6255:
6175:
6145:
6110:
5895:10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_4021-3
4664:10.4319/lo.2009.54.6_part_2.2298
4331:Science of the Total Environment
4124:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00722.x
3769:
3617:
3215:Energy and Environmental Science
2767:
2183:
2163:
653:
652:
75:
8840:Instrumental temperature record
8791:Sustainable Development Goal 13
6263:explained by carbon alloying".
6075:
6040:
5987:
5954:
5911:
5878:
5843:
5746:
5728:
5701:
5636:
5429:
5393:
5333:
5299:Annual Review of Marine Science
5290:
5200:
5156:
5121:
5078:
4915:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
4803:Annual Review of Marine Science
4287:
3742:10.1090/S0273-0979-2014-01471-5
3721:
3629:
3268:
3233:
3169:
3134:
3068:
3027:
2984:
2925:
2799:
2518:Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011).
2029:. Other experiments—as well as
1726:Terrestrial runoff to the ocean
1429:and the slow cycle operates in
8908:Climate variability and change
8258:
7949:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
6603:11858/00-001M-0000-0023-E34E-5
6340:"Overview of greenhouse gases"
4159:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.08.046
2655:
2613:"What is Ocean Acidification?"
2605:
2562:. Routledge. pp. 89–107.
2355:
1624:, metabolic intermediates, or
1089:
804:and is fundamentally altering
746:(storage) to and release from
588:Climate reconstruction proxies
13:
1:
9018:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
8553:Climate emergency declaration
7125:– an interagency partnership.
6922:10.1016/S0070-4571(08)70338-8
6466:10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00003-6
5581:. Elsevier. pp. 83–111.
5524:10.1016/S0967-0637(02)00037-7
5150:10.1016/j.marchem.2004.06.023
4899:10.1016/s0304-4203(00)00110-9
3994:10.1016/j.marchem.2004.06.016
3388:Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics
3262:10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.04.049
2499:
2258:. Ocean mixed layer carbon, c
1846:higher than the present day.
1531:polycyclic aromatic molecules
1511:Atmospheric particles act as
1181:Terrestrial biosphere (total)
887:
18:Sinks, Sources,and Reservoirs
9001:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
8227:Middle East and North Africa
7563:
7462:Lichens and nitrogen cycling
7317:Marine biogeochemical cycles
7123:Carbon Cycle Science Program
6595:10.1017/CBO9781107415324.015
5887:Encyclopedia of Astrobiology
5423:10.1016/j.pocean.2014.05.005
4714:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
4679:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
4606:Geophysical Research Letters
4347:10.1016/0048-9697(92)90091-6
4077:10.1126/science.281.5374.237
3450:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
3423:10.1126/science.284.5411.118
3079:. In Schrijver, Carolus J.;
3075:Brownlee, Donald E. (2010).
3040:Geophysical Research Letters
2725:10.1126/science.290.5490.291
2025:, and numerous varieties of
1806:Biological pump in the ocean
1666:to the atmosphere, globally.
1607:), resulting in a flux of CO
1515:, promoting cloud formation.
1338:
964:will likely increase due to
558:Carbonate compensation depth
223:Particulate inorganic carbon
7:
7730:
6705:"Global Carbon Budget 2019"
6534:"Global Carbon Budget 2016"
5577:. In Elderfield, H. (ed.).
5442:Frontiers in Marine Science
3945:Frontiers in Marine Science
3799:Frontiers in Marine Science
3590:10.1007/978-3-030-15424-0_3
2448:
1455:processes belonging to the
966:expected changes in the sun
54:slow (or deep) carbon cycle
10:
9151:
8835:Global surface temperature
8726:Popular culture depictions
8638:Ecosystem-based adaptation
8368:Carbon capture and storage
8290:Carbon offsets and credits
7611:
7039:10.5194/acpd-12-19799-2012
6104:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.039
5872:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.02.035
5608:Frontiers in Earth Science
5573:de la Rocha, C.L. (2006).
5063:10.1016/j.fmre.2022.07.007
4644:Limnology and Oceanography
3355:10.1038/s41467-020-19208-8
2615:. National Ocean Service,
2417:
2359:
2293:
2232:
2057:calculations suggest that
1966:Carbon in the lower mantle
1929:
1863:dissolved inorganic carbon
1819:
1789:dissolved inorganic carbon
1781:particulate organic carbon
1775:(primarily in the form of
1579:dissolved inorganic carbon
1342:
1319:. Oceanic absorption of CO
1279:dissolved inorganic carbon
1262:
996:
891:
856:dissolved inorganic carbon
613:Carbon capture and storage
217:Particulate organic carbon
211:Dissolved inorganic carbon
29:
9135:Effects of climate change
9047:Climate change portal
9034:
8973:
8940:Extreme event attribution
8858:
8827:
8823:
8812:
8756:
8691:
8613:
8563:School Strike for Climate
8535:
8531:
8517:
8486:
8442:Climate-smart agriculture
8403:
8360:
8270:
8266:
8253:
8177:
8040:
7987:
7830:
7826:
7813:
7736:
7725:
7654:
7623:
7619:
7606:
7589:Climate change adaptation
7584:Climate change mitigation
7579:Effects of climate change
7569:
7558:
7500:
7361:
7325:
7201:
7144:15 September 2008 at the
6730:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019
6709:Earth System Science Data
6538:Earth System Science Data
5775:10.1007/s00410-015-1111-1
4935:10.1016/j.gca.2011.08.037
4854:10.1007/978-1-4615-9146-7
4504:10.1007/s10021-006-9013-8
3213:in global carbon pools".
3013:10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.040
2911:10.1017/S147355041200047X
2462:Climate change mitigation
2059:tetrahedrally coordinated
2055:density functional theory
1662:waters are a source of CO
1658:nutrients. Nevertheless,
1513:cloud condensation nuclei
1484:by burning fossil fuels.
618:Carbon cycle re-balancing
8950:Global warming potential
8757:International agreements
8404:Preserving and enhancing
7848:Arctic methane emissions
7770:Years in climate change
7677:Greenhouse gas emissions
7574:Causes of climate change
7450:Arctic methane emissions
7445:clathrate gun hypothesis
7216:carbonate–silicate cycle
7157:9 September 2018 at the
6654:10.5194/acp-13-2793-2013
5629:10.3389/feart.2019.00263
5455:10.3389/fmars.2015.00077
5403:Progress in Oceanography
4387:Linsley, Ray K. (1975).
3958:10.3389/fmars.2016.00114
3889:10.5194/acp-11-3865-2011
3812:10.3389/fmars.2017.00007
3093:10.1017/CBO9780511760358
2761:10067/381670151162165141
2637:Holmes, Richard (2008).
