Microsatellite - Knowledge

673: 294:, the enzyme responsible for reading DNA during replication, can slip while moving along the template strand and continue at the wrong nucleotide. DNA polymerase slippage is more likely to occur when a repetitive sequence (such as CGCGCG) is replicated. Because microsatellites consist of such repetitive sequences, DNA polymerase may make errors at a higher rate in these sequence regions. Several studies have found evidence that slippage is the cause of microsatellite mutations. Typically, slippage in each microsatellite occurs about once per 1,000 generations. Thus, slippage changes in repetitive DNA are three orders of magnitude more common than 768: 395:. Evolutionary changes from replication slippage also occur in simpler organisms. For example, microsatellite length changes are common within surface membrane proteins in yeast, providing rapid evolution in cell properties. Specifically, length changes in the FLO1 gene control the level of adhesion to substrates. Short sequence repeats also provide rapid evolutionary change to surface proteins in pathenogenic bacteria; this may allow them to keep up with immunological changes in their hosts. Length changes in short sequence repeats in a fungus ( 262: 888: 970:) is a general term for a genome region between microsatellite loci. The complementary sequences to two neighboring microsatellites are used as PCR primers; the variable region between them gets amplified. The limited length of amplification cycles during PCR prevents excessive replication of overly long contiguous DNA sequences, so the result will be a mix of a variety of amplified DNA strands which are generally short but vary much in length. 660:(SNP) platforms led to the era of the SNP for genome scans, microsatellites remain highly informative measures of genomic variation for linkage and association studies. Their continued advantage lies in their greater allelic diversity than biallelic SNPs, thus microsatellites can differentiate alleles within a SNP-defined linkage disequilibrium block of interest. Thus, microsatellites have successfully led to discoveries of type 2 diabetes ( 948:. This process involves significant trial and error on the part of researchers, as microsatellite repeat sequences must be predicted and primers that are randomly isolated may not display significant polymorphism. Microsatellite loci are widely distributed throughout the genome and can be isolated from semi-degraded DNA of older specimens, as all that is needed is a suitable substrate for amplification through PCR. 556: 955:). The oligonucleotide probe hybridizes with the repeat in the microsatellite, and the probe/microsatellite complex is then pulled out of solution. The enriched DNA is then cloned as normal, but the proportion of successes will now be much higher, drastically reducing the time required to develop the regions for use. However, which probes to use can be a trial and error process in itself. 440:(a type of painful bone cancer in young humans), a point mutation has created an extended GGAA microsatellite which binds a transcription factor, which in turn activates the EGR2 gene which drives the cancer. In addition, other GGAA microsatellites may influence the expression of genes that contribute to the clinical outcome of Ewing sarcoma patients. 266:

STR locus has proceeded without a mutation. (b) Replication of the STR locus has led to a gain of one unit owing to a loop in the new strand; the aberrant loop is stabilized by flanking units complementary to the opposite strand. (c) Replication of the STR locus has led to a loss of one unit owing to a loop in the template strand. (Forster et al. 2015)

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using the amplification of microsatellites as genetic markers for forensic medicine, for paternity testing, and for positional cloning to find the gene underlying a trait or disease. Prominent early applications include the identifications by microsatellite genotyping of the eight-year-old skeletal remains of a British murder victim (

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sister chromosome), and the individual may then falsely appear to be homozygous. This can cause confusion in paternity casework. It may then be necessary to amplify the microsatellite using a different set of primers. Null alleles are caused especially by mutations at the 3' section, where extension commences.

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In species or population analysis, for example in conservation work, PCR primers which amplify microsatellites in one individual or species can work in other species. However, the risk of applying PCR primers across different species is that null alleles become likely, whenever sequence divergence is

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Another possible cause of microsatellite mutations are point mutations, where only one nucleotide is incorrectly copied during replication. A study comparing human and primate genomes found that most changes in repeat number in short microsatellites appear due to point mutations rather than slippage.

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have microsatellites, with the notable exception of some yeast species. Microsatellites are distributed throughout the genome. The human genome for example contains 50,000–100,000 dinucleotide microsatellites, and lesser numbers of tri-, tetra- and pentanucleotide microsatellites. Many are located in

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tracts. A variety of software approaches have been created for the analysis or raw nextgen DNA sequencing reads to determine the genotype and variants at repetitive loci. Microsatellites can be analysed and verified by established PCR amplification and amplicon size determination, sometimes followed

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DNA strand slippage during replication of an STR locus. Boxes symbolize repetitive DNA units. Arrows indicate the direction in which a new DNA strand (white boxes) is being replicated from the template strand (black boxes). Three situations during DNA replication are depicted. (a) Replication of the

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A microsatellite is a tract of tandemly repeated (i.e. adjacent) DNA motifs that range in length from one to six or up to ten nucleotides (the exact definition and delineation to the longer minisatellites varies from author to author), and are typically repeated 5–50 times. For example, the sequence

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encoded by short sequence repeats. Most of the short sequence repeats within protein-coding portions of the genome have a repeating unit of three nucleotides, since that length will not cause frame-shifts when mutating. Each trinucleotide repeating sequence is transcribed into a repeating series of

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refers to the early observation that centrifugation of genomic DNA in a test tube separates a prominent layer of bulk DNA from accompanying "satellite" layers of repetitive DNA. The increasing availability of DNA amplification by PCR at the beginning of the 1990s triggered a large number of studies

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Occasionally, within a sample of individuals such as in paternity testing casework, a mutation in the DNA flanking the microsatellite can prevent the PCR primer from binding and producing an amplicon (creating a "null allele" in a gel assay), thus only one allele is amplified (from the non-mutated

456:. Tandem repeats in the first intron of the Asparagine synthetase gene are linked to acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. A repeat polymorphism in the fourth intron of the NOS3 gene is linked to hypertension in a Tunisian population. Reduced repeat lengths in the EGFR gene are linked with osteosarcomas. 298:

in other parts of the genome. Most slippage results in a change of just one repeat unit, and slippage rates vary for different allele lengths and repeat unit sizes, and within different species. If there is a large size difference between individual alleles, then there may be increased instability

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Boland CR, Thibodeau SN, Hamilton SR, Sidransky D, Eshleman JR, Burt RW, et al. (November 1998). "A National Cancer Institute Workshop on Microsatellite Instability for cancer detection and familial predisposition: development of international criteria for the determination of microsatellite

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The microsatellites in use today for forensic analysis are all tetra- or penta-nucleotide repeats, as these give a high degree of error-free data while being short enough to survive degradation in non-ideal conditions. Even shorter repeat sequences would tend to suffer from artifacts such as PCR

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Wistuba II, Behrens C, Virmani AK, Mele G, Milchgrub S, Girard L, et al. (April 2000). "High resolution chromosome 3p allelotyping of human lung cancer and preneoplastic/preinvasive bronchial epithelium reveals multiple, discontinuous sites of 3p allele loss and three regions of frequent

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methods, which struggle with homopolymeric tracts. Therefore, microsatellites are normally analysed by conventional PCR amplification and amplicon size determination. The use of PCR means that microsatellite length analysis is prone to PCR limitations like any other PCR-amplified DNA locus. A

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bacteria. Colonies are then developed, and screened with fluorescently–labelled oligonucleotide sequences that will hybridize to a microsatellite repeat, if present on the DNA segment. If positive clones can be obtained from this procedure, the DNA is sequenced and PCR primers are chosen from

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Microsatellite mutation rates vary with base position relative to the microsatellite, repeat type, and base identity. Mutation rate rises specifically with repeat number, peaking around six to eight repeats and then decreasing again. Increased heterozygosity in a population will also increase

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gels; only small amounts of DNA are needed for amplification because in this way thermocycling creates an exponential increase in the replicated segment. With the abundance of PCR technology, primers that flank microsatellite loci are simple and quick to use, but the development of correctly

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Almost 50% of the human genome is contained in various types of transposable elements (also called transposons, or 'jumping genes'), and many of them contain repetitive DNA. It is probable that short sequence repeats in those locations are also involved in the regulation of gene expression.

