665:). The first involves rapid growth with maturity reached in seven to eight months with small adults returning to spawn in the first year. The second involves slow growth with maturity reached in two years, with large adults returning to spawn in the second year. The upper Spencer Gulf population displays reproductive behaviours unique to this population, possibly as a result of the high spawning densities. Large males defend females and egg-laying sites, while small males, "sneakers" mimic female colouring and form to gain access to the females being protected by the dominant males, which are extremely territorial. Male genetic material is deposited in sperm receptacles directly. The females, which potentially lay hundreds of eggs, extract one egg at a time and fertilise it by passing it over the sperm receptacle before attaching it to the underside of a rock at depths of 2 to 5 m (6 ft 7 in to 16 ft 5 in).
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1503:) into the area each day. As cuttlefish embryos underdevelop and die off as salinity levels rise (optimal range 28–38 ppt, 100% mortality at 50 ppt), public opposition to the proposed plant was considerable because of the possible environmental impacts. The plan was approved in 2011, but was not constructed and was later officially abandoned. Since that time, two new, smaller scale seawater desalination plants have been commissioned and discharge brine into the gulf: one at the Whyalla Steelworks and another at Sundrop Farms, south of
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534:(white), the cuttlefish can put on spectacular displays, changing colour and patterns in a fraction of a second. Located in three layers under the skin, leucophores make up the bottom layer, with chromatophores the outermost. By selective blocking, the three layers work together to produce polarised patterns. Unlike those in most animals, cuttlefish iridophores are physiologically active; they can change their reflectivity, and the degree of polarisation can also be controlled. Cuttlefish are
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1473:. Some concern exists over the possible impact of the plant on the cuttlefish population and two major contamination events have happened at the associated port and refinery. Santos denies that groundwater contamination detected in the late 2000s spread off-site, but the SA EPA said hydrocarbons had migrated through the rock strata beyond the plant and the barrier trench built by Santos. Santos now provides funding for cuttlefish research. The other incident was the 1992
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1077:, which believes the population to be a separate species based on unpublished scientific data, warned that the Spencer Gulf cuttlefish faced possible extinction within two or three years if nothing was done to better protect them. The state government working group recommended an immediate ban on fishing for the cuttlefish; however, this was rejected by the state cabinet on 3 September with Fisheries Minister
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densities of one cuttlefish per square metre (0.093 cuttlefish per square foot), covering about 61 hectares (150 acres), the sheer numbers of giant cuttlefish make this breeding aggregation unique in the world. As the cuttlefish are oblivious to divers while spawning, they are now a major regional tourist attraction for divers from around the world. Professor
1624:, a 13-metre-long (43 ft) electrified cuttlefish puppet, equipped with strobing, coloured lighting and a sound system. Stobie the Disco Cuttlefish first appeared during the Adelaide Fringe Opening Parade, then performed with a troupe of dancers each Saturday night during the festival. The soundtrack to the performance included samples from the
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for listing, as the affected population was not taxonomically distinct from the rest of the species for the purposes of the Act. Further scientific work has determined the cuttlefish of northern
Spencer Gulf to be genetically distinct from other giant cuttlefish populations in Australian waters though the results remain unpublished.
572:. Very little time is spent foraging (3.7% during the day and 2.1% at night); most of their time is spent resting and hiding in crevices from predators. The exception to this behavioral routine is the mass spawning aggregation, where cuttlefish are far more active during the days or weeks that they spend there.
2361:. Advice to the Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities from the Threatened Species Scientific Committee (the Committee) on Amendment to the list of Threatened Population under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) 2 February 2011.
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On 28 March 2013, the state government introduced a temporary ban on fishing for cuttlefish in the northern
Spencer Gulf for the 2013 breeding season. Fisheries Minister Gago announced that research into the reasons behind the 90% decline in the cuttlefish population had ruled out commercial fishing
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between May and August. While outside of the breeding season, the sex ratio is one to one, Spencer Gulf males outnumber females by up to 11 to one in the spawning aggregation. If this is due to fewer females taking part or to males breeding for a longer period of time than females is not known. With
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and at a
Whyalla performance. Some controversy surrounded the performances after a participant in the project was openly critical of the plan to build a desalination plant at Point Lowly. The major sponsor of Come Out Festival in 2009 was the BHP Billiton Youth Fund, the same company which proposed
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occurred commercially from the late 1990s until 2011. Fish farming is another nutrient pollution source, as uneaten feed and fish waste enter the water column and sediment. Concerns have been raised about an observed correlation between fish farming intensification, fish mortalities and the decline
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upper
Spencer Gulf population. The upper Spencer Gulf population is unique in that a permanent salinity gradient in the Spencer Gulf may physiologically exclude other populations from the zone occupied by the upper Spencer Gulf population. The upper Spencer Gulf population may in fact be a separate
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length and up to 100 cm (39 in) in total length (total length meaning the whole length of the body including outstretched tentacles). They can be over 10.5 kg (23 lb) in weight. Like all cuttlefish species, the giant cuttlefish has 8 arms and 2 feeding tentacles, as well as blue
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expansion project. The application was made following an observed and unexplained population decline and public concerns about future risks posed by industrial pollution. On 2 February 2011, the
Australian government's Threatened Species Scientific Committee ruled that the species was not eligible
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Unpublished scientific data indicated that there are several genetically-distinct populations of giant cuttlefish living in
Australian waters. Discovered by divers in the late 1990s, the upper Spencer Gulf population is the best studied, largely because it is the world's only known mass cuttlefish
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bait, with annual catches of around 4 tonnes (4,000 cuttlefish). During the 1995 and 1996 spawning seasons, commercial fishing of the spawning grounds harvested around 200 tonnes annually. Overexploitation was recognised after 245 tonnes were harvested in 1997, leading to 50% of the grounds being
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can catabolise no more than 50% of its body weight, it slowly loses physical condition as the season progresses and eventually dies. Throughout their range, these cephalopods breed in pairs or small groups, laying eggs in suitable caves or rock crevices. Loose spawning aggregations can form, but
1609:, an original work by Welsh playwright, Emily Steel. Set in Whyalla, the play told the story of the fictitious character Neil, the proprietor of a caravan park who was struggling to come to terms with the cuttlefish decline whilst trying to keep his family together. The play also featured at the
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In 2011, an estimated 33% of the 2010 population had returned to breed, fewer than 80,000 cuttlefish. Beginning in May, the cuttlefish leave deep water and migrate along coastal reefs to reach their spawning grounds. Local fishermen claimed that a small "finger of land" near Point Lowly extends
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Catch data for the South
Australian cuttlefish fishery are reported in annual reports of the Marine Scalefish Fishery, published by SARDI. The pre-2014 data are graphed below. From its establishment in 1987 to the financial year ending June 1992, the fishery caught less than 3 tonnes per annum.