2480:Carbonate–silicate cycle
2284:Arctic methane emissions
1902:Thermohaline circulation
1871:dissolved organic matter
1777:dissolved organic carbon
1773:net primary productivity
1575:dissolved organic carbon
1445:
1417:
1345:Carbonate–silicate cycle
1294:dissolved organic carbon
1283:thermohaline circulation
1258:
962:carbonate–silicate cycle
894:Atmospheric carbon cycle
593:Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
553:Carbonate–silicate cycle
521:Carbon dioxide clathrate
516:Clathrate gun hypothesis
344:Net ecosystem production
205:Dissolved organic carbon
40:Carbonate–silicate cycle
8981:Climate change scenario
8633:Disaster risk reduction
8285:Carbon emission trading
8095:U.S. insurance industry
8075:Civilizational collapse
7922:sea surface temperature
7482:Phosphorus assimilation
7384:environmental chemistry
7148:carbon levels and flows
6559:10.5194/essd-8-605-2016
6230:10.1073/pnas.1411154111
6157:Deep Carbon Observatory
6096:2010E&PSL.298....1D
5971:10.1016/C2016-0-01520-6
5940:10.1126/science.1233299
5864:2018E&PSL.489...84D
5818:10.1073/pnas.1016934108
5648:Deep Carbon Observatory
5559:10.5670/oceanog.2001.06
5011:10.1073/pnas.1514645113
4766:10.1073/pnas.0710279105
4432:10.1029/TR014i001p00446
4374:10.1023/A:1011842918260
4194:10.1023/A:1006247623877
4030:10.1021/acs.est.6b02132
3636:Rothman, D. H. (2002).
3497:"The Slow Carbon Cycle"
2954:10.1029/JC086iC10p09776
2844:Many Planets, One Earth
2664:The Global Carbon Cycle
2554:Libes, Susan M (2015).
2492:Permafrost carbon cycle
2300:Extraction of petroleum
2235:Climate change feedback
1631:Lakes, reservoirs, and
763:biological carbon cycle
710:is exchanged among the
603:Deep Carbon Observatory
63:Part of a series on the
8974:Research and modelling
8658:Nature-based solutions
8478:Nature-based solutions
8420:Carbon dioxide removal
8337:Fossil fuel divestment
8322:Climate risk insurance
8232:Small island countries
7853:Arctic sea ice decline
6973:Archer, David (2009).
6419:10.5194/esd-9-507-2018
6317:10.1126/sciadv.adl1079
6069:10.2138/rmg.2013.75.10
4139:Bioresource Technology
3906:Hydrological Processes
3663:10.1073/pnas.022055499
3499:. NASA. 16 June 2011.
2662:Archer, David (2010).
2309:
2263:
2210:
2108:
2047:
1977:
1927:
1817:
1741:
1672:both store and export
1504:
1422:
1354:
1163:Sedimentary carbonates
1050:
994:
953:
914:
423:Continental shelf pump
199:Total inorganic carbon
165:Satellite measurements
57:
9105:Chemical oceanography
8935:Earth's energy budget
8818:Background and theory
8706:Climate crisis (term)
8378:Fossil fuel phase-out
8272:Economics and finance
8237:by individual country
8179:By country and region
8154:Security and conflict
8149:Psychological impacts
7838:Abrupt climate change
7761:Charles David Keeling
7594:By country and region
7477:Nitrogen assimilation
7195:Biogeochemical cycles
6398:Earth System Dynamics
5996:Nature Communications
5963:Magmas Under Pressure
5575:"The Biological Pump"
5107:10.1007/s005310050290
4650:(6part2): 2298–2314.
4521:from inland waters".
4104:Global Change Biology
3335:Nature Communications
3242:Ecological Indicators
2346:saturation properties
2307:
2246:
2215:Industrial Revolution
2208:
2196:Global Carbon Project
2176:Global Carbon Project
2106:
2045:
1973:
1923:
1813:
1733:
1713:as organic carbon in
1654:due to the export of
1500:
1481:hydrothermal emission
1411:
1352:
1044:
992:
985:Terrestrial biosphere
947:
910:
824:, and popularised by
608:Global Carbon Project
339:Ecosystem respiration
50:
8764:Glasgow Climate Pact
8425:Carbon sequestration
8000:Mass mortality event
7492:Planetary boundaries
7396:carbon sequestration
7226:oceanic carbon cycle
6820:. 12 November 2015.
5054:Fundamental Research
4734:10.1029/2006GB002831
4699:10.1029/2004GB002238
4627:10.1002/2014GL062762
4333:. 117–118: 241–251.
3848:10.1029/1999JD901203
3584:. pp. 109–141.
3530:23 June 2003 at the
3471:10.1029/1999GB001195
3061:10.1029/2000GL012198
2999:(21): 4741–4750.e5.
2703:Earth as a System".
2474:Carbon sequestration
2456:Biogeochemical cycle
2435:loss of biodiversity
2063:core–mantle boundary
1702:from the atmosphere.
1265:Oceanic carbon cycle
1213:Fossil fuels (total)
830:reservoirs of carbon
744:carbon sequestration
704:biogeochemical cycle
702:is that part of the
437:Carbon sequestration
193:Total organic carbon
8903:Climate sensitivity
8678:The Adaptation Fund
8134:Infectious diseases
8041:Social and economic
7487:Sulfur assimilation
7428:Ocean acidification
6991:2009AREPS..37..117A
6766:Climate Change 2007
6760:25 May 2016 at the
6740:20.500.11850/385668
6721:2019ESSD...11.1783F
6645:2013ACP....13.2793J
6550:2016ESSD....8..605L
6502:10.1038/nature04095
6494:2005Natur.437..681O
6458:2002DSRII..49.1601T
6452:(9–10): 1601–1622.
6410:2018ESD.....9..507L
6277:2015NatGe...8..220P
6221:2014PNAS..11117755C
6215:(50): 17755–17758.
6131:2008AREPS..36..389F
6061:2013RvMG...75..289J
6018:2015NatCo...6.6311B
5932:2013Sci...340.1314C
5926:(6138): 1314–1317.
5809:2011PNAS..108.5184B
5767:2015CoMP..169...16S
5687:2003PhT....56j..21W
5620:2019FrEaS...7..263W
5516:2002DSRI...49.1445S
5415:2014PrOce.129..200S
5362:10.1038/nature14400
5354:2015Natur.521..204G
5311:2011ARMS....3..123C
5268:10.1038/nature12857
5260:2013Natur.504...61B
5222:2013NatGe...6..597R
5178:2010Geo....38..255B
5142:2004MarCh..92..141B
5099:2000IJEaS..88..599S
5002:2016PNAS..113.3143M
4927:2011GeCoA..75.6535M
4891:2001MarCh..73..253D
4815:2011ARMS....3..123C
4759:(30): 10460–10465.