318:, the microsatellite mutation rate was estimated at 2.1 × 10 per generation per locus. The microsatellite mutation rate in human male germ lines is five to six times higher than in female germ lines and ranges from 0 to 7 × 10 per locus per gamete per generation. In the nematode 282:

is expected to differ from other mutation rates, such as base substitution rates. The mutation rate at microsatellite loci depends on the repeat motif sequence, the number of repeated motif units and the purity of the canonical repeated sequence. A variety of mechanisms for mutation of

433:, by altering promoter spacing. Dinucleotide microsatellites are linked to abundant variation in cis-regulatory control regions in the human genome. Microsatellites in control regions of the Vasopressin 1a receptor gene in voles influence their social behavior, and level of monogamy. 3837:"Establishment of complete and mixed donor chimerism after allogeneic lymphohematopoietic transplantation: recommendations from a workshop at the 2001 Tandem Meetings of the International Bone Marrow Transplant Registry and the American Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation" 552:. Microsatellites analyzed in primary tissue therefore been routinely used in cancer diagnosis to assess tumour progression. Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) have been used to identify microsatellite biomarkers as a source of genetic predisposition in a variety of cancers. 2711:

Utsch B, Becker K, Brock D, Lentze MJ, Bidlingmaier F, Ludwig M (May 2002). "A novel stable polyalanine expansion in the HOXA13 gene associated with hand-foot-genital syndrome: proper function of poly(A)-harbouring transcription factors depends on a critical repeat length?".

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too great for the primers to bind. The species may then artificially appear to have a reduced diversity. Null alleles in this case can sometimes be indicated by an excessive frequency of homozygotes causing deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations.

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became ubiquitous in laboratories researchers were able to design primers and amplify sets of microsatellites at low cost. Their uses are wide-ranging. A microsatellite with a neutral evolutionary history makes it applicable for measuring or inferring

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Mutations in these repeating segments can affect the physical and chemical properties of proteins, with the potential for producing gradual and predictable changes in protein action. For example, length changes in tandemly repeating regions in the

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against; this allows them to accumulate mutations unhindered over the generations and gives rise to variability that can be used for DNA fingerprinting and identification purposes. Other microsatellites are located in regulatory flanking or

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Jemaa R, Ben Ali S, Kallel A, Feki M, Elasmi M, Taieb SH, et al. (June 2009). "Association of a 27-bp repeat polymorphism in intron 4 of endothelial constitutive nitric oxide synthase gene with hypertension in a Tunisian population".

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variation) linked to a trait of interest (e.g. productivity, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and quality), rather than on the trait itself. Microsatellites have been proposed to be used as such markers to assist plant breeding.

348: – microsatellite mutations in such cases can lead to phenotypic changes and diseases. A genome-wide study estimates that microsatellite variation contributes 10–15% of heritable gene expression variation in humans. 981:; sequence diversity is lower than in SSR-PCR, but still higher than in actual gene sequences. In addition, microsatellite sequencing and ISSR sequencing are mutually assisting, as one produces primers for the other. 5420: 244:

on the end of a shoelace) during successive rounds of cell division due to the "end replication problem". In white blood cells, the gradual shortening of telomeric DNA has been shown to inversely correlate with

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During the 1990s and the first several years of this millennium, microsatellites were the workhorse genetic markers for genome-wide scans to locate any gene responsible for a given phenotype or disease, using

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can change gene expression quickly, between generations. The human genome contains many (>16,000) short sequence repeats in regulatory regions, which provide 'tuning knobs' on the expression of many genes.

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amplified using polymerase chain reaction with primers targeting a variable simple sequence repeat (SSR, a.k.a. microsatellite) locus. Samples were run on a 5% polyacrylamide gel and visualized using silver

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Sequences amplified by ISSR-PCR can be used for DNA fingerprinting. Since an ISSR may be a conserved or nonconserved region, this technique is not useful for distinguishing individuals, but rather for

827:, which will allow the analyst to determine how many repeats of the microsatellites sequence in question there are. If the DNA was resolved by gel electrophoresis, the DNA can be visualized either by 843:(highly sensitive, safe, expensive). Instruments built to resolve microsatellite fragments by capillary electrophoresis also use fluorescent dyes. Forensic profiles are stored in major databanks. The 452:

also influence phenotype, through means that are not currently understood. For example, a GAA triplet expansion in the first intron of the X25 gene appears to interfere with transcription, and causes

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is known to use microsatellite sequences within intronic mRNA for the removal of introns in the absence of U2AF2 and other splicing machinery. It is theorized that these sequences form highly stable

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Chistiakov DA, Hellemans B, Volckaert FA (2006-05-31). "Microsatellites and their genomic distribution, evolution, function and applications: A review with special reference to fish genetics".

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Waits L, Taberlet P, Swenson JE, Sandegren F, Franzén R (April 2000). "Nuclear DNA microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity and gene flow in the Scandinavian brown bear (Ursus arctos)".

375:), with an association between longer sequence lengths and longer faces. This association also applies to a wider range of Carnivora species. Length changes in polyalanine tracts within the 1847:

Klintschar M, Dauber EM, Ricci U, Cerri N, Immel UD, Kleiber M, Mayr WR (October 2004). "Haplotype studies support slippage as the mechanism of germline mutations in short tandem repeats".

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Amos W (September 2010). "Mutation biases and mutation rate variation around very short human microsatellites revealed by human-chimpanzee-orangutan genomic sequence alignments".

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refers to the early observation that centrifugation of genomic DNA in a test tube separates a prominent layer of bulk DNA from accompanying "satellite" layers of repetitive DNA.

274:, which affect only a single nucleotide, microsatellite mutations lead to the gain or loss of an entire repeat unit, and sometimes two or more repeats simultaneously. Thus, the 911:, primers can be designed manually. This involves searching the genomic DNA sequence for microsatellite repeats, which can be done by eye or by using automated tools such as 596:

must be respected, so that forensic STRs are chosen which are non-coding, do not influence gene regulation, and are not usually trinucleotide STRs which could be involved in

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Müller KJ, Romano N, Gerstner O, Garcia-Maroto F, Pozzi C, Salamini F, Rohde W (April 1995). "The barley Hooded mutation caused by a duplication in a homeobox gene intron".

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More recent techniques involve using oligonucleotide sequences consisting of repeats complementary to repeats in the microsatellite to "enrich" the DNA extracted (

855:. The Americans increased this number to 13 loci. The Australian database is called the NCIDD, and since 2013 it has been using 18 core markers for DNA profiling. 2668:

Sears KE, Goswami A, Flynn JJ, Niswander LA (2007). "The correlated evolution of Runx2 tandem repeats, transcriptional activity, and facial length in carnivora".

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microsatellite loci have been reviewed, and their resulting polymorphic nature has been quantified. The actual cause of mutations in microsatellites is debated.

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stutter and preferential amplification, while longer repeat sequences would suffer more highly from environmental degradation and would amplify less well by

3303:"Biological importance of a polymorphic CA sequence within intron 1 of the epidermal growth factor receptor gene (EGFR) in high grade central osteosarcomas" 5767: 5717: 4850:"Natural selection and the emergence of a mutation phenotype: an update of the evolutionary synthesis considering mechanisms that affect genome variation" 4078:

Spencer CC, Neigel JE, Leberg PL (October 2000). "Experimental evaluation of the usefulness of microsatellite DNA for detecting demographic bottlenecks".

5777: 3877: 5899: 5817: 3218:"Functional analysis of a novel DNA polymorphism of a tandem repeated sequence in the asparagine synthetase gene in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells" 249:

in several sample types. Telomeres consist of repetitive DNA, with the hexanucleotide repeat motif TTAGGG in vertebrates. They are thus classified as

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of primers and the extension of nucleotide sequences through the microsatellite. This process results in production of enough DNA to be visible on

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of individuals where it permits forensic identification (typically matching a crime stain to a victim or perpetrator). It is also used to follow up

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Sideris M, Papagrigoriadis S (May 2014). "Molecular biomarkers and classification models in the evaluation of the prognosis of colorectal cancer".