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study found that the giant cuttlefish is primarily diurnal and has a small home range (90–550 m or 300–1,800 ft) over short recording periods while travelling large distances to breed. They are able to channel most of their energy directly into growth because they spend 95% of the day
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Silvery fish reflect polarised light; they reflect the same amount of light in the same direction as the light they are viewed against, making them almost invisible in water. If the polarisation is reduced, the fish become easily visible. Cuttlefish ignore fish with reduced polarisation and
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closed to commercial fishing in 1998. Despite half of the grounds being closed, commercial fishers took 109 tonnes in 1998 (about half of the estimated biomass) before dropping to 3.7 tonnes in 1999. The catch data for 2000 to 2005 were initially withheld citing commercial confidentiality.
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The mass aggregation sites of Upper
Spencer Gulf are proximate to a number of industrial pollution sources, and prospective sites for further development. As of 2021, operations that publicly report their pollution discharges to the sea in a controlled and measured manner include the
1431:. The pollutants of primary concern to cuttlefish recruitment are changes of salinity (due to discharges from desalination plants) and nutrient enrichment, discharged by the steelworks, lead smelter, municipal wastewater treatment plants and farming of yellowtail kingfish.
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In 2014, the cuttlefish population showed first signs of potential recovery, after 15 years of an overall trend of decline. Numbers increased again in 2015 confirming this trend. As of 2021, the population has recovered to an estimated population exceeding 240,000 animals.
411:. While surveys suggest that juveniles leave these spawning grounds after hatching, nothing is known of their subsequent movement or lifestyle strategies as a juvenile. Adults return to the aggregation site the following winter, or delay their return by an additional year.
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Genetic studies have shown that little if any interbreeding occurs between giant cuttlefish populations. While some genetic divergence is seen, the various populations are not considered taxonomically distinct and are commonly referred to by their location, e.g.
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Giant cuttlefish live for one to two years. Breeding takes place with the onset of the southern winter. Males abandon their normal cryptic colouring and set out to dazzle the females by adopting rapidly changing bright colours and striking patterns. Females are
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during the peak spawning period. The closure was subsequently expanded to the entire spawning grounds, and anecdotal observations suggested increased numbers in 2006 and 2007; however, a new survey in 2008 found the biomass had decreased a further 17%.
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Surveys indicated that the cuttlefish biomass remained stable from 1998 to 2001 as commercial fishing pressure was reduced by regulation. A survey in 2005 revealed a 34% decrease in biomass since 2001 that was attributed to natural variability and
1070:, who had been taking divers to view the spawning grounds since they were discovered, stated, "It's heartbreaking, when you look at what's left ... there were so many animals you couldn't land on the bottom, you had to push them aside."
1546:, which were decommissioned and demolished in the mid 2010s. Increasing shipping traffic in the upper Spencer Gulf has the potential to impact cuttlefish behavior due to cephalopod sensitivity to high intensity, low frequency sound.
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are also known to eat cephalopods. This has raised concerns about
Yellowtail kingfish escapees from commercial fish farms impacting other species in Spencer Gulf including eating emergent Giant Australian cuttlefish or their eggs.
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The dispersal of brine from seawater desalination plant effluent streams has concerned scientists and the
Whyalla community. During the mid-to-late 2000s, mining and energy company BHP Billiton developed plans to build a seawater
1100:. In 2020 the closed area rolled back to the same limited spatial closure that was in place in 2012, encompassing the waters of False Bay, from Whyalla to Point Lowly and extending northwards towards the Point Lowly North marina.
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In 2012, the number of cuttlefish that returned to the spawning ground again dropped again. A cross-government Cuttlefish Working Group was established and recommended investigating broader ecological factors. Tour guide
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in the region with associated ecological impacts to the cuttlefish and wider ecology. A long-term industrial nutrient pollution source exists to the west of the cuttlefish breeding reef at the Whyalla Steelworks. There,
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may also. Because the optic lobes of cuttlefish are larger than any other region of the brain and their skin produces polarised reflective patterns, they may communicate through this visual system. By raising elaborate
1514:, which intends to build a similar-sized desalination plant to that originally proposed by the company. Prospective sites are all located within the upper Spencer Gulf, renewing the threat posed to the aggregation. An
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beds, and sand and mud seafloor to a depth of 100 m (330 ft). In 2009 the species was listed at Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to an observed declining trend at that time.