4726:2007GBioC..21.3014C
4691:2004GBioC..18.4009B
4656:2009LimOc..54.2298T
4618:2015GeoRL..42..377M
4579:2013NatGe...6..530W
4543:10.1038/nature12760
4535:2013Natur.503..355R
4496:2007Ecosy..10..172C
4424:1933TrAGU..14..446H
4339:1992ScTEn.117..241G
4308:1992SSASJ..56..578Q
4273:10.1038/nature16069
4265:2015Natur.528...60L
4230:10.1038/nature10386
4222:2011Natur.478...49S
4151:2009BiTec.100.1628B
4116:2004GCBio..10...65M
4069:1998Sci...281..237F
4022:2016EnST...50.9308M
3986:2004MarCh..92...39B
3918:2006HyPr...20.2581W
3880:2011ACP....11.3865R
3840:2000JGR...105.9255K
3654:2002PNAS...99.4167R
3462:2000GBioC..14..639L
3415:1999Sci...284..118K
3347:2020NatCo..11.5544V
3297:10.1038/nature08930
3289:2010Natur.464..579B
3254:2017EcInd..80...40L
3052:2001GeoRL..28.1715L
3005:2023CBio...33E4741C
2946:1981JGR....86.9776W
2903:2013IJAsB..12...99O
2717:2000Sci...290..291F
2486:Ocean acidification
2123:diamond anvil cells
2086:coordination number
2074:hybridised orbitals
1984:-rich sediments on
1938:deep carbon cycling
1698:typically absorb CO
1692:Continental shelves
1325:carbon sequestering
1317:ocean acidification
1092:
1077:soil organic matter
728:atmosphere of Earth
484:Atmospheric methane
450:Soil carbon storage
300:Reverse Krebs cycle
155:Ocean acidification
8474:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
8446:Forest management
8430:Direct air capture
8395:Sustainable energy
8352:Net zero emissions
8347:Low-carbon economy
8342:Green Climate Fund
8129:Indigenous peoples
8032:Plant biodiversity
7820:Effects and issues
7049:20.500.11850/58316
6955:. p. 8SM-16.
6850:The New York Times
6664:20.500.11850/58316
6026:10.1038/ncomms7311
5488:10.3390/su10030869
3714:10.3390/sci1010017
3195:10.1111/gcbb.12401
2940:(C10): 9776–9782.
2641:. Pantheon Books.
2520:"The Carbon Cycle"
2408:hydrofluoroolefins
2380:chlorofluorocarbon
2310:
2264:
2211:
2190:Partitioning of CO
2112:Carbon in the core
2109:
2048:
1978:
1928:
1836:seafloor sediments
1818:
1742:
1601:primary production
1505:
1423:
1418:start of article ↑
1355:
1329:calcium carbonates
1090:
1051:
995:
954:
915:
871:Earth's interior (
778:modifying land use
563:Great Calcite Belt
511:Aerobic production
331:Carbon respiration
273:Metabolic pathways
233:Primary production
58:
9092:
9091:
9030:
9029:
9026:
9025:
8965:Radiative forcing
8808:
8807:
8804:
8803:
8628:Adaptive capacity
8513:
8512:
8509:
8508:
8373:Energy transition
8249:
8248:
8245:
8244:
7969:Tropical cyclones
7895:Urban heat island
7809:
7808:
7721:
7720:
7717:
7716:
7682:Carbon accounting
7636:Greenhouse effect
7602:
7601:
7518:
7517:
7472:Nitrogen fixation
7440:Methane clathrate
7421:mycorrhizal fungi
7374:geochemical cycle
7221:deep carbon cycle
6488:(7059): 681–686.
6265:Nature Geoscience
5980:978-0-12-811301-1
5904:978-3-642-27833-4
5803:(13): 5184–5187.
5695:10.1063/1.1628990
5588:978-0-08-045101-5
5348:(7551): 204–207.
5210:Nature Geoscience
4996:(12): 3143–3151.
4956:(7476): 346–347.
4921:(21): 6535–6555.
4863:978-1-4615-9148-1
4567:Nature Geoscience
4529:(7476): 355–359.
4454:(6881): 617–620.
4063:(5374): 237–240.
4016:(17): 9308–9314.
3912:(12): 2581–2597.
3834:(D7): 9255–9264.
3599:978-3-030-15423-3
3409:(5411): 118–120.
3283:(7288): 579–582.
3127:10.2737/WO-GTR-95
3102:978-0-521-11294-9
3081:Siscoe, George L.
2711:(5490): 291–296.
2673:978-1-4008-3707-6
2648:978-0-375-42222-5
2569:978-1-136-29482-2
2524:Earth Observatory
2400:Montreal Protocol
2392:radiative forcing
2384:hydrofluorocarbon
2366:Fluorinated gases
1932:Deep carbon cycle
1842:levels about 400
1798:
1518:Raindrops absorb
1473:Mountain building
1420:
1371:calcium carbonate
1302:calcium carbonate
1256:
1255:
1205:Aquatic biosphere
1013:calcium carbonate
927:greenhouse effect
908:
818:Antoine Lavoisier
812:Main compartments
767:deep carbon cycle
759:slow carbon cycle
696:
695:
494:Methane emissions
150:In the atmosphere
16:(Redirected from
9142:
9080:
9079:
9068:
9067:
9056:
9055:
9045:
9044:
9043:
9008:Paleoclimatology
8825:
8824:
8814:
8813:
8575:Ecological grief
8558:Climate movement
8533:
8532:
8519:
8518:
8499:Plant-based diet
8390:Renewable energy
8268:
8267:
8255:
8254:
8090:Economic impacts
8022:Invasive species
7878:Coastal flooding
7828:
7827:
7815:
7814:
7751:Svante Arrhenius
7727:
7726:
7697:from agriculture
7687:Carbon footprint
7672:Greenhouse gases
7621:
7620:
7608:
7607:
7560:
7559:
7545:
7538:
7531:
7522:
7521:
7508:
7507:
7391:Biosequestration
7379:chemical cycling
7310:deep water cycle
7280:Phosphorus cycle
7188:
7181:
7174:
7165:
7164:
7110:
7109:
7107:
7105:
7099:
7088:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7060:
7054:
7053:
7051:
7041:
7032:(5): 2793–2825.
7017:
7011:
7010:
6970:
6964:
6963:
6961:
6950:
6942:
6936:
6935:
6909:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6895:
6873:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6862:
6840:
6834:
6833:
6831:
6829:
6808:
6802:
6801:
6799:
6797:
6775:
6769:
6751:
6745:
6744:
6742:
6732:
6715:(4): 1783–1838.
6699:
6688:
6687:
6675:
6669:
6668:
6666:
6656:
6639:(5): 2793–2825.
6623:
6617:
6616:
6580:
6574:
6573:
6571:
6561:
6528:
6522:
6521:
6476:
6470:
6469:
6440:
6434:
6433:
6431:
6421:
6389:
6378:
6377:
6375:
6373:
6358:
6352:
6351:
6349:
6347:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6319:
6304:Science Advances
6295:
6289:
6288:
6285:10.1038/ngeo2370
6259:
6253:
6252:
6242:
6232:
6204:
6203:
6202:
6194:
6193:
6179:
6173:
6172:
6170:
6168:
6159:. Archived from
6149:
6143:
6142:
6114:
6108:
6107:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6044:
6038:
6037:
6011:
5991:
5985:
5984:
5958:
5952:
5951:
5915:
5909:
5908:
5889:. pp. 1–2.