383:, a developmental disorder in humans. Length changes in other triplet repeats are linked to more than 40 neurological diseases in humans, notably 5150:

Pumpernik D, Oblak B, Borstnik B (January 2008). "Replication slippage versus point mutation rates in short tandem repeats of the human genome".

1628:"Mutation rate in the hypervariable VNTR g3 (D7S22) is affected by allele length and a flanking DNA sequence polymorphism near the repeat array" 508:

analysis to locate a gene or a mutation responsible for a given trait or disease. As a special case of mapping, they can be used for studies of

500:, also known as "genetic fingerprinting", of crime stains (in forensics) and of tissues (in transplant patients). They are also widely used in 672: 5727: 536:

cells, whose controls on replication are damaged, microsatellites may be gained or lost at an especially high frequency during each round of

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One proposed cause of such length changes is replication slippage, caused by mismatches between DNA strands while being replicated during

5453: 3169:"The GAA triplet-repeat expansion in Friedreich ataxia interferes with transcription and may be associated with an unusual DNA structure" 1079: 361:

the same amino acid. In yeasts, the most common repeated amino acids are glutamine, glutamic acid, asparagine, aspartic acid and serine.

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analysis (most commonly in paternity testing). Also, microsatellites are used for mapping locations within the genome, specifically in

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Manel S, Schwartz MK, Luikart G, Taberlet P (2003-04-01). "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics".

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non-coding parts of the human genome and therefore do not produce proteins, but they can also be located in regulatory regions and

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Lászik A, Brinkmann B, Sótonyi P, Falus A (2000). "Automated fluorescent detection of a 10 loci multiplex for paternity testing".

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are linear sequences of DNA that sit at the very ends of chromosomes and protect the integrity of genomic material (not unlike an

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Kaukinen KH, Supernault KJ, and Miller KM (2004). "Enrichment of tetranucleotide microsatellite loci from invertebrate species".

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Amos W, Sawcer SJ, Feakes RW, Rubinsztein DC (August 1996). "Microsatellites show mutational bias and heterozygote instability".

2024:"Equilibrium distributions of microsatellite repeat length resulting from a balance between slippage events and point mutations" 5782: 2221:"Microsatellite evolutionary rate and pattern in Schistocerca gregaria inferred from direct observation of germline mutations" 1713:"Trinucleotide expansion diseases in the context of micro- and minisatellite evolution, Hammersmith Hospital, April 1-3, 1998" 5187:

Streelman JT, Kocher TD (2002). "Microsatellite variation associated with prolactin expression and growth of salt-challenged

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Moxon ER, Rainey PB, Nowak MA, Lenski RE (January 1994). "Adaptive evolution of highly mutable loci in pathogenic bacteria".

1038: 5368:—a tandem repeat search tool for perfect and imperfect repeats—the maximum pattern size depends only on computational power 17: 496:

Microsatellites are used for assessing chromosomal DNA deletions in cancer diagnosis. Microsatellites are widely used for

4366:"A review of microsatellite markers and their applications in rice breeding programs to improve blast disease resistance" 1063: 328:

microsatellite mutation rates, especially when there is a large length difference between alleles. This is likely due to

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Hammock EA, Young LJ (June 2005). "Microsatellite instability generates diversity in brain and sociobehavioral traits".

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Hancock JM, Simon M (January 2005). "Simple sequence repeats in proteins and their significance for network evolution".

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Direct estimates of microsatellite mutation rates have been made in numerous organisms, from insects to humans. In the

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Mattick JS (October 2003). "Challenging the dogma: the hidden layer of non-protein-coding RNAs in complex organisms".

253:. Similarly, insects have shorter repeat motifs in their telomeres that could arguably be considered microsatellites. 197:). Repeat units of four and five nucleotides are referred to as tetra- and pentanucleotide motifs, respectively. Most 5952: 5649: 5402: 5302: 1457: 2278:"Tandem-repeat patterns and mutation rates in microsatellites of the nematode model organism Pristionchus pacificus" 4620: 3881: 723:

becomes more affordable the use of microsatellites has decreased, however they remain a crucial tool in the field.

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analysis to locate a gene or a mutation responsible for a given trait or disease. Microsatellites are also used in

324:, the estimated microsatellite mutation rate ranges from 8.9 × 10 to 7.5 × 10 per locus per generation. 5446: 5381: 1293:

Kit S (December 1961). "Equilibrium sedimentation in density gradients of DNA preparations from animal tissues".

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observations across generations of a sampled pedigree. Although the rise of higher throughput and cost-effective

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TATATATATA is a dinucleotide microsatellite, and GTCGTCGTCGTCGTC is a trinucleotide microsatellite (with A being

2909:"Simple sequence repeats provide a substrate for phenotypic variation in the Neurospora crassa circadian clock" 1476:

Pearson CE, Nichol Edamura K, Cleary JD (October 2005). "Repeat instability: mechanisms of dynamic mutations".

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of genes – microsatellite mutations in such cases can lead to phenotypic changes and diseases, notably in

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Grünewald TG, Bernard V, Gilardi-Hebenstreit P, Raynal V, Surdez D, Aynaud MM, et al. (September 2015).

597: 384: 223: 97: 5431: 4746:"Nanopore Sequencing of a Forensic STR Multiplex Reveals Loci Suitable for Single-Contributor STR Profiling" 467:

configurations that bring the 3' and 5' intron splice sites into close proximity, effectively replacing the

3534:"Selection of microsatellite markers for bladder cancer diagnosis without the need for corresponding blood" 1033: 915:. Once the potentially useful microsatellites are determined, the flanking sequences can be used to design 53:) are repeated, typically 5–50 times. Microsatellites occur at thousands of locations within an organism's 31: 5314: 4321:

Allendorf FW, Hohenlohe PA, Luikart G (October 2010). "Genomics and the future of conservation genetics".

3485:"Searching for microsatellite mutations in coding regions in lung, breast, ovarian and colorectal cancers" 2757:"Ser/Thr-rich domains are associated with genetic variation and morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae" 682:

tree of 249 human populations and six chimpanzee populations. Created based on 246 microsatellite markers.

4509:"Correction to: Genome-wide sequencing as a first-tier screening test for short tandem repeat expansions" 907:

If searching for microsatellite markers in specific regions of a genome, for example within a particular

876: 871:. DNA is repeatedly denatured at a high temperature to separate the double strand, then cooled to allow 116: 5947: 5797: 5439: 3758:"High-depth, high-accuracy microsatellite genotyping enables precision lung cancer risk classification" 1058: 1043: 868: 776: 720: 380: 4881:

Kashi Y, et al. (1997). "Simple sequence repeats as a source of quantitative genetic variation".

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and in species conservation projects. Plant geneticists have proposed the use of microsatellites for

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Microsatellites in non-coding regions may not have any specific function, and therefore might not be

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van Tilborg AA, Kompier LC, Lurkin I, Poort R, El Bouazzaoui S, van der Keur K, et al. (2012).

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Kersting C, Agelopoulos K, Schmidt H, Korsching E, August C, Gosheger G, et al. (August 2008).

3063:"Chimeric EWSR1-FLI1 regulates the Ewing sarcoma susceptibility gene EGR2 via a GGAA microsatellite" 1890:

Forster P, Hohoff C, Dunkelmann B, Schürenkamp M, Pfeiffer H, Neuhuber F, Brinkmann B (March 2015).

1227:"Mutation rate in human microsatellites: influence of the structure and length of the tandem repeat" 471:. This method of RNA splicing is believed to have diverged from human evolution at the formation of 1277: 605: 464: 5491: 5466: 2512: 2469:

Marcotte EM, Pellegrini M, Yeates TO, Eisenberg D (October 1999). "A census of protein repeats".