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plant at Point Lowly to supply fresh water to the Olympic Dam mine. The plant, located within 200 m (660 ft) of the breeding grounds, would release around 120 ML (32,000,000 US gal) of
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Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date. Volume 1. Chambered nautiluses and sepioids (Nautilidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, Sepiadariidae, Idiosepiidae and
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as a cause, but was otherwise inconclusive, and that further areas of Spencer Gulf would be closed in 2014. The population continued its decline, reaching the lowest numbers on record in 2013.
584:, which have been observed (in South Australia's Spencer Gulf) to have developed a technique for removing the ink and cuttlebone from a cuttlefish before eating it. They are also eaten by
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to construct the desalination plant. The overarching theme of the festival that year was 'Colliding Worlds'. BHP Billiton has not sponsored the Come Out Festival since the 2009 event.
1452:, a byproduct of its coking process for steel-making, and is discharged into Spencer Gulf via reed-beds and settling ponds. North of the cuttlefish aggregation, sea cage farming of
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were formed in opposition to new desalination and port developments near the cuttlefish breeding habitat. In 2021, a new port development was approved for the site of the former
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believed the cuttlefish were in danger, stating that determining whether this is a natural phenomenon or something else is difficult, and that the cause requires more research.
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more favorably than in sperm receptacles directly. Females then attach their eggs to the undersides of rocks in caves or crevices, where they hatch within three to five months.
1477:, whereby 300 tonnes of bunker C crude oil spilled into the sea after a tugboat pierced its hull during berthing. The effects of these events on the local population of
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rarely exceed 10 animals in any one location, with one known exception: hundreds of thousands aggregate along rockey reefs between Whyalla and Point Lowly in the Upper
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An unsuccessful application to list this population of giant cuttlefish as a threatened species under Australian law was made during the government's consideration of
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and approximate 2017 numbers were first published by PIRSA. A slightly larger estimate for the 2017 season was published in 2018 by the ABC (reflected in the graph).
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Estimated Abundance and Biomass of the Unique Spawning Aggregation of the Giant Australian Cuttlefish (Sepia apama) in Northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia.
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outside the exclusion zone and that commercial fishers have been targeting the area, intercepting the squid before they can reach the spawning grounds. Being
1617:. Santos was responsible for hydrocarbon groundwater contamination at Port Bonython, adjacent to the cuttlefish breeding grounds, first discovered in 2008.
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stating, "There is no strong evidence to suggest that fishing is impacting on the giant cuttlefish, therefore, further closures would be ineffective."
336:, the cuttlefish can put on spectacular displays, changing colour in an instant. The giant cuttlefish is native to temperate and subtropical waters of
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Kassahn, K.S.; Donnellan, S.C.; Fowler, A.J.; Hall, K.C.; Adams, M.; Shaw, P.W. (2003). "Molecular and morphological analyses of the cuttlefish
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1538:, and possibly copper concentrates, has been proposed but not constructed. A community action group called the Cuttlefish Coast Coalition and
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The fishing ban for the whole of northern Spencer Gulf was extended until 2020, prohibiting their capture in all Spencer Gulf waters north of
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Catch cuttlefish, drain off the ink, then fillet. Serves five (dolphins): Scientists stunned by mammals' elaborate culinary preparations
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Amendment to the list of Threatened Population under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).
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won the national first prize (Australia) in the 2015 Sony World Photography Awards—the world's biggest photography competition.
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The upper Spencer Gulf cuttlefish aggregation is celebrated each year by Cuttlefest, an event hosted by the City of Whyalla.
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with naturally low levels of nutrients cycling through it. A potential exists for anthropogenic nutrient pollution to cause
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538:; however, the photoreceptors of cuttlefish eyes are arranged in a way which gives them the ability to see the linear
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2204:(Cephalopoda): Behaviour and energetics in nature revealed through radio acoustic positioning and telemetry (RAPT)".
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The mass aggregation of giant cuttlefish at Point Lowly has inspired the development of a retro computer game called
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390:, and death follows shortly after a single mating cycle and laying of eggs that will spawn the next generation.
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2009:
1530:, several mining companies have indicated they might use a bulk commodities port, should it be developed at
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1957:"Surveying, Searching and Promoting Giant Australian Cuttlefish Spawning Activity in Northern Spencer Gulf"
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and eventual recovery of the giant Australian cuttlefish after fish farming ceased in upper Spencer Gulf.
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The South Australian Marine Scalefish Fishery Status Report - Analysis of Fishery Statistics for 2013/14
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Life. Extraordinary Animals, Extreme Behaviour by BBC Books, Martha Holmes & Michael Gunton, 2009
2274:"Distinguishing aquaculture and wild yellowtail kingfish via natural elemental signatures in otoliths"
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Aitken, J.P.; O'Dor, R.K.; Jackson, G.D. (2005). "The secret life of the giant Australian cuttlefish
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The upper Spencer Gulf population displays two alternative lifecycles in both sexes (growth pattern
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spawning aggregation. It has also become a popular ecotourism attraction for divers and snorkelers.
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2794:"Graded behavioral responses and habituation to sound in the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis"
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Samson, Julia E.; Mooney, T. Aran; Gussekloo, Sander W. S.; Hanlon, Roger T. (15 December 2014).
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Figure '0' is used to represent years in which surveys did not occur, and no estimation was made.
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In 2022, BHP sought to increase its water supply via the Northern Water Supply Project, led by
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squid can change the shape and the texture of their skin to imitate rock, sand, or seaweed. A
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Hundreds of thousands of giant cuttlefish gather on subtidal reefs around Point Lowly near
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Spencer Gulf in South Australia hosts the world’s largest cuttlefish mass spawning event
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Final Report to the Fisheries Research & Development Corporation, South Australia
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2473:"Giant cuttlefish decline prompts catch ban parts of South Australia's Spencer Gulf"
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species, as it does show some hallmarks, such as genetic separation, differences in
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1790:. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 4, Vol. 1. Rome, FAO. pp. 57–152.