5882:
5876:
5875:
5847:
5841:
5840:
5830:
5820:
5788:
5779:
5778:
5750:
5744:
5743:
5732:
5726:
5725:
5723:
5721:
5716:on 24 April 2016
5712:. Archived from
5705:
5699:
5698:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5659:
5650:. Archived from
5640:
5634:
5633:
5631:
5599:
5593:
5592:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5537:
5528:
5527:
5510:(8): 1445–1461.
5499:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5466:
5460:
5459:
5457:
5433:
5427:
5426:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5337:
5331:
5330:
5294:
5288:
5287:
5243:
5234:
5233:
5230:10.1038/ngeo1830
5204:
5198:
5197:
5186:10.1130/g30608.1
5160:
5154:
5153:
5136:(1–4): 141–156.
5130:Marine Chemistry
5125:
5119:
5118:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5065:
5045:
5034:
5033:
5023:
5013:
4980:
4974:
4973:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4885:(3–4): 253–271.
4879:Marine Chemistry
4874:
4868:
4867:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4798:
4789:
4788:
4778:
4768:
4744:
4738:
4737:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4674:
4668:
4667:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4587:10.1038/ngeo1817
4561:
4555:
4554:
4517:
4508:
4507:
4478:
4472:
4471:
4442:
4436:
4435:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4384:
4378:
4377:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4326:
4320:
4319:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4145:(4): 1628–1633.
4134:
4128:
4127:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4004:
3998:
3997:
3974:Marine Chemistry
3969:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3936:
3930:
3929:
3926:10.1002/hyp.6217
3900:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3874:(8): 3865–3878.
3858:
3852:
3851:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3790:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3675:
3665:
3648:(7): 4167–4171.
3633:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3577:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3550:
3541:
3535:
3522:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3493:
3484:
3483:
3473:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3366:
3326:
3317:
3316:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3227:10.1039/b809492f
3206:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3188:(6): 1085–1099.
3173:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3116:
3107:
3106:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3046:(9): 1715–1718.
3031:
3025:
3024:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2967:
2958:
2957:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2896:
2873:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2786:
2779:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2748:
2737:
2736:
2699:
2678:
2677:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2551:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2515:
2414:Land use changes
2187:
2167:
1796:
1715:marine sediments
1524:inorganic carbon
1461:sedimentary rock
1446:start of article
1415:
1404:Types of dynamic
1166:> 60,000,000
1093:
1068:soil respiration
909:
822:Joseph Priestley
806:marine chemistry
688:
681:
674:
661:
656:
655:
460:pelagic sediment
354:Soil respiration
349:Photorespiration
79:
60:
59:
21:
9150:
9149:
9145:
9144:
9143:
9141:
9140:
9139:
9095:
9094:
9093:
9088:
9041:
9039:
9022:
8969:
8960:Orbital forcing
8854:
8819:
8800:
8774:Paris Agreement
8752:
8748:Warming stripes
8687:
8653:Managed retreat
8648:Loss and damage
8609:
8543:Business action
8527:
8505:
8482:
8405:
8399:
8356:
8317:Climate finance
8262:
8241:
8173:
8036:
8012:Extinction risk
7988:Flora and fauna
7983:
7944:Permafrost thaw
7939:Ozone depletion
7868:Extreme weather
7822:
7805:
7732:
7713:
7650:
7615:
7598:
7565:
7554:
7549:
7519:
7514:
7496:
7411:biological pump
7369:Biogeochemistry
7357:
7326:Research groups
7321:
7197:
7192:
7159:Wayback Machine
7146:Wayback Machine
7119:
7114:
7113:
7103:
7101:
7097:
7086:
7080:
7076:
7061:
7057:
7018:
7014:
6971:
6967:
6959:
6948:
6946:"Figure 8.SM.4"
6944:
6943:
6939:
6932:
6910:
6903:
6893:
6891:
6874:
6870:
6860:
6858:
6841:
6837:
6827:
6825:
6810:
6809:
6805:
6795:
6793:
6776:
6772:
6762:Wayback Machine
6752:
6748:
6700:
6691:
6676:
6672:
6624:
6620:
6613:
6581:
6577:
6529:
6525:
6477:
6473:
6441:
6437:
6390:
6381:
6371:
6369:
6360:
6359:
6355:
6345:
6343:
6338:
6337:
6333:
6296:
6292:
6260:
6256:
6201:
6198:
6197:
6196:
6192:
6189:
6188:
6187:
6185:
6180:
6176:
6166:
6164:
6163:on 27 July 2020
6151:
6150:
6146:
6115:
6111:
6080:
6076:
6045:
6041:
5992:
5988:
5981:
5959:
5955:
5916:
5912:
5905:
5883:
5879:
5848:
5844:
5789:
5782:
5751:
5747:
5734:
5733:
5729:
5719:
5717:
5706:
5702:
5671:
5667:
5657:
5655:
5654:on 27 July 2020
5642:
5641:
5637:
5600:
5596:
5589:
5571:
5567:
5538:
5531:
5500:
5496:
5467:
5463:
5434:
5430:
5398:
5394:
5389:
5385:
5338:
5334:
5295:
5291:
5254:(7478): 61–70.
5244:
5237:
5205:
5201:
5161:
5157:
5126:
5122:
5083:
5079:
5056:. Elsevier BV.
5046:
5037:
4981:
4977:
4962:10.1038/503346a
4946:
4942:
4910:
4906:
4875:
4871:
4864:
4842:
4838:
4799:
4792:
4745:
4741:
4710:
4706:
4675:
4671:
4639:
4635:
4598:
4594:
4562:
4558:
4518:
4511:
4479:
4475:
4460:10.1038/416617a
4443:
4439:
4408:
4404:
4391:. McGraw-Hill.
4385:
4381:
4362:Biogeochemistry
4358:
4354:
4327:
4323:
4292:
4288:
4259:(7580): 60–68.
4249:
4245:
4216:(7367): 49–56.