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Musa J, Cidre-Aranaz F, Aynaud MM, Orth MF, Knott MM, Mirabeau O, et al. (September 2019).

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Wren JD, Forgacs E, Fondon JW, Pertsemlidis A, Cheng SY, Gallardo T, et al. (August 2000).

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Goldman EA, Eick GN, Compton D, Kowal P, Snodgrass JJ, Eisenberg DT, Sterner KN (January 2018).

5921: 5849: 5040: 4955:"Microsatellites: genomic distribution, putative functions and mutational mechanisms: a review" 1273: 812: 581: 577: 549: 453: 426: 418: 329: 320: 1987:

Jarne P, Lagoda PJ (October 1996). "Microsatellites, from molecules to populations and back".

839:(fairly sensitive, moderate health risks, inexpensive), or as most modern forensics labs use, 4910:

Kinoshita Y, Saze H, Kinoshita T, Miura A, Soppe WJ, Koornneef M, Kakutani T (January 2007).

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Rajan-Babu IS, Peng JJ, Chiu R, Li C, Mohajeri A, Dolzhenko E, et al. (September 2021).

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Forgacs E, Wren JD, Kamibayashi C, Kondo M, Xu XL, Markowitz S, et al. (February 2001).

696: 640: 124: 5376: 3996:"Population structure in a comprehensive genomic data set on human microsatellite variation" 2420:

Gymrek M, Willems T, Guilmatre A, Zeng H, Markus B, Georgiev S, et al. (January 2016).

2124:"Evidence for the regulation of alternative splicing via complementary DNA sequence repeats" 1446: 5894: 5608: 5470: 5241: 5114: 4966: 4865: 4279: 4142: 4087: 3545: 3123: 3019: 2920: 2865: 2622: 2528: 2232: 2177: 2035: 1584: 1418: 743: 4936: 3112:"Cooperation of cancer drivers with regulatory germline variants shapes clinical outcomes" 2987: 2970: 2081:

Laidlaw J, Gelfand Y, Ng KW, Garner HR, Ranganathan R, Benson G, Fondon JW (1 July 2007).

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gene, the term "microsatellite" was introduced later, in 1989, by Litt and Luty. The name

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Tytgat O, Gansemans Y, Weymaere J, Rubben K, Deforce D, Van Nieuwerburgh F (April 2020).

1521:"Evaluating minimally invasive sample collection methods for telomere length measurement" 926:

random segments of DNA from the focal species. These random segments are inserted into a

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Antin JH, Childs R, Filipovich AH, Giralt S, Mackinnon S, Spitzer T, Weisdorf D (2001).

3549: 3416:"Regulation of mammalian gene expression by retroelements and non-coding tandem repeats" 3350:

Lin CL, Taggart AJ, Lim KH, Cygan KJ, Ferraris L, Creton R, et al. (January 2016).

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Akagi T, Yin D, Kawamata N, Bartram CR, Hofmann WK, Song JH, et al. (July 2009).

2877: 2645: 2610: 2422:"Abundant contribution of short tandem repeats to gene expression variation in humans" 1430: 1395: 1306: 1197: 1172: 5942: 5267: 5208: 5167: 5130: 5093: 5088: 5071: 5058: 5019: 4984: 4979: 4954: 4941: 4927: 4898: 4869: 4826: 4789: 4777: 4707: 4703: 4662:

Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and Genetics of STR Markers, Second Edition

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data base for microsatellite loci identification was originally based on the British

832: 767: 739: 545: 397: 210: 78: 74: 62: 5355: 5179: 4422: 4364:

Miah G, Rafii MY, Ismail MR, Puteh AB, Rahim HA, Islam K, Latif MA (November 2013).

4350: 4307: 4115: 3931: 3853: 3836: 3799: 3742: 3518: 3336: 3047: 2893: 2790: 2741: 2697: 2498: 2262: 2140: 2123: 1876: 1765:"Repeat polymorphisms within gene regions: phenotypic and evolutionary implications" 1505: 5906: 5836: 5474: 5257: 5249: 5220: 5200: 5159: 5142: 5122: 5083: 5050: 5009: 4974: 4931: 4923: 4890: 4861: 4816: 4767: 4757: 4699: 4690:

Queller DC, Strassmann JE, Hughes CR (August 1993). "Microsatellites and kinship".

4530: 4520: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4387: 4377: 4330: 4287: 4242: 4234: 4193: 4185: 4158: 4138: 4095: 4064: 4052: 4015: 4007: 3966: 3958: 3911: 3848: 3777: 3769: 3720: 3712: 3667: 3659: 3563: 3553: 3496: 3427: 3371: 3363: 3314: 3275: 3237: 3229: 3188: 3180: 3139: 3131: 3082: 3074: 3027: 2982: 2938: 2928: 2873: 2825: 2817: 2768: 2721: 2677: 2640: 2630: 2583: 2546: 2536: 2478: 2441: 2433: 2403: 2383: 2346: 2338: 2297: 2289: 2240: 2205: 2185: 2135: 2094: 2053: 2043: 1996: 1952: 1911: 1903: 1856: 1821: 1784: 1776: 1732: 1724: 1683: 1639: 1612: 1592: 1540: 1532: 1485: 1426: 1391: 1354: 1346: 1302: 1246: 1238: 1192: 1184: 1143: 1135: 945: 939: 836: 700: 679: 513: 509: 371: 279: 4450:"Accuracy of short tandem repeats genotyping tools in whole exome sequencing data" 3233: 5617: 5589: 5558: 5553: 5424: 5407: 5330: 5318: 5306: 4416:

Figure 1 - available via license: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International"

4189: 3558: 2933: 919:

primers which will amplify the specific microsatellite repeat in a PCR reaction.

916: 893: 784: 735: 712: 593: 505: 402: 271: 161: 128: 5350: 4174:"A measure of population subdivision based on microsatellite allele frequencies" 1350: 261: 5889: 5747: 5704: 5532: 4640: 4525: 4445: 3648:"Germline microsatellite genotypes differentiate children with medulloblastoma" 3135: 2907:

Michael TP, Park S, Kim TS, Booth J, Byer A, Sun Q, et al. (August 2007).

2615:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2587: 2521:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2028:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1728: 1572: 1048: 1018: 990: 974: 934: 844: 801: 792: 704: 341: 295: 291: 46: 5163: 2725: 2189: 5936: 5854: 5594: 5517: 5508: 5500: 5461: 5365: 3716: 2048: 1568: 1119: 1053: 931: 819:. Once these sequences have been amplified, they are resolved either through 624: 497: 437: 312: 275: 250: 203: 169: 165: 156: 148: 135:

to measure levels of relatedness between subspecies, groups and individuals.

112: 105: 101: 93: 5253: 5014: 4997: 4621:"House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology Written Evidence" 4569: 4221:

Kohn MH, York EC, Kamradt DA, Haught G, Sauvajot RM, Wayne RK (April 1999).

4173: 3663: 3031: 2635: 2099: 2082: 779:

targeting certain STRs (which vary in lengths between individuals and their

5866: 5334: 5271: 5212: 5171: 5097: 5062: 5023: 4988: 4945: 4873: 4830: 4821: 4804: 4781: 4711: 4544: 4485: 4401: 4342: 4299: 4256: 4238: 4150: 4107: 4029: 3980: 3923: 3862: 3791: 3734: 3701:

as a Risk and Mortality Marker for Breast Cancer in African American Women"

3681: 3604: 3577: 3510: 3501: 3484: 3469: 3441: 3385: 3328: 3287: 3251: 3153: 3096: 3039: 2996: 2952: 2839: 2782: 2733: 2689: 2654: 2595: 2541: 2490: 2482: 2455: 2360: 2342: 2311: 2254: 2197: 2149: 2108: 2008: 1957: 1940: 1925: 1907: 1868: 1860: 1798: 1688: 1671: 1554: 1497: 1368: 1314: 1206: 1157: 1089: 840: 828: 796: 636: 30:

This article is about the DNA sequence. For small orbiting spacecraft, see

5299: 5230:"Unstable tandem repeats in promoters confer transcriptional evolvability" 5134: 4902: 4762: 4382: 4207: 4011: 3632: 3367: 3202: 2885: 2560: 2395: 2293: 2276:

Molnar RI, Witte H, Dinkelacker I, Villate L, Sommer RJ (September 2012).

