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particular thought was perceived to be, the more insight into the self it was attributed. In addition, the more meaning the thought was attributed, the more the particular thought influenced their judgment and decision making. People asked to let their mind wander until they randomly thought of a person to whom they were attracted to, for example, reported that the person they identified provided them with more self-insight than people asked to simply think of a person to whom they were attracted to. Moreover, the greater self-insight attributed to the person identified by the (former) random thought process than by the latter deliberate thought process led those people in the random condition to report feeling more attracted to the person they identified.
917:"A self-idea of this sort seems to have three principled elements: the imagination of our appearance to the other person; the imagination of his judgment of that appearance; and some sort of self-feeling, such as pride or mortification. The comparison with a looking-glass hardly suggests the second element, the imagined judgment which is quite essential. The thing that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflection upon another's mind." (Cooley, 1902, p. 153)
1116:"Individuals come to "know" their own attitudes, emotions, and other internal states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior and/or the circumstances in which this behavior occurs. Thus, to the extent that internal cues are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable, the individual is functionally in the same position as an outside observer, an observer who must necessarily rely upon those same external cues to infer the individual's inner states." (Bem, 1972, p.2)
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364:) about ourselves. This implies physiological properties such as hair color, race, and height etc.; and psychological properties like beliefs, values, and dislikes to name but a few. Self knowledge just simply means introspecting your behaviour and actions from a third persons view to the various situations faced in life and then trying to identify the causes of these issues in life.
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Whether the assimilation or contrast effect prevails depends on the psychological closeness, with people feeling psychologically disconnected with their social surroundings being more likely to show contrast effects. Assimilation effects occur when the subject feels psychologically connected to their
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Whether introspection always fosters self-insight is not entirely clear. Thinking too much about why we feel the way we do about something can sometimes confuse us and undermine true self-knowledge. Participants in an introspection condition are less accurate when predicting their own future behavior
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Felson believes this is due to communication barriers and imposed social norms which place limits on the information people receive from others. This is especially true when the feedback would be negative; people rarely give one another negative feedback, so people rarely conclude that another person
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Self-knowledge about the traits one possesses can be accessed without the need for episodic retrieval. This is shown through study of individuals with neurological impairments that make it impossible to recollect trait-related experiences, yet who can still make reliable and accurate trait-ratings of
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does not refer to concept-based knowledge stored about a specific experience like episodic memory. Instead it includes the memory of meanings, understandings, general knowledge about the world, and factual information etc. This makes semantic knowledge independent of context and personal information.
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why they do what they do. When this occurs, they infer the causes of their behavior by analyzing their behavior in the context in which it occurred. Outside observers of the behavior would reach a similar conclusion as the individual performing it. The individuals then draw logical conclusions about
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to seek such knowledge that guide the development of the self-concept, even if that concept is flawed. Self-knowledge informs us of our mental representations of ourselves, which contain attributes that we uniquely pair with ourselves, and theories on whether these attributes are stable or dynamic,
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People regard themselves as at the opposite end of the spectrum of a given trait to the people in their company. However, this effect has come under criticism as to whether it is a primary effect, as it seems to share space with the assimilation effect, which states that people evaluate themselves
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than others. In both cases, thoughts about the self still serve to enhance feelings of self-worth. The universal need is not a need to think about oneself in any specific way, rather a need to maximize one's feelings of self-worth. This is the meaning of the self enhancement motive with respect to
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Many theorists believe that we have a motive to protect the self-concept (and thus our self-knowledge) from change. This motive to have consistency leads people to look for and welcome information that is consistent with what they believe to be true about themselves; likewise, they will avoid and
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People compare attributes with others and draw inferences about what they themselves are like. However, the conclusions a person ultimately draws depend on whom in particular they compare themselves with. The need for accurate self-knowledge was originally thought to guide the social comparison
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People believe that spontaneous forms of thought provide more meaningful self-insight than more deliberate forms of thinking. Morewedge, Giblin, and Norton (2014) found that the more spontaneous a kind of thought, the more spontaneous a particular thought, and the more spontaneous thought a
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involves looking inwards and directly consulting our attitudes, feelings and thoughts for meaning. Consulting one's own thoughts and feelings can sometimes result in meaningful self-knowledge. The accuracy of introspection, however, has been called into question since the 1970s. Generally,
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Accurate self-knowledge can also be instrumental in maximizing feelings of self-worth. Success is one of the number of things that make people feel good about themselves, and knowing what we are like can make successes more likely, so self-knowledge can again be adaptive. This is because
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A stranger's ratings about a participant are more correspondent to the participant's self-assessment ratings when the stranger has been subject to the participant's thoughts and feelings than when the stranger has been subject to the participant's behavior alone, or a combination of the
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than controls and are less satisfied with their choices and decisions. In addition, it is important to notice that introspection allows the exploration of the conscious mind only, and does not take into account the unconscious motives and processes, as found and formulated by Freud.