4205:
4201:
4182:Biogeochemistry
4178:
4174:
4135:
4131:
4096:
4092:
4049:
4045:
4005:
4001:
3970:
3966:
3937:
3933:
3901:
3897:
3859:
3855:
3824:
3820:
3791:
3782:
3770:
3763:
3759:
3726:
3722:
3693:
3689:
3634:
3630:
3618:
3611:
3607:
3600:
3578:
3571:
3563:
3548:
3542:
3538:
3532:Wayback Machine
3523:
3516:
3506:
3504:
3495:
3494:
3487:
3442:
3438:
3399:
3395:
3384:
3380:
3327:
3320:
3273:
3269:
3238:
3234:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3174:
3170:
3160:
3158:
3139:
3135:
3117:
3110:
3103:
3073:
3069:
3032:
3028:
2993:Current Biology
2989:
2985:
2968:
2961:
2930:
2926:
2874:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2818:
2814:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2749:
2740:
2700:
2681:
2674:
2660:
2656:
2649:
2635:
2631:
2621:
2619:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2594:
2585:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2552:
2543:
2533:
2531:
2516:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2451:
2426:
2418:Main articles:
2416:
2396:ozone depletion
2388:perfluorocarbon
2368:
2358:
2302:
2292:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2241:
2233:Main articles:
2231:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2193:
2188:
2180:
2179:
2173:
2170:Emissions of CO
2168:
2159:
2158:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2118:Shear (S) waves
2114:
2099:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2068:
2006:crystallisation
1986:tectonic plates
1976:
1968:
1934:
1926:
1918:
1841:
1828:biological pump
1824:
1822:Biological pump
1816:
1808:
1785:redox reactions
1767:
1738:
1728:
1712:
1707:biological pump
1701:
1687:
1670:Coastal marshes
1665:
1642:
1623:
1610:
1605:photo-oxidation
1547:
1540:
1503:
1495:
1490:
1421:
1414:
1406:
1347:
1341:
1334:
1322:
1314:
1267:
1261:
1122:Total inorganic
1100:
1082:
1073:
1048:
1029:
1001:
987:
974:
951:
913:
898:
896:
890:
814:
692:
651:
644:
643:
642:
582:
574:
573:
572:
537:
527:
526:
525:
478:
468:
467:
466:
455:Marine sediment
439:
429:
428:
427:
388:Solubility pump
376:Biological pump
370:
360:
359:
358:
333:
323:
322:
321:
305:Carbon fixation
290:
275:
265:
264:
263:
244:
228:
181:
179:Forms of carbon
171:
170:
169:
144:
134:
133:
132:
87:
43:
36:Cyclic compound
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9148:
9138:
9137:
9132:
9127:
9122:
9120:Soil chemistry
9117:
9112:
9110:Photosynthesis
9107:
9090:
9089:
9087:
9086:
9074:
9062:
9050:
9035:
9032:
9031:
9028:
9027:
9024:
9023:
9021:
9020:
9015:
9010:
9005:
9004:
9003:
8993:
8988:
8983:
8977:
8975:
8971:
8970:
8968:
8967:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8937:
8932:
8927:
8926:
8925:
8915:
8913:Cloud feedback
8910:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8894:
8893:
8888:
8883:
8878:
8868:
8862:
8860:
8856:
8855:
8853:
8852:
8847:
8842:
8837:
8831:
8829:
8821:
8820:
8810:
8809:
8806:
8805:
8802:
8801:
8799:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8787:
8786:
8781:
8771:
8769:Kyoto Protocol
8766:
8760:
8758:
8754:
8753:
8751:
8750:
8745:
8744:
8743:
8738:
8733:
8723:
8721:Media coverage
8718:
8713:
8711:Climate spiral
8708:
8703:
8697:
8695:
8689:
8688:
8686:
8685:
8680:
8675:
8670:
8665:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8625:
8619:
8617:
8611:
8610:
8608:
8607:
8602:
8600:Public opinion
8597:
8592:
8587:
8582:
8577:
8572:
8567:
8566:
8565:
8555:
8550:
8548:Climate action
8545:
8539:
8537:
8529:
8528:
8515:
8514:
8511:
8510:
8507:
8506:
8504:
8503:
8502:
8501:
8490:
8488:
8484:
8483:
8481:
8480:
8475:
8469:
8468:
8467:
8462:
8460:REDD and REDD+
8457:
8452:
8444:
8439:
8437:Carbon farming
8434:
8433:
8432:
8427:
8417:
8411:
8409:
8401:
8400:
8398:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8381:
8380:
8370:
8364:
8362:
8358:
8357:
8355:
8354:
8349:
8344:
8339:
8334:
8329:
8324:
8319:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8299:
8298:
8297:
8287:
8282:
8276:
8274:
8264:
8263:
8251:
8250:
8247:
8246:
8243:
8242:
8240:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8219:
8214:
8209:
8204:
8199:
8194:
8189:
8183:
8181:
8175:
8174:
8172:
8171:
8169:Water security
8166:
8164:Water scarcity
8161:
8159:Urban flooding
8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8120:
8119:
8109:
8104:
8099:
8098:
8097:
8087:
8082:
8077:
8072:
8067:
8062:
8061:
8060:
8055:
8044:
8042:
8038:
8037:
8035:
8034:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8017:Forest dieback
8014:
8009:
8004:
8003:
8002:
7991:
7989:
7985:
7984:
7982:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7966:
7961:
7956:
7954:Sea level rise
7951:
7946:
7941:
7936:
7935:
7934:
7929:
7927:stratification
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7899:
7898:
7897:
7892:
7882:
7881:
7880:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7840:
7834:
7832:
7824:
7823:
7811:
7810:
7807:
7806:
7804:
7803:
7802:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7768:
7763:
7758:
7753:
7748:
7743:
7737:
7734:
7733:
7723:
7722:
7719:
7718:
7715:
7714:
7712:
7711:
7706:
7705:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7692:Carbon leakage
7689:
7684:
7674:
7669:
7664:
7658:
7656:
7652:
7651:
7649:
7648:
7643:
7633:
7631:Climate system
7627:
7625:
7617:
7616:
7604:
7603:
7600:
7599:
7597:
7596:
7591:
7586:
7581:
7576:
7570:
7567:
7566:
7556:
7555:
7552:Climate change
7548:
7547:
7540:
7533:
7525:
7516:
7515:
7513:
7512:
7501:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7494:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7453:
7452:
7447:
7437:
7436:
7435:
7425:
7424:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7408:
7403:
7398:
7388:
7387:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7365:
7363:
7362:Related topics
7359:
7358:
7356:
7355:
7350:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7329:
7327:
7323:
7322:
7320:
7319:
7314:
7313:
7312:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7290:Selenium cycle
7287:
7282:
7277:
7276:
7275:
7265:
7263:Nutrient cycle
7260:
7258:Nitrogen cycle
7255:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7238:Hydrogen cycle
7235:
7233:Chlorine cycle
7230:
7229:
7228:
7223:
7218:
7207:
7205:
7199:
7198:
7191:
7190:
7183:
7176:
7168:
7162:
7161:
7149:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7118:
7117:External links
7115:
7112:
7111:
7074:
7055:
7012:
6965:
6937:
6930:
6901:
6868:
6835:
6803:
6770:
6755:7.4.5 Minerals
6746:
6689:
6670:
6618:
6611:
6575:
6544:(2): 605–649.
6523:
6471:
6435:
6404:(2): 507–523.
6379:
6368:. 3 March 2018
6353:
6331:
6290:
6271:(3): 220–223.
6254:
6199:
6190:
6174:
6144:
6125:(1): 389–420.
6109:
6074:
6055:(1): 289–322.