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has called the breeding aggregation "the premier marine attraction on the planet."
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2614:. Department of Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia. 7 November 2017
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402:. Stomach-content analysis indicates fasting during the breeding season, and as
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Department of Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia (6 August 2020).
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2128:"Do cephalopods communicate using polarized light reflections from their skin?"
2057:"Do cephalopods communicate using polarized light reflections from their skin?"
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2505:"Wildlife photographer captures amazing photo of breeding SA giant cuttlefish"
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Environmental risk assessment of marine finfish aquaculture in South Australia
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capability compared to most aquatic invertebrates and a lack of food leads to
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2634:"Giant Australian cuttlefish put on vibrant breeding display as numbers soar"
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Prior to the mid-1990s, the upper Spencer Gulf population was fished for
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2767:"SA approves Port Playford bulk export development - Daily Cargo News"
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Mäthger, Lydia M.; Shashar, Nadav; Hanlon, Roger T. (21 April 2009).
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Giant cuttlefish (Sepia apama), short video taken off Point Lowly, SA
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432:; within this genus it is grouped with 13 other species, such as the
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Fowler, A. J.; McGarvey, R.; Steer, M. A.; Feenstra, J. E. (2014).
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1613:. Presenting partner RiAus is sponsored by the oil and gas company
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The Colourful World of Cephalopods - Cephalopod body patterning II
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1928:"Students' 'CuttleCam' streams congregation of giant cuttlefish"
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South Australian cuttlefish fishery – Targeted commercial catch
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2562:. Department of Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia
1569:. It featured several large cuttlefish puppets and appeared in
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Barratt (SRLI), Iain; Allcock (SRLI), Louise (11 March 2009).
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Reid, A., P. Jereb, & C.F.E. Roper 2005. Family Sepiidae.
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is the only known creature to have true polarisation vision,
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2915:, South Australia (17 February 2012). Retrieved 2014-02-20.
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In 2014, the Adelaide Fringe Festival launched Stobie the
1534:, adjacent to Point Lowly. A new wharf for the loading of
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Approximate 2016 population estimate was published in the
2712:. Archived from Dive Pacific Issue No. 116, Feb/Mar 2010.
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Australian Giant Cuttlefish - Physiology and Biochemistry
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In 2016, underwater photographer Scott Portelli's image
2742:"Premier keen to get cracking on SA desalination plant"
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resting, suggesting bioenergetics more like that of an
2882:, South Australia (17 May 2009). Retrieved 2014-01-22.
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In 1984, before the spawning grounds were discovered,
526:: spans the entire visible spectrum from blue to near-
2877:"Fun with a serious message as Come Out'09 launched"
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Journal of Experimental Marine Biology & Ecology
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preferentially attack fish emitting polarised light.
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2897:, South Australia (2009). Accessed 22 January 2014.
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Desalination and South Australia's Gulfs ecosystems
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South Australian Research and Development Institute
1913:Natural History of the Giant Australian Cuttlefish
1857:"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sepia apama"
1469:built a hydrocarbon processing plant at adjoining
1109:Standardised annual population estimates (SARDI)
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2272:Gillanders, Bronwyn M.; Joyce, Tanya C. (2005).
1526:Due to its proximity to the ore deposits of the
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327:species, growing to 50 cm (20 in) in
2686:"EPA fears bigger Santos oil spill - ABC News"
2135:Journal of Experimental Biology 212, 2133-2140
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1705:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T162627A931625.en
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2072:(14). The Company of Biologists: 2133–2140.
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580:The Australian giant cuttlefish is eaten by
2908:"Cuttlefish controversy takes centre stage"
1632:" and the entire theme song from the movie
3011:indicate a complex population structure".
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2945:"Record line-up for 2014 Adelaide Fringe"
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1439:Northern Spencer Gulf is an oligotrophic
332:blood and 3 hearts. Using cells known as
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1892:Threatened Species Scientific Committee.
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1565:produced a live theatre performance for
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360:to the south. It occurs on rocky reefs,
2892:2009.pdf Come Out Festival 2009 Program
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1075:Conservation Council of South Australia
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3357:"10 cuttlefish facts you may not know"
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2126:Mäthger; et al. (21 April 2009).
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1802:"WA fisherman bags whopper cuttlefish"
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3387:IUCN Red List near threatened species
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2313:"Cuttlefish concerns over Clean Seas"
2261:. South Australia: SARDI. p. 70.
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423:lists the giant cuttlefish under the
2503:Broadstock, Amelia (15 March 2016).
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656:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
630:Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria
2691:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
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1861:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1691:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1427:lead smelter owned and operated by
624:Dorsal (left) and ventral views of
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2975:(2014). Accessed 20 February 2014.
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2581:Mayfield, Louis (17 August 2016).
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2414:Mystery of the Missing Cuttlefish.
2252:de Jong, M; Tanner, Jason (2004).
1785:P. Jereb & C.F.E. Roper, eds.
25:
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2452:Primary Industries and Regions SA
2378:Primary Industries and Regions SA
2311:Mayfield, Louis (18 March 2020).
1680:Barratt, I.; Allcock, L. (2012).
1521:
1408:Effect of local industrialisation
1758:"Giant Cuttlefish - Sepia apama"
1736:World Register of Marine Species
614:
605:
582:Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins
421:World Register of Marine Species
96:
3348:
2978:
2953:
2937:
2918:
2900:
2885:
2869:
2844:
2799:Journal of Experimental Biology
2785:
2759:
2734:
2731:. Fishers For Conservation Inc.