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The sequence of reflected appraisals may accurately characterize patterns in early childhood due to the large amount of feedback infants receive from their parents, yet it appears to be less relevant later in life. This is because people are not passive, as the model assumes. People
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selves respectively, as they refer to the emotional and behavioral components of the self-concept. Self-knowledge is linked to the cognitive self in that its motives guide our search to gain greater clarity and assurance that our own self-concept is an accurate representation of our
310:, however, a self-conscious component emerges in addition to an increased self-awareness component, and then it becomes possible to ask "What am I like?", and to answer with self-knowledge, though self-knowledge has limits, as introspection has been said to be limited and complex.
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Causal attributions are an important source of self-knowledge, especially when people make attributions for positive and negative events. The key elements in self-perception theory are explanations people give for their actions, these explanations are known as causal attributions.
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Accuracy needs influence the way in which people search for self-knowledge. People frequently wish to know the truth about themselves without regard as to whether they learn something positive or negative. There are three considerations which underlie this need:
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refers to the fact that people seem motivated to experience positive emotional states and to avoid experiencing negative emotional states. People are motivated to feel good about themselves in order to maximize their feelings of self-worth, thus enhancing their
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Self-verification theory assumes that social interactions will proceed more smoothly and profitably when other people view us the same way as we view ourselves. This provides a second reason to selectively seek self-verifying
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Evans, J., Wilson, B., Wraight, E. P., & Hodges, J. R. (1993). Neuropsychological and SPECT scan findings during and after transient global amnesia: Evidence for the differential impairment of remote episodic memory.
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People have goals that lead them to seek, notice, and interpret information about themselves. These goals begin the quest for self-knowledge. There are three primary motives that lead us in the search for self-knowledge:
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We feel more comfortable and secure when we believe that others see us in the same way that we see ourselves. Actively seeking self-verifying feedback helps people avoid finding out that they are wrong about their
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process information from the social world. Once a person's ideas about themselves take shape, these also influence the manner in which new information is gathered and interpreted, and thus the cycle continues.
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People are able to maintain a sense of self that is supported by semantic knowledge of personal facts in the absence of direct access to the memories that describe the episodes on which the knowledge is based.
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The theory has been applied to a wide range of phenomena. Under particular conditions, people have been shown to infer their attitudes, emotions, and motives, in the same manner described by the theory.
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Knowing what one is really like can sometimes help an individual to achieve their goals. The basic fundamental goal to any living thing is survival, therefore accurate self-knowledge can be adaptive to
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In this case, self-enhancement needs lead people to seek information about themselves in such a way that they are likely to conclude that they truly possess what they see as a positive defining quality.
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The size of the group affects the salience of group-identities. Minority groups are more distinctive, so group identity should be more salient among minority group members than majority group members.
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introspection relies on people's explanatory theories of the self and their world, the accuracy of which is not necessarily related to the form of self-knowledge that they are attempting to assess.
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affects the way people feel about themselves. People with high self-esteem are more likely to be thinking of themselves in positive terms at a given time than people suffering low self-esteem.
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The physical world is generally a highly visible, and quite easily measurable source of information about one's self. Information one may be able to obtain from the physical world may include:
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in 1983 to put a name to the aforementioned phenomena. The theory states that once a person develops an idea about what they are like, they will strive to verify the accompanying self-views.
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leaving her unable to recall any events that occurred prior to the development of amnesia. However, her memory for general facts about her life during the period of amnesia remained intact.
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Individuals think of themselves in many different ways, yet only some of these ideas are active at any one given time. The idea that is specifically active at a given time is known as the
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These factors of self-verification theory create controversy when persons suffering from low-self-esteem are taken into consideration. People who hold negative self-views about themselves
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Semantic memory enables an individual to know information, including information about their selves, without having to consciously recall the experiences that taught them such knowledge.
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Episodic memory is not the only drawing point for self-knowledge, contrary to long-held beliefs. Self-knowledge must therefore be expanded to include the semantic component of memory.
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self-knowledge is neither the only, nor most important factor that guides the social comparison process, the need to feel good about ourselves affects the social comparison process.