6039:
5986:
5979:
5953:
5910:
5903:
5877:
5842:
5780:
5745:
5727:
5700:
5665:
5635:
5594:
5587:
5565:
5529:
5494:
5475:Sustainability
5461:
5428:
5392:
5383:
5332:
5305:(1): 123–145.
5289:
5235:
5216:(8): 597–607.
5199:
5155:
5120:
5077:
5035:
4975:
4940:
4904:
4869:
4862:
4836:
4809:(1): 123–145.
4790:
4739:
4704:
4669:
4633:
4612:(2): 377–385.
4592:
4573:(7): 530–533.
4556:
4509:
4490:(1): 172–185.
4473:
4437:
4418:(1): 446–460.
4402:
4379:
4368:(3): 247–268.
4352:
4321:
4302:(2): 578–586.
4286:
4243:
4199:
4172:
4129:
4090:
4043:
3999:
3980:(1–4): 39–64.
3964:
3931:
3895:
3853:
3818:
3780:
3757:
3720:
3687:
3628:
3605:
3598:
3569:
3536:
3514:
3485:
3436:
3393:
3378:
3318:
3267:
3232:
3210:
3201:
3168:
3133:
3108:
3101:
3067:
3026:
2983:
2959:
2924:
2865:
2831:
2812:
2798:
2766:
2738:
2679:
2672:
2654:
2647:
2629:
2604:
2575:
2568:
2541:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2415:
2412:
2404:Kyoto Protocol
2357:
2354:
2350:coupled models
2291:
2288:
2259:
2255:
2247:
2230:
2229:Climate change
2227:
2191:
2189:
2182:
2181:
2171:
2169:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2113:
2110:
2097:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2066:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1930:Main article:
1924:
1917:
1914:
1910:earth's mantle
1886:refractory DOM
1839:
1820:Main article:
1814:
1807:
1804:
1765:
1758:organic carbon
1734:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1710:
1703:
1699:
1689:
1685:
1667:
1663:
1648:
1640:
1629:
1621:
1608:
1594:
1571:
1565:
1550:photosynthesis
1545:
1542:
1538:
1527:
1516:
1501:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1469:Earth's mantle
1442:biogeochemical
1412:
1405:
1402:
1343:Main article:
1340:
1337:
1332:
1320:
1312:
1298:photosynthesis
1263:Main article:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1189:Living biomass
1186:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1085:climate change
1080:
1071:
1046:
1027:
997:Main article:
986:
983:
975:photosynthesis
972:
949:
934:photosynthesis
919:carbon dioxide
911:
892:Main article:
889:
886:
881:
880:
869:
859:
849:
843:
813:
810:
798:global warming
794:Carbon dioxide
732:nitrogen cycle
694:
693:
691:
690:
683:
676:
668:
665:
664:
663:
662:
646:
645:
641:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
598:Deep biosphere
595:
590:
584:
583:
580:
579:
576:
575:
571:
570:
568:Redfield ratio
565:
560:
555:
550:
548:Nutrient cycle
545:
539:
538:
535:Biogeochemical
533:
532:
529:
528:
524:
523:
518:
513:
508:
507:
506:
501:
491:
489:Methanogenesis
486:
480:
479:
474:
473:
470:
469:
465:
464:
463:
462:
452:
447:
441:
440:
435:
434:
431:
430:
426:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
403:Microbial loop
400:
395:
390:
385:
384:
383:
372:
371:
366:
365:
362:
361:
357:
356:
351:
346:
341:
335:
334:
329:
328:
325:
324:
320:
319:
318:
317:
312:
302:
297:
291:
289:
288:
286:Chemosynthesis
283:
281:Photosynthesis
277:
276:
271:
270:
267:
266:
262:
261:
256:
251:
245:
243:
242:
241:
240:
229:
227:
226:
220:
214:
208:
202:
196:
190:
183:
182:
177:
176:
173:
172:
168:
167:
162:
157:
152:
146:
145:
142:Carbon dioxide
140:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
89:
88:
85:
84:
81:
80:
72:
71:
65:
64:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9147:
9136:
9133:
9131:
9128:
9126:
9123:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9102:
9100:
9085:
9084:
9075:
9073:
9072:
9063:
9061:
9060:
9051:
9049:
9048:
9037:
9036:
9033:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9002:
8999:
8998:
8997:
8994:
8992:
8989:
8987:
8986:Climate model
8984:
8982:
8979:
8978:
8976:
8972:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8924:
8921:
8920:
8919:
8918:Cloud forcing
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8873:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8863:
8861:
8857:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8843:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8832:
8830:
8826:
8822:
8815:
8811:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8785:
8782:
8780:
8777:
8776:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8767:
8765:
8762:
8761:
8759:
8755:
8749:
8746:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8728:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8702:
8699:
8698:
8696:
8694:
8693:Communication
8690:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8673:Vulnerability
8671:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8643:Flood control
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8620:
8618:
8616:
8612:
8606:
8603:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8568:
8564:
8561:
8560:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8540:
8538:
8534:
8530:
8526:
8520:
8516:
8500:
8497:
8496:
8495:
8492:
8491:
8489:
8485:
8479:
8476:
8473:
8470:
8466:
8465:reforestation
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8450:afforestation
8448:
8447:
8445:
8443:
8440:
8438:
8435:
8431:
8428:
8426:
8423:
8422:
8421:
8418:
8416:
8413:
8412:
8410:
8408:
8402:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8388:
8386:
8385:Nuclear power
8383:
8379:
8376:
8375:
8374:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8365:
8363:
8359:
8353:
8350:
8348:
8345:
8343:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8300:
8296:
8293:
8292:
8291:
8288:
8286:
8283:
8281:
8280:Carbon budget
8278:
8277:
8275:
8273:
8269:
8265:
8261:
8256:
8252:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8218:
8215:
8213:
8210:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8184:
8182:
8180:
8176:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8118:
8117:Mental health
8115:
8114:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8096:
8093:
8092:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8059:
8058:United States
8056:
8054:
8051:
8050:
8049:
8046:
8045:
8043:
8039:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8001:
7998:
7997:
7996:
7993:
7992:
7990:
7986:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7950:
7947:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7933:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7912:deoxygenation
7910:
7908:
7907:acidification
7905:
7904:
7903:
7900:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7887:
7886:
7883:
7879:
7876:
7875:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7839:
7836:
7835:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7816:
7812:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7771:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7742:
7739:
7738:
7735:
7728:
7724:
7710:
7707:
7703:
7702:from wetlands
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7679:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7662:Deforestation
7660:
7659:
7657:
7653:
7647:
7644:
7641:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7628:
7626:
7622:
7618:
7614:
7609:
7605:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7571:
7568:
7561:
7557:
7553:
7546:
7541:
7539:
7534:
7532:
7527:
7526:
7523:
7511:
7503:
7502:
7499:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7467:Nitrification
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7442:
7441:
7438:
7434:
7431:
7430:
7429:
7426:
7422:
7419:
7417:
7414:
7412:
7409:
7407:
7404:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7393:
7392:
7389:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7371:
7370:
7367:
7366:
7364:
7360:
7354:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7331:
7330:
7328:
7324:
7318:
7315:
7311:
7308:
7307:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7274:
7271:
7270:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7253:Mineral cycle
7251:
7249:
7248:Mercury cycle
7246:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7213:
7212:
7209:
7208:
7206:
7204:
7200:
7196:
7189:
7184:
7182:
7177:
7175:
7170:
7169:
7166:
7160:
7156:
7153:
7150:
7147:
7143:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7124:
7121:
7120:
7096:
7092:
7085:
7078:
7070:
7066:
7059:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7016:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6988:
6985:(1): 117–34.