2715:
2678:
2652:
2626:
2600:
2574:
2548:
2522:
2422:
2407:
2383:
2332:
2304:
2265:
2245:
2234:
2193:
2169:
2156:
2065:Journal of Experimental Biology
2048:
2002:
1977:
1948:
1920:
1589:Stobie the Disco Cuttlefish at
668:
3412:Taxa named by John Edward Gray
2278:Marine and Freshwater Research
2038:Clare Peddie, Heather Kennett
1848:
1835:
1821:
1793:
1775:
1750:
1540:Alternative Port Working Party
1516:environmental impact statement
502:, opportunistic and voracious
13:
1:
3407:Cephalopods described in 1849
2531:"Giant Australian Cuttlefish"
2429:Drastic loss in giant colony.
2399:. Adelaide, South Australia:
1800:Poulsen, Adam (10 May 2017).
1667:
597:Upper Spencer Gulf population
485:coincident disruptive pattern
3071:"CephBase: Giant cuttlefish"
1955:Steer, M.A. (1 March 2015).
1393:1999–2017 data sourced from
575:
7:
2710:Cuttlefish chaos at Whyalla
2434:, 25 September 2012. p. 24.
2228:10.1016/j.jembe.2004.12.040
1738:. Flanders Marine Institute
1655:
628:: lithographic proofs from
415:Physiology and biochemistry
321:Australian giant cuttlefish
10:
3433:
3402:Fauna of Western Australia
1843:Cephalopods: A World Guide
1411:
506:who feed predominantly on
491:The giant cuttlefish is a
369:Lifecycle and reproduction
3106:
3033:10.1007/s00227-003-1141-5
2934:Accessed 21 January 2014.
2608:"Giant Cuttlefish survey"
1611:Melbourne Fringe Festival
1518:is anticipated mid-2024.
1373:
1359:
1345:
1331:
1317:
1303:
1289:
1275:
1261:
1247:
1233:
1219:
1205:
1191:
1177:
1163:
1149:
1135:
1121:
1116:
1113:
1023:
1009:
995:
981:
967:
953:
939:
925:
911:
897:
883:
869:
855:
841:
827:
813:
799:
785:
771:
757:
743:
729:
724:
721:
323:, is the world's largest
252:
245:
237:
228:
210:
203:
93:Scientific classification
91:
69:
60:
48:
39:
34:
3417:Fauna of South Australia
3397:Cephalopods of Australia
3361:www.discoverwildlife.com
2972:Adelaide Fringe Festival
2965:18 February 2014 at the
2727:7 September 2011 at the
2660:"Major Oil Spills - Era"
2583:"Cuttlefish opportunity"
1599:Adelaide Fringe Festival
1591:Adelaide Fringe Festival
518:organs (red to yellow),
2912:ABC North & West SA
2359:Conservation Assessment
2045:29 September 2012 Pg 67
1544:Playford power stations
1475:Port Bonython oil spill
2166:. The Cephalopod Page.
1643:Cuttlefish aggregation
1594:
685:
488:
459:
457:Manly, New South Wales
319:), also known as the
49:Giant cuttlefish from
3065:BBC: Giant cuttlefish
2419:, 24 July 2011. p. 7.
2373:MA Steer and KC Hall
2010:"WoRMS taxon details"
1985:"WoRMS taxon details"
1726:Finn, Julian (2016).
1588:
1559:D'Faces of Youth Arts
1485:Seawater desalination
1461:Hydrocarbon pollution
683:
540:polarisation of light
478:
450:
442:flamboyant cuttlefish
27:Species of cephalopod
2806:(Pt 24): 4347–4355.
2188:Encyclopedia of Life
2182:24 June 2008 at the
1698:: e.T162627A931625.
1117:Population estimate
1104:Population estimates
1058:breeders, ecologist
586:Long-nosed fur seals
434:broadclub cuttlefish
277:Amplisepia parysatis
265:Amplisepia verreauni
3138:Sepia (Sepia) apama
3025:2003MarBi.143..947K
2930:15 May 2013 at the
2445:"Cuttlefish update"
2220:2005JEMBE.320...77A
2175:Hanlon, R.T. 2008.
1841:Norman, M.D. 2000.
1601:in March 2012, the
1454:yellowtail kingfish
1435:Nutrient enrichment
1110:
718:
590:Yellowtail kingfish
512:neurally controlled
481:eastern blue groper
63:Conservation status
3077:on 17 August 2005.
2950:(29 November 2013)
2875:McDonald, Patrick
2813:10.1242/jeb.113365
2556:"Fishing closures"
2078:10.1242/jeb.020800
2040:The cuttle scuttle
1829:"Giant Cuttlefish"
1595:
1550:In popular culture
1421:Whyalla Steelworks
1108:
1060:Bronwyn Gillanders
1040:Population decline
716:
700:Commercial fishing
686:
498:species. They are
489:
460:
289:Ascarosepion apama
3344:
3343:
3303:Open Tree of Life
3100:Taxon identifiers
3059:Earth Observatory
2895:Come Out Festival
2852:"Cuttlefest 2020"
2773:. 19 January 2021
2612:www.pir.sa.gov.au
2535:www.pir.sa.gov.au
2344:978-1-84607-642-8
1762:Australian Museum
1567:Come Out Festival
1528:Middleback Ranges
1387:
1386:
1037:
1036:
681:
438:reaper cuttlefish
354:Western Australia
307:
306:
301:
285:
273:
261:
86:
35:Giant cuttlefish
16:(Redirected from
3424:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3355:Graham, Debbie.