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think of themselves is the most important personal factor that influences current self-representation. This is especially true for attributes that are important and self-defining.
913:", which describes how we see ourselves reflected in other peoples' eyes. He argued that a person's feelings towards themselves are socially determined via a three-step process:
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Somatic markers, that is memories connected to an emotional charge, can be helpful or dysfunctional - there is a correlation but not causation, and therefore cannot be relied on.
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Klein, S. B., & Loftus, J. (1993). The mental representation of trait and autobiographical knowledge about the self. (As cited in
Sedikedes, C., & Brewer, M. B. (Eds.),
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Even when attributes can be assessed with reference to the physical world, the knowledge that we gain is not necessarily the knowledge we are seeking. Every measure is simply a
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Brown, J. D., & Mankowski, T. A. (1993). Self-esteem and self confidence are not the same. Self-esteem, mood, and self-evaluation: Changes in mood and the way you see you.
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Sedikedes, C., & Strube, M. J. (1997). Self-evaluation: To thine own self be good, to thine own self be sure, to thine own self be true, and to thine own self be better.
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The comparative nature of self-views means that people rely heavily on the social world when seeking information about their selves. Two particular processes are important:
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Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining of children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic rewards: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis.
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https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0010027715000256/1-s2.0-S0010027715000256-main.pdf?_tid=710543c7-e98f-4484-85e2-acf02e7076cc&acdnat=1528121667_89562a04b60eba34b74c91685e1508c9
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When we are happy we tend to think more about our positive qualities and attributes, whereas when we are sad our negative qualities and attributes become more accessible.
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in order to verify their self-views. This is in stark contrast to self-enhancement motives that suggest people are driven by the desire to feel good about themselves.
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proposes that whether people are thinking about themselves in terms of either their social groups or various personal identities depends partly on the social context.
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can have accurate and detailed semantic knowledge of what they are like as a person, for example which particular personality traits and characteristics they possess.
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Wilson, T. D., Lisle, D., Schooler, J., Hodges, S. D., Klaaren, K. J., & LaFleur, S. J. (1993). Introspecting about reasons can reduce post-choice satisfaction.
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Tulving, E., Schacter, D. L., McLachlan, D. R., & Moscovitch, M. (1988). Priming of semantic autobiographical knowledge: A case study of retrograde amnesia.
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Individuals have been shown to maintain a sense of self despite catastrophic impairments in episodic recollection. For example, subject W.J., who suffered dense
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People can deliberately activate particular self-views. We select appropriate images of ourselves depending on what role we wish to play in a given situation.
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Klein, S. B., Loftus, J., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1996). Self-knowledge of an amnesia patient: Toward a neuropsychology of personality and social psychology.
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Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1989). Goals and the self-identification process: Constructing desired identities. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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The extent of the effect depends on personal variables. For example people with high self-esteem do not show this effect, and sometimes do the opposite.
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Swann, W. B., Jr. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. (As cited in Suls, J., & Greenwald, A. G. (Eds.),
724:. Not everyone has been shown to pursue a self-consistency motive; but it has played an important role in various other influential theories, such as
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Occasionally people simply want to reduce any uncertainty. They may want to know for the sheer intrinsic pleasure of knowing what they are truly like.
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McGuire, W. J., & McGuire, C. V. (1981). The spontaneous self-concept as affected by personal distinctiveness. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Sedikides, C. (1995). Central and peripheral self-conceptions are differentially influenced by mood: Tests of the different sensitivity hypothesis.
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This suggests that a separate type of knowledge contributes to the self-concept, as W.J.'s knowledge could not have come from her episodic memory.
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Swann, W. B., Jr. (1990). To be adored or to be known? The interplay of self-enhancement and self-verification. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Fazio et al. found that selective memory for prior events can temporarily activate self-representations which, once activated, guide our behavior.
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Kihlstrom, J. F., & Klein, S. B. (1994). The self as a knowledgeable structure. (As cited in
Sedikedes, C., & Brewer, M. B. (Eds.),
1969:
Epstein, S. (1980). The self-concept: A review and the proposal of an integrated theory of personality. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Kihlstrom, J. F., & Klein, S. B. (1997). Self-knowledge and self-awareness. (As cited in
Sedikedes, C., & Brewer, M. B. (Eds.),
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is the autobiographical memory that individuals possess which contains events, emotions, and knowledge associated with a given context.
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How a person thinks of themselves depends largely on the social role they are playing. Social roles influence our personal identities.