2067: 1966: 1833: 1746: 1697: 1653: 1604: 1260: 1139: 1124:"Comparative genomics and molecular dynamics of DNA repeats in eukaryotes" 5861: 5772: 5634: 3773: 3060: 995: 808: 747: 734:

or marker aided selection (MAS) is an indirect selection process where a

468: 5228:

Vinces MD, Legendre M, Caldara M, Hagihara M, Verstrepen KJ (May 2009).

1188: 887: 5873: 5690: 5054: 3915: 3432: 3415: 2387: 1536: 1084: 880: 852: 357: 345: 50: 5371: 4423:"Using PCR for molecular monitoring of post-transplantation chimerism" 3319: 3302: 2245: 2220: 2219:

Chapuis MP, Plantamp C, Streiff R, Blondin L, Piou C (December 2015).

1665: 1663: 1173:"Microsatellites in different eukaryotic genomes: survey and analysis" 344:

and are biologically silent. Others are located in regulatory or even

5792: 5483: 5126: 4129:

Nielsen R (2005-01-01). "Molecular signatures of natural selection".

2773: 2756: 1596: 716: 620: 573: 476: 460: 237: 198: 152: 5397: 4675:

Griffiths AJ, Miller JF, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart WM (1996).

4334: 3962: 3818:"From the crime scene to the courtroom: the journey of a DNA sample" 3756:

Velmurugan KR, Varghese RT, Fonville NC, Garner HR (November 2017).

3078: 2437: 1489: 1225:

Brinkmann B, Klintschar M, Neuhuber F, Hühne J, Rolf B (June 1998).

631:

analysis (most commonly in paternity testing). Paternally inherited

5916: 5802: 5566: 5462: 5323: 4849: 3300: 3184: 2821: 2611:"Molecular origins of rapid and continuous morphological evolution" 1780: 1660: 1242: 1028: 1023: 472: 215: 190: 143:

Although the first microsatellite was characterised in 1984 at the

58: 4998:"Microsatellites within genes: structure, function, and evolution" 3694: 1889: 5812: 5412: 5291: 5104: 2468: 1074: 978: 927: 923: 867:(PCR) process, using the unique sequences of flanking regions as 811:

from the cells of a sample of interest, then amplifying specific

628: 537: 501: 335: 332:

with arms of unequal lengths causing instability during meiosis.

287: 194: 186: 182: 120: 3947:"Genetic linkage analysis in the age of whole-genome sequencing" 3755: 3646:

Rivero-Hinojosa S, Kinney N, Garner HR, Rood BR (January 2020).

3617: 1382:

King DG, Soller M, Kashi Y (1997). "Evolutionary tuning knobs".

1224: 604:. Forensic STR profiles are stored in DNA databanks such as the 369:

gene lead to differences in facial length in domesticated dogs (

5911: 5360: 3645: 3584: 2804:

Verstrepen KJ, Jansen A, Lewitter F, Fink GR (September 2005).

2022:

Kruglyak S, Durrett RT, Schug MD, Aquadro CF (September 1998).

1069: 912: 908: 780: 771:

Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis on a simplified model using

661: 533: 449: 376: 246: 54: 5311: 5286: 4420: 2971:"Abundant raw material for cis-regulatory evolution in humans" 1575:(1985). "Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions in human DNA". 555: 356:

In mammals, 20–40% of proteins contain repeating sequences of

5657: 5227: 4953:

Li YC, Korol AB, Fahima T, Beiles A, Nevo E (December 2002).

4743: 4674: 4414:

Image by Mikael Häggström, MD, using following source image:

4269: 3531: 2275: 2218: 2115: 1762: 848: 632: 609: 366: 241: 219: 164:

et al. 1991), and of the Auschwitz concentration camp doctor

5386: 4724: 4042: 2803: 1408: 4909: 3993: 3901: 3834: 3695:

Kinney N, Varghese RT, Anandakrishnan R, Garner HR (2017).

3482: 2806:"Intragenic tandem repeats generate functional variability" 2373: 2021: 1672:"Molecular basis of genetic instability of triplet repeats" 1567: 1475: 863:

Microsatellites can be amplified for identification by the

5072:"Phenotypic impacts of repetitive DNA in flowering plants" 3109: 2667: 2419: 2083:"Elevated basal slippage mutation rates among the Canidae" 1846: 1117: 884:

functioning primers is often a tedious and costly process.

783:). The resultant fragments are separated by size (such as 4320: 3454: 3166: 755: 751: 256: 151:

and colleagues as a polymorphic GGAT repeat in the human

42: 4421:

Sitnik R, Torres MA, Bacal NS, Rebello Pinho JR (2006).

1625: 1333:

Lu W, Zhang Y, Liu D, Songyang Z, Wan M (January 2013).

944:

sequences flanking such regions to determine a specific

127:) and in forensic identification. They are also used in 4689: 3352:"RNA structure replaces the need for U2AF2 in splicing" 3215: 2327:"Heterozygosity increases microsatellite mutation rate" 1710: 1518: 615: 572:

Microsatellite analysis became popular in the field of

175: 5391: 5149: 3987: 3590: 3264: 3167:

Bidichandani SI, Ashizawa T, Patel PI (January 1998).

2855: 2710: 2080: 807:

In forensics, the analysis is performed by extracting

592:. Another forensic consideration is that the person's 567: 4220: 2517:"Simple tandem DNA repeats and human genetic disease" 2367: 1758: 1756: 168:

who escaped to South America following World War II (

4506: 4363: 3994:

Pemberton TJ, DeGiorgio M, Rosenberg NA (May 2013).