3352:
3337:
3336:
3324:
3323:
3311:
3310:
3298:
3297:
3285:
3284:
3272:
3271:
3259:
3258:
3246:
3245:
3233:
3232:
3220:
3219:
3207:
3206:
3194:
3193:
3181:
3180:
3168:
3167:
3155:
3154:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3095:
3094:
3078:
3073:. Archived from
3061:, 16 October 202
3044:
3000:
2998:
2982:
2976:
2960:Disco Cuttlefish
2957:
2951:
2941:
2935:
2925:Sepiatheplay.com
2922:
2916:
2904:
2898:
2889:
2883:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2815:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2738:
2732:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2696:
2695:
2694:. 22 March 2010.
2682:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2666:on 28 March 2012
2662:. Archived from
2656:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2500:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2449:
2441:
2435:
2426:
2420:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2398:
2387:
2381:
2371:
2362:
2356:
2347:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2249:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2197:
2191:
2173:
2167:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2143:
2137:. Archived from
2132:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2108:
2102:
2096:. Archived from
2061:
2052:
2046:
2036:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1961:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1924:
1918:
1910:
1893:
1887:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1852:
1846:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1797:
1791:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1707:
1677:
1622:Disco Cuttlefish
1579:Adelaide Airport
1382:
1381:
1368:
1367:
1354:
1353:
1340:
1339:
1326:
1325:
1312:
1311:
1298:
1297:
1284:
1283:
1270:
1269:
1256:
1255:
1242:
1241:
1228:
1227:
1214:
1213:
1200:
1199:
1186:
1185:
1172:
1171:
1158:
1157:
1144:
1143:
1130:
1129:
1111:
1107:
1032:
1031:
1018:
1017:
1004:
1003:
990:
989:
976:
975:
962:
961:
948:
947:
934:
933:
920:
919:
906:
905:
892:
891:
878:
877:
864:
863:
850:
849:
836:
835:
822:
821:
808:
807:
794:
793:
780:
779:
766:
765:
752:
751:
738:
737:
719:
715:
693:Olympic Dam mine
682:
618:
609:
510:and fish. Using
451:Individual from
311:giant cuttlefish
292:
280:
268:
259:
238:Distribution of
233:
216:
101:
100:
80:
75:
74:
44:
32:
31:
21:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3365:
3363:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3332:
3327:
3319:
3314:
3306:
3301:
3293:
3288:
3280:
3277:Observation.org
3275:
3267:
3262:
3254:
3249:
3241:
3236:
3228:
3223:
3215:
3210:
3202:
3197:
3189:
3184:
3176:
3171:
3163:
3158:
3150:
3145:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3102:
3069:
3051:
3003:
2983:
2979:
2967:Wayback Machine
2958:
2954:
2942:
2938:
2932:Wayback Machine
2923:
2919:
2905:
2901:
2890:
2886:
2874:
2870:
2860:
2858:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2790:
2786:
2776:
2774:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2748:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2729:Wayback Machine
2720:
2716:
2708:
2699:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2669:
2667:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2641:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2615:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2589:
2579:
2575:
2565:
2563:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2501:
2494:
2484:
2482:
2481:. 27 March 2013
2471:
2470:
2466:
2456:
2454:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2427:
2423:
2412:
2408:
2396:
2388:
2384:
2372:
2365:
2357:
2350:
2337:
2333:
2323:
2321:
2309:
2305:
2290:10.1071/MF04133
2270:
2266:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2235:
2198:
2194:
2184:Wayback Machine
2174:
2170:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2059:
2053:
2049:
2037:
2028:
2018:
2016:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1966:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1939:
1937:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1911:
1896:
1888:
1875:
1865:
1863:
1853:
1849:
1840:
1836:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1798:
1794:
1780:
1776:
1766:
1764:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1741:
1739:
1724:
1720:
1710:
1708:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1662:Cephalopod size
1658:
1575:Victoria Square
1552:
1524:
1487:
1463:
1441:inverse estuary
1437:
1416:
1410:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1341:
1337:
1336:
1327:
1323:
1322:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1267:
1266:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1159:
1155:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1140:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1106:
1047:illegal fishing
1042:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1005:
1001:
1000:
991:
987:
986:
977:
973:
972:
963:
959:
958:
949:
945:
944:
935:
931:
930:
921:
917:
916:
907:
903:
902:
893:
889:
888:
879:
875:
874:
865:
861:
860:
851:
847:
846:
837:
833:
832:
823:
819:
818:
809:
805:
804:
795:
791:
790:
781:
777:
776:
767:
763:
762:
753:
749:
748:
739:
735:
734:
722:Financial Year
702:
673:
671:
639:
638:
637:
636:
634:John James Wild
621:
620:
619:
611:
610:
599:
578:
555:on their skin,
514:cells known as
483:while making a
417:
371:
291:
279:
267:
258:
224:
218:
212:
199:
95:
87:
78:Near Threatened
76:
72:
65:
55:South Australia
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3430:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3374:
3373:
3346:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3338:
3325:
3312:
3299:
3286:
3273:
3260:
3247:
3234:
3221:
3208:
3195:
3182:
3169:
3156:
3143:
3128:
3112:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3092:
3091:
3079:
3067:
3062:
3050:
3049:External links
3047:
3046:
3045:
3019:(5): 947–962.