6984:
6980:
6976:
6969:
6958:
6954:
6947:
6941:
6933:
6931:9780444873910
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6908:
6906:
6889:
6885:
6884:
6879:
6872:
6856:
6852:
6851:
6846:
6839:
6823:
6819:
6818:
6813:
6807:
6791:
6787:
6786:
6781:
6774:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6756:
6750:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6698:
6696:
6694:
6685:
6681:
6674:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6630:
6622:
6614:
6612:9781107415324
6608:
6604:
6600:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6587:
6579:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6527:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6483:
6475:
6467:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6439:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6367:
6366:The Economist
6363:
6357:
6341:
6335:
6327:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6294:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6258:
6250:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6178:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6120:
6113:
6105:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6090:(1–2): 1–13.
6089:
6085:
6078:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6043:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6023:
6019:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5990:
5982:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5957:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5914:
5906:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5881:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5846:
5838:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5787:
5785:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5749:
5741:
5737:
5731:
5715:
5711:
5704:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5681:(10): 21–22.
5680:
5676:
5675:Physics Today
5669:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5639:
5630:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5598:
5590:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5569:
5560:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5536:
5534:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5498:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5465:
5456:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5396:
5387:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5336:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5293:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5242:
5240:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5203:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5124:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5081:
5073:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5031:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4979:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4944:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4908:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4873:
4865:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4797:
4795:
4786:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4743:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4708:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4673:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4637:
4628:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4596:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4560:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4516:
4514:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4477:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4441:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4406:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4383:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4356:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4325:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4290:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4247:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4203:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4133:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4094:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4003:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3968:
3959:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3935:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3899:
3890:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3857:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3822:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3789:
3787:
3785:
3777:
3776:public domain
3767:
3761:
3752:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3715:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3632:
3625:
3624:public domain
3615:
3609:
3601:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3576:
3574:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3540:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3490:
3481:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3397:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3323:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3205:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3182:GCB Bioenergy
3179:
3172:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3128:
3123:
3115:
3113:
3104:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3030:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2978:
2973:
2966:
2964:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2887:(2): 99–112.
2886:
2882:
2881:
2872:
2870:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2827:
2823:
2816:
2808:
2802:
2783:
2776:
2770:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2650:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2580:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2505:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2446:
2444:
2443:reforestation
2438:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2424:Deforestation
2421:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2363:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2287:
2285:
2279:
2275:
2273:
2269:
2252:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2207:
2197:
2186:
2177:
2166:
2147:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2094:mantle plumes
2089:
2087:
2075:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2012:
2007:
2003:
2002:Juina, Brazil
2000:at a site in
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1972:
1963:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1922:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1882:fecal pellets
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1812:
1803:
1801:
1797:(+0.13,-0.07)
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1737:
1732:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1591:overland flow
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1499:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1351:
1346:
1336:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1310:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1271:surface layer
1266:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1138:Surface layer
1137:
1136:
1132:
1130:Total organic
1129:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1114:Ocean (total)
1113:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1088:
1086:
1078:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1032:Keeling curve
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1000:
991:
982:
978:
976:
967:
963:
958:
946:
942:
940:
939:carbonic acid
935:
930:
928:
924:
920:
895:
885:
878:
874:
870:
867:
863:
860:
857:
853:
850:
848:
844:
842:
839:
838:
837:
835:
832:(also called
831:
827:
823:
819:
809:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
689:
684:
682:
677:
675:
670:
669:
667:
666:
660:
650:
649:
648:
647:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
585:
578:
577:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
543:Marine cycles
541:
540:
536:
531:
530:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
505:
502:
500:
497:
496:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
481:
477:
472:
471:
461:
458:
457:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
442:
438:
433:
432:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
382:
379:
378:
377:
374:
373:
369:
364:
363:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
336:
332:
327:
326:
316:
313:
311:
308:
307:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
292:
287:
284:
282:
279:
278:
274:
269:
268:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
246:
239:
236:
235:
234:
231:
230:
224:
221:
218:
215:
212:
209:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
191:
188:
185:
184:
180:
175:
174:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
147:
143:
138:
137:
129:
126:
124:
123:Boreal forest
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
90:
83:
82:
78:
74:
73:
70:
67:
66:
62:
61:
55:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
9125:Carbon cycle
9115:Soil biology
9081:
9069:
9057:
9038:
8871:Carbon cycle
8870:
8828:Measurements
8523:Society and
8407:carbon sinks
8312:Climate debt
8302:Carbon price
8124:Human rights
7959:Season creep
7917:heat content
7843:Anoxic event
7756:James Hansen
7300:Sulfur cycle
7295:Silica cycle
7268:Oxygen cycle
7211:Carbon cycle
7210:
7102:. Retrieved
7090:
7077:
7058:
7029:
7025:
7015:
6982:
6978:
6968:
6952:
6940:
6913:
6892:. Retrieved
6881:
6871:
6859:. Retrieved
6848:
6838:
6826:. Retrieved
6815:
6806:
6794:. Retrieved
6783:
6773:
6765:
6753:IPCC (2007)
6749:
6712:
6708:
6684:Carbon Brief
6683:
6673:
6636:
6632:
6621:
6585:
6578:
6541:
6537:
6526:
6485:
6481:
6474:
6449:
6445:
6438:
6401:
6397:
6370:. Retrieved
6365:
6356:
6344:. Retrieved
6334:
6307:
6303:
6293:
6268:
6264:
6257:
6212:
6208:
6177:
6165:. Retrieved
6161:the original
6156:
6147:
6122:
6118:
6112:
6087:
6083:
6077:
6052:
6048:
6042:
5999:
5995:
5989:
5962:
5956:
5923:
5919:
5913:
5886:
5880:
5855:
5851:
5845:
5800:
5796:
5758:
5754:
5748:
5740:ScienceDaily
5739:
5730:
5718:. Retrieved
5714:the original
5703:
5678:
5674:
5668:
5656:. Retrieved
5652:the original
5647:
5638:
5611:
5607:
5597:
5578:
5568:
5552:(4): 50–58.