1892:"Elevated germline mutation rate in teenage fathers" 4952: 4805:"Microsatellite null alleles in parentage analysis" 4077: 2906: 902: 5069: 3448: 3349: 2511: 1753: 1626:Andreassen R, Egeland T, Olaisen B (August 1996). 1445: 1332: 922:Random microsatellite primers can be developed by 540:. Hence a tumour cell line might show a different 5394:De Novo Genome Analysis and Tandem Repeats Finder 5341:JSTRING—Java Search for Tandem Repeats In Genomes 4995: 4443: 4223:"Estimating population size by genotyping faeces" 3160: 544:from that of the host tissue, and, especially in 5934: 3403:. New York: Cold Spring Harbor University Press. 1711:Hancock JM, Santibáñez-Koref MF (October 1998). 1220: 1218: 1216: 1170: 306: 5186: 4996:Li YC, Korol AB, Fahima T, Nevo E (June 2004). 2964: 2962: 2797: 2505: 2415: 2413: 1840: 1471: 1469: 1443: 1381: 1335:"Telomeres-structure, function, and regulation" 664:) and prostate cancer genes (the 8q21 region). 559:A partial human STR profile obtained using the 5287:All known disease-causing short tandem repeats 3815: 3525: 1113: 1111: 1109: 1107: 1105: 775:(PCR): First, a DNA sample undergoes PCR with 336:Biological effects of microsatellite mutations 92:Microsatellites and their longer cousins, the 5447: 3294: 2851: 2849: 2462: 2015: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1814:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 1812:Tautz D (December 1994). "Simple sequences". 1437: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1213: 815:regions of the extracted DNA by means of the 795:methods, for some technologies struggle with 482: 408: 61:rate than other areas of DNA leading to high 27:Repeating sequences of 2–13 base pairs of DNA 3828: 3639: 3407: 3009: 3003: 2959: 2900: 2608: 2573: 2567: 2410: 2212: 2163: 2161: 2159: 1883: 1466: 831:(low sensitivity, safe, inexpensive), or an 425:Length changes in bacterial SSRs can affect 4653: 4370:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 3944: 3841:Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation 3392: 2968: 2754: 2602: 2269: 1986: 1102: 1080:Earth Human STR Allele Frequencies Database 646: 65:. Microsatellites are often referred to as 49:(ranging in length from one to six or more 5454: 5440: 5070:Meagher TR, Vassiliadis C (October 2005). 4802: 4500: 3749: 3611: 3258: 3209: 2846: 2748: 2704: 2661: 2121: 1973: 1932: 1805: 1619: 1321: 1128:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 891:A number of DNA samples from specimens of 5261: 5087: 5044: 5013: 4978: 4935: 4820: 4771: 4761: 4668: 4534: 4524: 4475: 4465: 4391: 4381: 4246: 4197: 4019: 3970: 3852: 3781: 3724: 3671: 3567: 3557: 3500: 3431: 3375: 3318: 3241: 3192: 3143: 3086: 2986: 2942: 2932: 2829: 2772: 2644: 2634: 2550: 2540: 2445: 2350: 2318: 2301: 2244: 2156: 2139: 2098: 2057: 2047: 1956: 1938: 1915: 1788: 1736: 1687: 1643: 1544: 1358: 1276:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 1250: 1196: 1147: 994:particular concern is the occurrence of ' 989:Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by 791:Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by 459:An archaic form of splicing preserved in 443: 413:Length changes of microsatellites within 4847: 4718: 4437: 4433:(2). Sao Paulo – via ResearchGate. 4357: 3869: 3816:Curtis C, Hereward J (August 29, 2017). 1941:"Mutation of human short tandem repeats" 1375: 1171:Tóth G, Gáspári Z, Jurka J (July 2000). 886: 766: 671: 554: 260: 5351:MISA—MIcroSAtellite identification tool 5030: 4683: 4679:(5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. 4564: 4562: 4171: 4128: 3938: 3413: 3398: 524:of desirable traits in plant breeding. 14: 5935: 4866:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090855 4659: 4570:"Technology for Resolving STR Alleles" 4143:10.1146/annurev.genet.39.073003.112420 3688: 2609:Fondon JW, Garner HR (December 2004). 1288: 1286: 667: 351: 257:Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates 5435: 4880: 4796: 3875: 3811: 3809: 2988:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004023 2969:Rockman MV, Wray GA (November 2002). 1811: 1669: 1059:Short interspersed repetitive element 1039:Long interspersed nucleotide elements 516:. Researchers use microsatellites in 4803:Dakin EE, Avise JC (November 2004). 4664:. New York: Elsevier Academic Press. 4559: 2324: 2167: 1448:Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics 686:Microsatellites were popularized in 623:microsatellites are widely used for 616:Kinship analysis (paternity testing) 340:Many microsatellites are located in 176:Structures, locations, and functions 5333:—find perfect or imperfect SSRs in 3945:Ott J, Wang J, Leal SM (May 2015). 3619:instability in colorectal cancer". 1676:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1452:(12th ed.). London: Elsevier. 1292: 1283: 1064:Simple sequence length polymorphism 738:of interest is selected based on a 568:Forensic and medical fingerprinting 527: 475:and to represent an artifact of an 24: 5523:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite 5205:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00105.2001 4840: 3806: 3173:American Journal of Human Genetics 1769:American Journal of Human Genetics 1632:American Journal of Human Genetics 1231:American Journal of Human Genetics 937:, which is in turn implanted into 25: 5964: 5280: 4692:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 4045:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3401:A short guide to the human genome 3280:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2008.12.002 1989:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1525:American Journal of Human Biology 1431:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.11.031 726: 576:in the 1990s. It is used for the 299:during recombination at meiosis. 218:regions of genes, or directly in 5089:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01527.x 4980:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01643.x 4928:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02936.x 4677:Introduction to Genetic Analysis 4292:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00892.x 4227:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 4100:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01031.x 2755:Bowen S, Wheals AE (June 2006). 2682:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2007.00196.x 2122:Lian Y, Garner HR (April 2005). 1939:Weber JL, Wong C (August 1993). 1896:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 903:Design of microsatellite primers 858: 5152:Molecular Genetics and Genomics 5002:Molecular Biology and Evolution 4737: 4633: 4613: 4602:from the original on 2010-10-13 4582: 4408: 4314: 4263: 4214: 4165: 4122: 4071: 4036: 3895: 3854:10.1053/bbmt.2001.v7.pm11669214 3476: 3343: 3307:Genes, Chromosomes & Cancer 3103: 3054: 2975:Molecular Biology and Evolution 2074: 1704: 1561: 1512: 491: 5527:Trinucleotide repeat disorders 4937:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-38D2-5 4467:10.12688/f1000research.22639.1 2170:Journal of Molecular Evolution 1444:Turnpenny P, Ellard S (2005). 1402: 1267: 1164: 991:next generation DNA sequencing 984: 793:next generation DNA sequencing 658:single-nucleotide polymorphism 401:) control the duration of its 385:trinucleotide repeat disorders 13: 1: 5514:Variable number tandem repeat 5346:Microsatellite repeats finder 4895:10.1016/S0168-9525(97)01008-1 4854:Annual Review of Microbiology 4727:Journal of Shellfish Research 4418:, from the following article: 4057:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00008-9 3234:10.1016/j.leukres.2008.10.022 2878:10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00005-1 2141:10.1093/bioinformatics/bti180 1396:10.1016/S0160-9327(97)01005-3 1307:10.1016/S0022-2836(61)80075-2 1096: 977:analyses or maybe delimiting 307:Microsatellite mutation rates 96:, together are classified as 4704:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90256-O 3559:10.1371/journal.pone.0043345 2934:10.1371/journal.pone.0000795 2515:, Richards RI (April 1995). 2471:Journal of Molecular Biology 2001:10.1016/0169-5347(96)10049-5 1826:10.1016/0959-437X(94)90067-1 1295:Journal of Molecular Biology 1034:List of biological databases 968:inter-simple sequence repeat 690:during the 1990s because as 32:Microsatellite (spaceflight) 7: 4590:"The National DNA Database" 2670:Evolution & Development 1351:10.1016/j.yexcr.2012.09.005 1011: 958: 851:system using 10 loci and a 762: 10: 5969: 4526:10.1186/s13073-021-00961-4 4190:10.1093/genetics/139.1.457 4172:Slatkin M (January 1995). 3136:10.1038/s41467-019-12071-2 2588:10.1016/j.gene.2004.11.023 1670:Wells RD (February 1996). 