3013:Marine Biology
3002:
3001:
2986:Cuttle Scuttle
2977:
2952:
2936:
2917:
2899:
2884:
2880:The Advertiser
2868:
2843:
2784:
2758:
2733:
2714:
2697:
2677:
2651:
2640:. 11 July 2018
2625:
2599:
2573:
2547:
2521:
2509:The Advertiser
2492:
2478:The Advertiser
2464:
2436:
2432:The Advertiser
2421:
2417:The Advertiser
2406:
2382:
2363:
2348:
2331:
2303:
2264:
2244:
2233:
2192:
2168:
2155:
2144:on 28 May 2010
2118:
2103:on 28 May 2010
2047:
2043:The Advertiser
2026:
2001:
1976:
1947:
1936:. 12 July 2021
1919:
1894:
1873:
1847:
1834:
1820:
1792:
1774:
1749:
1718:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1657:
1654:
1650:Cuttle Scuttle
1551:
1548:
1523:
1522:Port proposals
1520:
1486:
1483:
1462:
1459:
1445:eutrophication
1436:
1433:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1370:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1356:
1349:
1347:
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1342:
1335:
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1329:
1328:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1314:
1307:
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1301:
1300:
1293:
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1286:
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1202:
1195:
1193:
1189:
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1153:
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1125:
1123:
1119:
1118:
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1041:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1013:
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1007:
1006:
999:
997:
993:
992:
985:
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978:
971:
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943:
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769:
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747:
745:
741:
740:
733:
731:
727:
726:
725:Tonnes caught
723:
701:
698:
690:BHP Billiton's
670:
667:
623:
622:
613:
612:
604:
603:
602:
601:
600:
598:
595:
577:
574:
416:
413:
370:
367:
334:chromatophores
305:
304:
303:
302:
286:
274:
262:
250:
249:
243:
242:
235:
234:
226:
225:
219:
208:
207:
201:
200:
193:
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179:
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174:
167:
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162:
157:
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152:
147:
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137:
133:
132:
127:
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117:
113:
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107:
103:
102:
89:
88:
70:
67:
66:
61:
58:
57:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3429:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3362:
3358:
3351:
3347:
3335:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3187:
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2560:pir.sa.gov.au
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2403:. p. 42.
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2015:
2011:
2005:
1990:
1986:
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1845:. ConchBooks.
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1631:
1630:Stayin' Alive
1627:
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1608:
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1600:
1592:
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1580:
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1564:
1563:Snuff Puppets
1560:
1557:In May 2009,
1555:
1547:
1545:
1541:
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1533:
1532:Port Bonython
1529:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1482:
1481:are unknown.
1480:
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1471:Port Bonython
1468:
1458:
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1432:
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1414:Port Bonython
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562:
561:bioenergetics
558:
557:S. apama
554:
549:
545:
544:mantis shrimp
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
516:chromatophore
513:
509:
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256:Sepia palmata
254:
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244:
241:
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232:
227:
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206:
205:Binomial name
202:
198:
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196:S. apama
192:
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38:
33:
30:
19:
3364:. Retrieved
3360:
3350:
3107:
3083:
3075:the original
3016:
3012:
3008:
2985:
2980:
2970:
2955:
2947:
2943:Keen, Suzie
2939:
2920:
2910:
2902:
2894:
2887:
2879:
2871:
2859:. Retrieved
2855:
2846:
2803:
2797:
2787:
2775:. Retrieved
2770:
2761:
2749:. Retrieved
2745:
2736:
2717:
2689:
2680:
2668:. Retrieved
2664:the original
2654:
2644:13 September
2642:. Retrieved
2637:
2628:
2616:. Retrieved
2611:
2602:
2590:. Retrieved
2587:Whyalla News
2586:
2576:
2564:. Retrieved
2559:
2550:
2538:. Retrieved
2534:
2524:
2512:. Retrieved
2508:
2483:. Retrieved
2476:
2467:
2455:. Retrieved
2451:
2439:
2428:
2424:
2413:
2409:
2392:
2385:
2380:October 2005
2334:
2322:. Retrieved
2318:Whyalla News
2316:
2306:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2254:
2247:
2236:
2214:(1): 77–91.
2211:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2171:
2162:Alison King
2158:
2146:. Retrieved
2139:the original
2134:
2121:
2112:
2105:. Retrieved
2098:the original
2069:
2063:
2050:
2039:
2017:. Retrieved
2013:
2004:
1992:. Retrieved
1988:
1979:
1967:. Retrieved
1963:
1950:
1938:. Retrieved
1931:
1922:
1916:BHP Billiton
1864:. Retrieved
1860:
1850:
1842:
1837:
1823:
1811:. Retrieved
1805:
1795:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1765:. Retrieved
1761:
1752:
1740:. Retrieved
1735:
1729:
1721:
1709:. Retrieved
1695:
1689:
1683:
1675:
1649:
1647:
1642:
1640:
1634:
1619:
1606:
1596:
1556:
1553:
1525:
1509:
1505:Port Augusta
1492:desalination
1488:
1478:
1464:
1438:
1417:
1401:Whyalla News
1400:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1072:
1068:Tony Bramley
1064:
1052:
1043:
711:
703:
687:
669:Conservation
663:polymorphism
660:
652:Roger Hanlon
644:
640:
629:
625:
579:
556:
542:. While the
490:
464:
461:
429:Ascarosepion
428:
427:
418:
409:Spencer Gulf
403:
391:
383:
380:spermatangia
372:
320:
315:
314:
310:
308:
288:
276:
264:
255:
239:
213:
211:
195:
194:
182:
170:
29:
3316:SeaLifeBase
3212:iNaturalist
3165:Sepia_apama
3152:Sepia_apama
3132:Wikispecies
3108:Sepia apama
3084:Sepia apama
3009:Sepia apama
2202:Sepia apama
1788:Spirulidae)
1742:18 February
1732:Gray, 1849"
1730:Sepia apama
1711:19 November
1684:Sepia apama
1597:During the
1056:semelparous
548:cephalopods
536:colourblind
532:leucophores
520:iridophores
508:crustaceans
500:carnivorous
465:Sepia apama
453:Fairy Bower
388:semelparous
376:polyandrous
316:Sepia apama
240:Sepia apama
214:Sepia apama
140:Cephalopoda
18:Sepia apama
3381:Categories
2746:Yahoo News
2284:(5): 693.