5549:
5546:Oceanography
5545:
5507:
5503:
5497:
5478:
5474:
5464:
5445:
5441:
5431:
5406:
5402:
5395:
5386:
5345:
5341:
5335:
5302:
5298:
5292:
5251:
5247:
5213:
5209:
5202:
5169:
5165:
5158:
5133:
5129:
5123:
5090:
5086:
5080:
5053:
4993:
4989:
4978:
4953:
4949:
4943:
4918:
4914:
4907:
4882:
4878:
4872:
4845:
4839:
4806:
4802:
4756:
4752:
4742:
4717:
4713:
4707:
4682:
4678:
4672:
4647:
4643:
4636:
4609:
4605:
4595:
4570:
4566:
4559:
4526:
4522:
4487:
4483:
4476:
4451:
4447:
4440:
4415:
4411:
4405:
4388:
4382:
4365:
4361:
4355:
4330:
4324:
4299:
4295:
4289:
4256:
4252:
4246:
4213:
4209:
4202:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4142:
4138:
4132:
4110:(1): 65–78.
4107:
4103:
4093:
4060:
4056:
4046:
4013:
4009:
4002:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3948:
3944:
3934:
3909:
3905:
3898:
3871:
3867:
3856:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3802:
3798:
3760:
3751:1721.1/97900
3736:(1): 47–64.
3733:
3729:
3723:
3704:
3700:
3690:
3645:
3641:
3631:
3608:
3581:
3556:
3552:
3539:
3505:. Retrieved
3453:
3449:
3439:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3387:
3381:
3338:
3334:
3280:
3276:
3270:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3218:
3214:
3204:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3159:. Retrieved
3153:(1): 14–17.
3150:
3146:
3136:
3084:
3070:
3043:
3039:
3029:
2996:
2992:
2986:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2884:
2878:
2856:. Retrieved
2847:
2843:
2834:
2825:
2815:
2801:
2789:. Retrieved
2769:
2752:
2708:
2704:
2663:
2657:
2638:
2632:
2620:. Retrieved
2607:
2595:. Retrieved
2559:
2532:. Retrieved
2523:
2439:
2427:
2376:refrigerants
2369:
2338:
2314:fossil fuels
2311:
2280:
2276:
2265:
2248:
2212:
2127:iron carbide
2115:
2090:
2051:Polymorphism
2049:
2015:
1994:lower mantle
1979:
1943:
1935:
1898:
1894:
1860:
1852:water column
1848:
1825:
1770:
1743:
1735:
1652:river plumes
1637:heterotrophy
1614:black carbon
1597:
1535:black carbon
1506:
1450:
1439:
1424:
1398:fossil fuels
1382:metamorphism
1379:
1360:
1356:
1306:
1287:
1268:
1197:Dead biomass
1192:600 – 1,000
1052:
1025:
1021:heterotrophs
1002:
979:
959:
955:
931:
916:
882:
866:fossil fuels
864:, including
854:, including
845:Terrestrial
834:carbon pools
829:
826:Humphry Davy
815:
775:
762:
758:
754:
752:
748:carbon sinks
700:carbon cycle
699:
697:
381:Martin curve
368:Carbon pumps
295:Calvin cycle
249:Black carbon
187:Total carbon
128:Geochemistry
69:Carbon cycle
68:
44:
8898:Carbon sink
8876:atmospheric
8741:video games
8415:Blue carbon
8048:Agriculture
8027:Marine life
7974:Water cycle
7932:temperature
7667:Fossil fuel
7416:viral shunt
7406:soil carbon
7401:carbon sink
7305:Water cycle
6894:11 November
6861:11 November
6828:12 November
6796:13 November
6569:10871/26418
6429:1885/163968
6002:(1): 6311.
5658:19 February
5409:: 200–218.
4188:(1): 7–20.
3559:(11): 1–6.
3341:(1): 5544.
2420:Agriculture
2362:Halocarbons
2356:Halocarbons
2318:calcination
2296:Coal mining
2272:coral reefs
1867:particulate
1856:marine snow
1756:as well as
1754:lithosphere
1705:The marine
1674:blue carbon
1633:floodplains
1583:throughfall
1554:respiration
1453:geochemical
1363:lithosphere
1285:, is slow.
1275:mixed layer
1176:15,000,000
1155:Lithosphere
1101:(gigatons)
1059:respiration
1009:soil carbon
736:water cycle
724:hydrosphere
445:Carbon sink
408:Viral shunt
398:Marine snow
254:Blue carbon
108:Deep carbon
103:Atmospheric
93:Terrestrial
9099:Categories
8930:Cryosphere
8891:permafrost
8663:Resilience
8615:Adaptation
8590:Litigation
8580:Governance
8525:adaptation
8307:Carbon tax
8260:Mitigation
8197:Antarctica
8085:Disability
7285:Rock cycle
7243:Iron cycle
7007:2268/12933
6346:2 November
6009:1503.03538
5481:(3): 869.
4484:Ecosystems
3456:(2): 639.
3221:: 86–100.
2791:6 February
2622:30 October
2597:30 October
2500:References
2360:See also:
2294:See also:
2213:Since the
2031:petrologic
1990:subduction
1960:seismology
1826:The ocean
1779:(DOC) and
1696:open ocean
1577:(DOC) and
1568:Litterfall
1562:celluloses
1457:rock cycle
1146:Deep layer
1106:Atmosphere
1055:combustion
1036:hemisphere
1017:Autotrophs
937:and forms
888:Atmosphere
841:Atmosphere
716:pedosphere
418:Whale pump
413:Jelly pump
393:Lipid pump
118:Permafrost
86:By regions
8945:Feedbacks
8716:Education
8217:Caribbean
8212:Australia
8139:Migration
8102:Fisheries
8053:Livestock
7979:Wildfires
7885:Heat wave
7433:acid rain
7338:GEOTRACES
6326:2375-2548
5858:: 84–91.
5761:(2): 16.
5378:205243485
5115:128411658
5072:251168582
3553:GSA Today
3480:128987509
3248:: 40–51.
3120:Service.
2977:0912.2482
2894:1210.5721
2330:precursor
2322:limestone
2223:feedbacks
2036:reduction
2019:magnesite
2011:silicates
1982:carbonate
1908:into the
1906:subducted
1768:) pools.
1750:biosphere
1719:see below
1660:estuarine
1477:degassing
1467:into the
1465:subducted
1427:biosphere
1390:volcanoes
1386:subducted
1367:limestone
1339:Geosphere
1290:carbonate
862:Sediments
847:biosphere
786:petroleum
740:limestone
720:geosphere
712:biosphere
706:by which
32:CNO cycle
9071:Glossary
9059:Category
8881:biologic
8595:Politics
8487:Personal
8192:Americas
8065:Children
7831:Physical
7624:Overview
7564:Overview
7510:Category
7155:Archived
7142:Archived
7104:1 August
7095:Archived
6957:Archived
6888:Archived
6855:Archived
6822:Archived
6790:Archived
6758:Archived
6510:16193043
6249:25453077
6034:25692448
5948:23641060
5837:21402927
5370:25971513
5327:21329201
5276:24305149
5194:53512466
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