1339:Experimental Cell Research 1044:Microsatellite instability 721:next generation sequencing 598:triplet expansion diseases 483:Effects within transposons 409:Effects on gene regulation 381:hand-foot-genital syndrome 224:triplet expansion diseases 138: 29: 5882: 5835: 5703: 5671: 5648: 5625: 5616: 5607: 5582: 5542: 5499: 5490: 5481: 5164:10.1007/s00438-007-0294-1 4641:"FBI CODIS Core STR Loci" 4131:Annual Review of Genetics 3414:Tomilin NV (April 2008). 2726:10.1007/s00439-002-0712-8 2190:10.1007/s00239-010-9377-4 953:microsatellite enrichment 865:polymerase chain reaction 825:capillary electrophoresis 817:polymerase chain reaction 773:polymerase chain reaction 732:Marker assisted selection 612:or the Australian NCIDD. 522:marker assisted selection 111:They are widely used for 41:is a tract of repetitive 5953:Repetitive DNA sequences 4323:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3951:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3904:Acta Biologica Hungarica 3717:10.1177/1176935117746644 2049:10.1073/pnas.95.18.10774 1945:Human Molecular Genetics 1729:10.1093/emboj/17.19.5521 1478:Nature Reviews. Genetics 1278:Medical Subject Headings 647:Genetic linkage analysis 641:genealogical DNA testing 635:(microsatellites on the 606:UK National DNA Database 89:) by plant geneticists. 5292:MicroSatellite DataBase 5254:10.1126/science.1170097 3032:10.1126/science.1111427 2636:10.1073/pnas.0408118101 2325:Amos W (January 2016). 2087:The Journal of Heredity 1118:Richard GF; Kerrest A; 448:Microsatellites within 145:University of Leicester 83:simple sequence repeats 5922:Protein tandem repeats 5850:Tandemly arrayed genes 4822:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800545 4239:10.1098/rspb.1999.0686 3502:10.1038/sj.onc.1204211 2542:10.1073/pnas.92.9.3636 2483:10.1006/jmbi.1999.3136 2343:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0929 1908:10.1098/rspb.2014.2898 1861:10.1002/elps.200406069 1689:10.1074/jbc.271.6.2875 899: 788: 683: 608:(NDNAD), the American 582:bone marrow transplant 578:genetic fingerprinting 564: 550:loss of heterozygosity 444:Effects within introns 431:Haemophilus influenzae 419:cis-regulatory regions 330:homologous chromosomes 321:Pristionchus pacificus 267: 5398:Tandem Repeats Finder 5015:10.1093/molbev/msh073 4763:10.3390/genes11040381 4383:10.3390/ijms141122499 4012:10.1534/g3.113.005728 3664:10.1093/neuonc/noz179 3368:10.1101/gr.181008.114 3268:Clinical Biochemistry 3116:Nature Communications 2294:10.1534/g3.112.003129 2100:10.1093/jhered/esm017 1140:10.1128/MMBR.00011-08 890: 802:Sanger DNA sequencing 770: 675: 558: 548:, might present with 316:Schistocerca gregaria 264: 123:analysis (especially 57:. They have a higher 5895:Pathogenicity island 5324:Imperfect SSR Finder 4848:Caporale LH (2003). 3774:10.1038/onc.2017.256 3711:: 1176935117746644. 1958:10.1093/hmg/2.8.1123 1066:(SSLP)—a search tool 639:) are often used in 602:Huntington's disease 393:Huntington's disease 232:Huntington's disease 100:(variable number of 75:forensic geneticists 67:short tandem repeats 18:Short tandem repeats 5246:2009Sci...324.1213V 5119:1995Natur.374..727M 5076:The New Phytologist 4971:2002MolEc..11.2453L 4284:2000MolEc...9..421W 4092:2000MolEc...9.1517S 3593:Anticancer Research 3550:2012PLoSO...743345V 3128:2019NatCo..10.4128M 3024:2005Sci...308.1630H 2925:2007PLoSO...2..795M 2870:1994CBio....4...24M 2627:2004PNAS..10118058F 2533:1995PNAS...92.3636S 2237:2015MolEc..24.6107C 2182:2010JMolE..71..192A 2040:1998PNAS...9510774K 1589:1985Natur.314...67J 1423:2006Aquac.255....1C 1274:Short+Tandem+Repeat 1189:10.1101/gr.10.7.967 821:gel electrophoresis 688:population genetics 668:Population genetics 542:genetic fingerprint 518:population genetics 454:Friedreich's ataxia 379:gene are linked to 352:Effects on proteins 133:population genetics 5845:Gene amplification 5423:2019-09-12 at the 5329:2021-07-23 at the 5317:2013-09-14 at the 5305:2014-02-21 at the 5055:10.1002/bies.10332 4660:Butler JM (2005). 3916:10.1007/BF03542970 3705:Cancer Informatics 3433:10.1002/bies.20741 3399:Scherer S (2008). 2388:10.1038/ng0896-390 1902:(1803): 20142898. 1537:10.1002/ajhb.23062 900: 789: 684: 565: 561:Applied Biosystems 389:fragile X syndrome 278:at microsatellite 268: 228:fragile X syndrome 5948:Forensic genetics 5930: 5929: 5831: 5830: 5699: 5698: 5603: 5602: 5492:Repeated sequence 5467:repeated sequence 5418:Zebrafish Repeats 5193:Physiol. Genomics 4959:Molecular Ecology 4916:The Plant Journal 4376:(11): 22499–528. 4272:Molecular Ecology 4080:Molecular Ecology 3768:(46): 6383–6390. 3627:(22): 5248–5257. 3320:10.1002/gcc.20571 3222:Leukemia Research 2981:(11): 1991–2004. 2246:10.1111/mec.13465 2225:Molecular Ecology 1723:(19): 5521–5524. 1122:(December 2008). 833:intercalating dye 546:colorectal cancer 398:Neurospora crassa 125:paternity testing 79:genetic genealogy 63:genetic diversity 45:in which certain 16:(Redirected from 5960: 5907:Low copy repeats 5900:Symbiosis island 5837:Gene duplication 5623: 5622: 5614: 5613: 5497: 5496: 5475:gene duplication 5456: 5449: 5442: 5433: 5432: 5275: 5265: 5240:(5931): 1213–6. 5224: 5183: 5146: 5127:10.1038/374727a0 5113:(6524): 727–30. 5101: 5091: 5066: 5048: 5027: 5017: 4992: 4982: 4949: 4939: 4906: 4877: 4835: 4834: 4824: 4800: 4794: 4793: 4775: 4765: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4647: 4637: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4627: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4607: 4601: 4594: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4576: 4566: 4557: 4556: 4538: 4528: 4504: 4498: 4497: 4479: 4469: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4395: 4385: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4250: 4233:(1420): 657–63. 4218: 4212: 4211: 4201: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4126: 4120: 4119: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4023: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3974: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3889: 3880:. Archived from 3873: 3867: 3866: 3856: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3822:The Conversation 3813: 3804: 3803: 3785: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3728: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3675: 3643: 3637: 3636: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3599:(5): 2061–2068. 3588: 3582: 3581: 3571: 3561: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3504: 3495:(8): 1005–1009. 3480: 3474: 3473: 3464:(7): 1949–1960. 3452: 3446: 3445: 3435: 3411: 3405: 3404: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3379: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3322: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3245: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3196: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3147: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3090: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3018:(5728): 1630–4. 3007: 3001: 3000: 2990: 2966: 2957: 2956: 2946: 2936: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2853: 2844: 2843: 2833: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2776: 2774:10.1002/yea.1381 2752: 2746: 2745: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2648: 2638: 2621:(52): 18058–63. 2606: 2600: 2599: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2554: 2544: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2449: 2417: 2408: 2407: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2354: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2305: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2248: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2165: 2154: 2153: 2143: 2134:(8): 1358–1364. 2119: 2113: 2112: 2102: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2061: 2051: 2019: 2013: 2012: 1984: 1971: 1970: 1960: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1919: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1844: 1838: 1837: 1809: 1803: 1802: 1792: 1760: 1751: 1750: 1740: 1717:The EMBO Journal 1708: 1702: 1701: 1691: 1682:(6): 2875–2878. 1667: 1658: 1657: 1647: 1623: 1617: 1616: 1597:10.1038/314067a0 1565: 1559: 1558: 1548: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1473: 1464: 1463: 1451: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1406: 1400: 1399: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1362: 1330: 1319: 1318: 1290: 1281: 1271: 1265: 1264: 1254: 1222: 1211: 1210: 1200: 1168: 1162: 1161: 1151: 1115: 940:Escherichia coli 841:fluorescent dyes 837:ethidium bromide 701:local adaptation 680:neighbor-joining 528:Cancer diagnosis 510:gene duplication 372:Canis familiaris 117:cancer diagnosis 104:) DNA. The name 21: 5968: 5967: 5963: 5962: 5961: 5959: 5958: 5957: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5926: 5878: 5827: 5695: 5667: 5644: 5618:Retrotransposon 5599: 5590:Inverted repeat 5578: 5563:DNA transposon 5559:Retrotransposon 5554:Gene conversion 5545: 5538: 5535: 5486: 5477: 5460: 5425:Wayback Machine 5331:Wayback Machine 5319:Wayback Machine 5307:Wayback Machine 5283: 5278: 5046:10.1.1.476.7561 5008:(6): 991–1007. 