2148:4 November
2107:4 November
2019:19 October
1994:19 October
1668:References
1605:presented
1425:Port Pirie
1412:See also:
524:iridescent
479:Eating an
470:morphology
440:, and the
400:catabolism
346:Queensland
325:cuttlefish
260:Owen, 1881
178:Subgenus:
3082:Video of
2822:1477-9145
2670:7 October
2298:1323-1650
1767:27 August
1577:, at the
1079:Gail Gago
576:Predators
504:predators
396:anaerobic
394:has poor
350:Shark Bay
338:Australia
190:Species:
116:Kingdom:
110:Eukaryota
3366:25 April
3230:10216139
3123:Q1632342
3117:Wikidata
3041:85359163
2963:Archived
2948:InDaily
2928:Archived
2838:15772018
2830:25394634
2751:30 March
2725:Archived
2638:ABC News
2618:29 April
2592:29 April
2566:16 March
2514:16 March
2346:, pg 28.
2180:Archived
2094:10216731
2086:19561202
1933:ABC News
1656:See also
1626:Bee Gees
1571:Adelaide
1536:iron ore
1512:SA Water
1479:S. apama
1098:Arno Bay
1094:Wallaroo
1024:2013–14
1010:2012–13
996:2011–12
982:2010–11
968:2009–10
954:2008–09
940:2007–08
926:2006–07
912:2005–06
898:2004–05
884:2003–04
870:2002–03
856:2001–02
842:2000–01
828:1999–00
814:1998–99
800:1997–98
786:1996–97
772:1995–96
758:1994–95
744:1993–94
730:1992–93
626:S. apama
553:papillae
496:demersal
404:S. apama
392:S. apama
384:S. apama
362:seagrass
358:Tasmania
342:Brisbane
298:Kubodera
247:Synonyms
160:Sepiidae
156:Family:
130:Mollusca
126:Phylum:
120:Animalia
106:Domain:
83:IUCN 3.1
3204:2290770
3089:YouTube
3021:Bibcode
2856:Whyalla
2771:The DCN
2485:25 June
2457:25 June
2216:Bibcode
1969:12 July
1940:12 July
1807:WAtoday
1499:(46–60
1450:ammonia
1429:Nyrstar
1380:127,992
1366:177,091
1352:130,771
1282:104,805
1268:123,105
1212:124,867
1156:172,544
1142:167,584
1128:168,497
706:snapper
654:of the
647:Whyalla
568:than a
566:octopus
493:neritic
340:, from
282:Iredale
270:Iredale
166:Genus:
150:Sepiida
146:Order:
136:Class:
81: (
51:Whyalla
3334:342111
3308:571978
3295:342111
3282:943481
3269:212219
3256:162627
3243:556150
3217:151369
3178:653891
3039:
2993:
2861:29 May
2836:
2828:
2820:
2777:29 May
2540:27 May
2342:
2324:29 May
2296:
2092:
2084:
1866:29 May
1813:10 May
1615:Santos
1467:Santos
1423:, the
1338:57,317
1324:13,492
1310:18,531
1296:38,373
1254:75,173
530:) and
436:, the
329:mantle
284:, 1954
272:, 1926
223:, 1849
3392:Sepia
3329:WoRMS
3321:57251
3225:IRMNG
3191:4WQGV
3057:NASA
3037:S2CID
2834:S2CID
2448:(PDF)
2397:(PDF)
2259:(PDF)
2142:(PDF)
2131:(PDF)
2101:(PDF)
2090:S2CID
2060:(PDF)
2014:WoRMS
1989:WoRMS
1960:(PDF)
1628:hit "
1607:Sepia
1603:RiAus
1497:brine
1395:SARDI
1374:2017
1360:2016
1346:2015
1332:2014
1318:2013
1304:2012
1290:2011
1276:2010
1262:2009
1248:2008
1234:2007
1220:2006
1206:2005
1192:2004
1178:2003
1164:2002
1150:2001
1136:2000
1122:1999
1114:Year
570:squid
425:genus
294:Lupše
183:Sepia
171:Sepia
3368:2024
3290:OBIS
3264:NCBI
3251:IUCN
3238:ITIS
3199:GBIF
3173:BOLD
2991:IMDb
2863:2021
2826:PMID
2818:ISSN
2779:2021
2753:2023
2672:2012
2646:2018
2620:2018
2594:2018
2568:2016
2542:2021
2516:2016
2487:2013
2459:2013
2340:ISBN
2326:2021
2294:ISSN
2150:2011
2109:2011
2082:PMID
2021:2023
1996:2023
1971:2021
1942:2021
1868:2021
1815:2017
1769:2014
1744:2018
1713:2021
1696:2012
1635:Fame
1593:2014
1561:and
1096:and
1073:The
419:The
356:and
309:The
300:2023
221:Gray
3186:CoL
3160:AFD
3147:ADW
3087:at
3029:doi
3017:143
2989:at
2808:doi
2804:217
2286:doi
2224:doi
2212:320
2074:doi
2070:212
1783:In:
1700:doi
1573:'s
1501:ppt
806:170
792:263
632:by
386:is
352:in
348:to
344:in
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3331::
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3035:.
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1973:.
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1817:.
1771:.
1746:.
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1715:.
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1170:0
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1016:4
1002:3
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313:(
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