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A similar dissociation occurred in K.C. who suffered a total loss of episodic memory, but still knew a variety of facts about himself.
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to describe the information that an individual draws upon when finding answers to the questions "What am I like?" and "Who am I?".
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Despite being largely unaware of how one person in particular is evaluating them, people are better at knowing what other people
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Nelson, L. J., & Miller, D. T. (1995). The distinctiveness effect in social categorization: You are what makes you unusual.
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Klein, S. B., Chan, R. L., & Loftus, J. (1999). Independence of episodic and semantic self-knowledge: The case from autism.
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Andersen, S. M. (1984). Self-knowledge and social inference: II. The diagnosticity of cognitive/affective and behavioral data.
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Laird, J. D. (1974). Self-attribution and emotion: The effects of expressive behavior on the quality of emotional experience.
1003:. Although this may in fact occur, the influence of a common third variable could also produce an association between the two.
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Olson, J. M., & Hafer, C. L. (1990). Self-inference processes: Looking back and ahead. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Cermack, L. S., & O'Connor, M. (1983). The anteriograde retrieval ability of a patient with amnesia due to encephalitis.
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do something particularly well, thus protecting the person from pursuing a dead-end dream that is likely to end in failure.
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Self-concept is also known as the self-schema, made of innumerable smaller self-schemas that are "chronically accessible".
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Causal attributions provide answers to "Why?" questions by attributing a person's behavior (including our own) to a cause.
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Brown, J. D., & Smart, S. A. (1991). The self and social conduct: Linking self-representations to prosocial behavior.
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The social environment has an influence on the way people evaluate themselves as a result of social-comparison processes.
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People are also known to compare themselves with people who are slightly better off than they themselves are (known as an
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than one's peers. However, in some situations and cultures, feelings of self-worth are promoted by thinking of oneself as
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Roberts, B. W., & Donahue, E. M. (1994). One personality, multiple selves: Integrating personality and social roles.
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Brewer, M. B., & Weber, J. G. (1994). Self-evaluation effects of interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison.
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There are three sources of information available to an individual through which to search for knowledge about the self:
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Morewedge, Carey K.; Giblin, Colleen E.; Norton, Michael I. (2014). "The (perceived) meaning of spontaneous thoughts".
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Felson, R. B. (1993). The (somewhat) social self: How others affect self-appraisals. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Kenny, D. A., & DePaulo, B. M. (1993). Do people know how others view them? An empirical and theoretical account.
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Self-theories have traditionally failed to distinguish between different source that inform self-knowledge, these are
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Wilson, T. D., & LaFleur, S. J. (1995). Knowing what you'll do: Effects of analyzing reasons on self-prediction.
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describes our "inner world". There are three processes that influence how people acquire knowledge about themselves:
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The connection between our memory and our self-knowledge has been recognized for many years by leading minds in both
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Klein, S., Cosmides, L., & Costabile, K. (2003). Preserved knowledge of self in a case of
Alzheimer's dementia.
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Wilson, T. D., & Hodges, S. D. (1992). Attitudes as temporary constructions. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Damasio, Antonio R., (2005). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. Penguin Books; Reprint edition
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The current self-representation influences information processing, emotion, and behavior and is influenced by both
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This means that any measurement only merits meaning when it is expressed in respect to the measurements of others.
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Trope, Y. (1986). Self-enhancement, self-assessment, and achievement behavior. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., and Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information.
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In many situations and cultures, feelings of self-worth are promoted by thinking of oneself as highly capable or
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This evidence for the dissociation between episodic and semantic self-knowledge has made several things clear:
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Bandura, Albert; Caprara, Gian
Vittorio; Barbaranelli, Claudio; Gerbino, Maria; Pastorelli, Concetta (2003).
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Fazio, R. H., Effrein, E. A., & Falender, V. J. (1981). Self-perception following social interaction.
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Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of the self.
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Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparisons on self-evaluations.
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differs slightly from how other theories have previously defined self-enhancement needs, for example the
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The imagined evaluation leads us to feel good or bad, in accordance with the judgement we have conjured.
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Recent events can cue particular views of the self, either as a direct result of failure, or via mood.
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reject information which presents inconsistencies with their beliefs. This phenomenon is also known as
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81:
306:/contingency, yet they are not considered as also having self-consciousness. At some greater level of
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Many attributes are not measurable in the physical world, such as kindness, cleverness and sincerity.
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1585:"The Cognitive Self: The Self-Concept – Principles of Social Psychology – 1st International Edition"
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Research has only revealed limited support for the models and various arguments raise their heads:
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A basic schematic representation of memory showing the 'locations' of semantic and episodic memory.
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Studies have shown there is a memory advantage for information encoded with reference to the self.
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People tend to think of themselves in ways that distinguish them from their social surroundings.
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occur when a person observes how others respond to them. The process was first explained by the
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Most of our personal identities are therefore sealed in comparative terms from the social world.
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Finkelstein, N. W., & Ramey, C. T. (1977). Learning to control the environment in infancy.
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to the level of that attribute in, say, the general population or another specific individual.
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Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes.
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themselves, and even revise these judgements based on new experiences they cannot even recall.
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and psychology, yet the precise specification of the relation remains a point of controversy.
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behavior; for example "If nobody wants to spend time with me it must be because I'm boring".
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Thinking and Action: A Cognitive
Perspective on Self-Regulation during Endurance Performance
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Swann, W. B., Jr., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Giesler, R. B. (1992). Why people self-verify.
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Brown, J. D. (1991). Accuracy and bias in self-knowledge. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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more positively when they are in the company of others who are exemplary on some dimension.
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Baldwin, M. W. (1994). Primed relational schemas as a source of self-evaluative reactions.
1615:"Role of Affective Self-Regulatory Efficacy in Diverse Spheres of Psychosocial Functioning"
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who have difficulty recognizing their own family have not shown evidence of self-knowledge.
76:
8:
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Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987).
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One particular goal that influences activation of self-views is the desire to feel good.
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process, and researchers assumed that comparing with others who are similar to us in the
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The more distinctive the attribute, the more likely it will be used to describe oneself.
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While seeking to develop the answer to this question, self-knowledge requires ongoing
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Self-appraisals - our ideas about what we are like based on the perceived appraisals.
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Markus, H., & Kunda, Z. (1986). Stability and malleability of the self-concept.
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Self-recognition in chimpanzees and man: A developmental and comparative perspective
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Group status interacts with group size to affect the salience of social identities.
449:, which contains memory of facts. Declarative memory is the explicit counterpart to
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Imagining how one appears to others has an effect on how one thinks about oneself.
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Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.
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Similar to introspection, but with an important difference: with introspection we
302:). Young infants and chimpanzees display some of the traits of self-awareness and
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Two considerations are thought to drive the search for self-verifying feedback:
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Snyder, M. (1979). Self-monitoring processes (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Helgeson, V. S., & Mickelson, K. D. (1995). Motives for social comparison.
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People are not generally good at knowing what an individual thinks about them.
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455:, which is implicit in that it applies to skills we have learnt; they are not
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is a course offered by
Coursera, and is created by a partnership between The
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Kunda, Z., & Santioso, R. (1989). Motivated changes in the self-concept.
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Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. (As cited in Brown, J. D. (1998).
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Mood state influences the accessibility of positive and negative self-views.
1167:. Other theorists have referred to the same thing in several different ways:
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Wilson's work is based on the assumption that people are not always aware of
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23:
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Steele, C. M., & Spencer, S. J. (1992). The primacy of self-integrity.
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886:); and with people who are slightly worse off or disadvantaged (known as a
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Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology.
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to know what they are really like. This view holds particularly strong in
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Know
Thyself - The Value and Limits of Self-Knowledge: The Examined Life
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Other theorists have taken the term to mean that people are motivated to
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60:
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In 1963, John W. Kinch adapted Cooley's model to explain how a person's
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This link is particularly strong for people suffering low self-esteem.
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our attitudes, feelings and motives. With self-perception processes we
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50:
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Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth.
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Memory for prior events influence how people think about themselves.
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384:. The analytical interpretation of our own memory can also be called
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Self-knowledge and its structure affect how events we experience are
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makes a similar assumption. The theory is concerned with how people
2157:"Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes"
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356:; for this reason the cognitive self is also referred to as the
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Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.
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Preserved and impaired self-knowledge in amnesia: A case study
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Situational factors that influence current self-representation
321:. It is the knowledge of oneself and one's properties and the
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Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory.
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Group identities are more salient in the intergroup contexts.
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Charles H. Cooley in 1902 as part of his discussion of the "
654:
in fact promoted by thinking of oneself in favorable terms.
1196:
Personal factors that influence current self-representation
1151:
People also gain self-knowledge by making attributions for
957:
Actual appraisals - what other people actually think of us.
329:
The self-concept is thought to have three primary aspects:
31:
2115:
Kinch, J. W. (1963). A formalized theory of self-concept.
1339:
960:
Perceived appraisals - our perception of these appraisals.
360:. The cognitive self is made up of everything we know (or
540:
Evidence also exists that shows how patients with severe
380:, and what conclusions we draw from how we interpret the
343:
The affective and executive selves are also known as the
890:). There is also substantial evidence that the need for
621:
about themselves in highly favorable terms, rather than
1852:
Journal of
Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 56,
925:
We imagine how we appear in the eyes of another person.
1784:
Tulving, E. (1989). Remembering and knowing the past.
1391:
Giving reasons but not feelings disrupts self-insight.
1267:
707:
self-enhancement needs can be met by knowing that one
2211:
1940:
1938:
1863:
Klein, S. B., Kihlstrom, J. F., 7 Loftus, J. (2000).
1688:
London: Edmund Parker. (Original work published 1690)
1316:
2691:
William Swann's
Homepage including many of his works
2566:
Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning.
2637:Sedikides, C., & Spencer, S. J. (Eds.) (2007).
1107:their behavior. It argues that people don't always
967:This model is also of a phenomenological approach.
2611:Individual self, relational self, collective self.
2406:
2404:
1935:
1812:Individual self, relational self, collective self.
1725:Individual self, relational self, collective self.
1712:Individual self, relational self, collective self.
1075:
443:. Both episodic and semantic memory are facets of
16:Understanding of one's own basic needs and motives
2714:Humility & Conviction and Public Life Project
2581:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41,
2555:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60,
2529:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66,
2516:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16,
2438:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69,
2425:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64,
2412:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51,
2344:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28,
2331:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29,
2279:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68,
2200:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46,
2036:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62,
2023:Social psychological perspectives on the self, 2,
928:We then imagine how that person is evaluating us.
2725:
2625:Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1).
2155:Nisbett, Richard E.; Wilson, Timothy D. (1977).
1738:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35
1727:(pp. 35–36). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press)
1714:(pp. 35–36). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press)
1280:Distinctiveness also influences the salience of
971:Arguments against the reflected appraisal models
921:In simplified terms, Cooley's three stages are:
562:
2401:
2292:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19,
2088:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21,
983:dislikes them or is evaluating them negatively.
2542:Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13,
2464:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25,
1959:Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29
804:Strength - by measuring how much one can lift.
509:
2154:
2098:
2096:
1415:False theories shape autobiographical memory.
878:Complications of the social comparison theory
663:
650:In Western societies, feelings of self-worth
261:
2627:Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
1814:(p. 36). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press)
1084:
326:to the best that we can evaluate ourselves.
2696:International Society for Self and Identity
2609:Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. (2001).
2214:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
995:The reflected appraisal model assumes that
946:about themselves develop rather than their
731:
367:
2368:Jones, E. E., & Gerard, H. B. (1967).
2093:
1984:Self-consistency: A theory of personality.
1022:
268:
254:
2225:
2183:
1583:Stangor, Dr Charles (26 September 2014).
426:
1773:Journal of Experimental Psychology, 125,
1686:An essay concerning human understanding.
1132:our attitudes, feelings, and motives by
465:
1582:
1340:Significant others and self-evaluations
897:
2726:
1324:
1139:
682:Some people believe they have a moral
792:
406:
313:Self-knowledge is a component of the
2613:Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
858:
2683:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1268:Social context and self-description
1180:Aspects of the working self-concept
1069:Comparing sources of introspection.
836:
582:
13:
2716:, a research project based at the
2589:
2117:American Journal of Sociology, 68,
2104:Human nature and the social order.
1317:Social context and self-evaluation
768:selectively seek negative feedback
491:
474:
298:(which is not to be confused with
14:
2750:
2672:
2657:
2370:Foundations of social psychology.
2106:New York: Charles Scribner's Sons
2010:A theory of cognitive dissonance.
1395:
1373:
1099:they feel the way they do. Bem's
611:Contingencies of Self-Worth Model
2505:Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell
1436:predictions of future knowledge.
1419:
1378:
1347:
1050:
390:, and is an important factor of
2573:
2560:
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2534:
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2508:
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2469:
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2349:
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2323:
2310:
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2284:
2271:
2258:
2205:
2192:
2148:
2135:
2122:
2109:
2080:
2067:
2054:
2041:
2028:
2015:
2002:
1989:
1976:
1963:
1951:
1922:
1909:
1896:
1883:
1870:
1857:
1843:
1830:
1817:
1804:
1791:
1778:
1765:
1752:
1743:
1730:
1656:from the original on 2020-12-01
1595:from the original on 2019-07-15
1425:