4965:(12): 2453–65. 4843: 4841:Further reading 4838: 4801: 4797: 4742: 4738: 4723: 4719: 4688: 4684: 4673: 4669: 4658: 4654: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4634: 4625: 4623: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4583: 4574: 4572: 4568: 4567: 4560: 4513:Genome Medicine 4505: 4501: 4442: 4438: 4419: 4413: 4409: 4362: 4358: 4335:10.1038/nrg2844 4329:(10): 697–709. 4319: 4315: 4268: 4264: 4219: 4215: 4170: 4166: 4127: 4123: 4086:(10): 1517–28. 4076: 4072: 4041: 4037: 3992: 3988: 3963:10.1038/nrg3908 3943: 3939: 3900: 3896: 3887: 3885: 3878:"DNA Profiling" 3874: 3870: 3833: 3829: 3814: 3807: 3754: 3750: 3693: 3689: 3644: 3640: 3621:Cancer Research 3616: 3612: 3589: 3585: 3530: 3526: 3481: 3477: 3458:Cancer Research 3453: 3449: 3412: 3408: 3397: 3393: 3356:Genome Research 3348: 3344: 3299: 3295: 3263: 3259: 3214: 3210: 3165: 3161: 3108: 3104: 3079:10.1038/ng.3363 3067:Nature Genetics 3059: 3055: 3008: 3004: 2967: 2960: 2905: 2901: 2858:Current Biology 2854: 2847: 2810:Nature Genetics 2802: 2798: 2753: 2749: 2709: 2705: 2666: 2662: 2607: 2603: 2572: 2568: 2510: 2506: 2467: 2463: 2438:10.1038/ng.3461 2426:Nature Genetics 2418: 2411: 2376:Nature Genetics 2372: 2368: 2337:(1): 20150929. 2331:Biology Letters 2323: 2319: 2274: 2270: 2231:(24): 6107–19. 2217: 2213: 2166: 2157: 2120: 2116: 2079: 2075: 2034:(18): 10774–8. 2020: 2016: 1985: 1974: 1937: 1933: 1888: 1884: 1849:Electrophoresis 1845: 1841: 1810: 1806: 1761: 1754: 1709: 1705: 1668: 1661: 1624: 1620: 1583:(6006): 67–73. 1566: 1562: 1517: 1513: 1490:10.1038/nrg1689 1474: 1467: 1460: 1442: 1438: 1407: 1403: 1380: 1376: 1331: 1322: 1291: 1284: 1272: 1268: 1223: 1214: 1177:Genome Research 1169: 1165: 1116: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1014: 987: 961: 917:oligonucleotide 905: 894:Littorina plena 861: 829:silver staining 785:electrophoresis 765: 729: 713:population size 710: 670: 649: 618: 594:medical privacy 570: 563:Identifiler kit 530: 506:genetic linkage 494: 485: 446: 411: 403:circadian clock 354: 338: 309: 296:point mutations 272:point mutations 259: 178: 157:"satellite" DNA 141: 129:genetic linkage 106:"satellite" DNA 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5966: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5897: 5890:Genomic island 5886: 5884: 5880: 5879: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5859: 5858: 5857: 5847: 5841: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5829: 5828: 5826: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5709: 5707: 5705:DNA transposon 5701: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5694: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5677: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5654: 5652: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5631: 5629: 5620: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5592: 5586: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5569: 5561: 5556: 5550: 5548: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5533:Macrosatellite 5530: 5520: 5511: 5505: 5503: 5501:Tandem repeats 5494: 5488: 5487: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5459: 5458: 5451: 5444: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5321: 5309: 5296:Search tools: 5294: 5289: 5282: 5281:External links 5279: 5277: 5276: 5225: 5184: 5147: 5102: 5067: 5028: 4993: 4950: 4907: 4878: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4836: 4795: 4736: 4717: 4682: 4667: 4652: 4632: 4612: 4581: 4558: 4499: 4436: 4407: 4356: 4313: 4262: 4213: 4164: 4137:(1): 197–218. 4121: 4070: 4051:(4): 189–197. 4035: 4006:(5): 891–907. 3986: 3957:(5): 275–284. 3937: 3894: 3868: 3827: 3805: 3748: 3687: 3658:(1): 152–162. 3652:Neuro-Oncology 3638: 3610: 3583: 3524: 3475: 3456:breakpoints". 3447: 3406: 3391: 3342: 3293: 3257: 3208: 3185:10.1086/301680 3159: 3102: 3053: 3002: 2958: 2899: 2845: 2822:10.1038/ng1618 2796: 2747: 2714:Human Genetics 2703: 2660: 2601: 2566: 2527:(9): 3636–41. 2504: 2461: 2409: 2366: 2317: 2288:(9): 1027–34. 2268: 2211: 2176:(3): 192–201. 2155: 2128:Bioinformatics 2114: 2093:(5): 452–460. 2073: 2014: 1972: 1931: 1882: 1855:(20): 3344–8. 1839: 1804: 1781:10.1086/303013 1775:(2): 345–356. 1752: 1703: 1659: 1638:(2): 360–367. 1618: 1560: 1511: 1484:(10): 729–42. 1465: 1458: 1436: 1401: 1374: 1345:(2): 133–141. 1320: 1282: 1266: 1243:10.1086/301869 1237:(6): 1408–15. 1212: 1183:(7): 967–981. 1163: 1134:(4): 686–727. 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1049:Mobile element 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1019:Genetic marker 1015: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1008: 1004: 986: 983: 975:phylogeography 960: 957: 904: 901: 881:polyacrylamide 860: 857: 764: 761: 728: 727:Plant breeding 725: 708: 705:fixation index 703:, the allelic 669: 666: 648: 645: 617: 614: 569: 566: 529: 526: 493: 490: 484: 481: 445: 442: 410: 407: 353: 350: 342:non-coding DNA 337: 334: 308: 305: 292:DNA polymerase 258: 255: 251:minisatellites 204:coding regions 177: 174: 172:et al. 1992). 140: 137: 102:tandem repeats 94:minisatellites 39:microsatellite 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5965: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5888: 5887: 5885: 5881: 5875: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5863: 5860: 5856: 5855:Ribosomal DNA 5853: 5852: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5838: 5834: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5706: 5702: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5596: 5595:Direct repeat 5593: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5581: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5541: 5534: 5531: 5528: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5518:Minisatellite 5515: 5512: 5510: 5509:Satellite DNA 5507: 5506: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5457: 5452: 5450: 5445: 5443: 5438: 5437: 5434: 5426: 5422: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5284: 5273: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5039:(10): 930–9. 5038: 5034: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4845: 4832: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4799: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4721: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4678: 4671: 4663: 4656: 4642: 4636: 4622: 4616: 4598: 4591: 4585: 4571: 4565: 4563: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4503: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4454:F1000Research 4451: 4447: 4440: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4417: 4411: 4403: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4278:(4): 421–31. 4277: 4273: 4266: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4184:(1): 457–62. 4183: 4179: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3910:(1): 99–105. 3909: 3905: 3898: 3884:on 2001-09-27 3883: 3879: 3876:Carracedo A. 3872: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3847:(9): 473–85. 3846: 3842: 3838: 3831: 3823: 3819: 3812: 3810: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3700: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3642: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3614: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3587: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3544:(8): e43345. 3543: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3451: 3443: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3426:(4): 338–48. 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3402: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3313:(8): 657–64. 3312: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3212: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3179:(1): 111–21. 3178: 3174: 3170: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3106: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3073:(9): 1073–8. 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2965: 2963: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2852: 2850: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2816:(9): 986–90. 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2767:(8): 633–40. 2766: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2720:(5): 488–94. 2719: 2715: 2707: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2676:(6): 555–65. 2675: 2671: 2664: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2605: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513:Sutherland GR 2508: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2477:(1): 151–60. 2476: 2472: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2416: 2414: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2321: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2164: 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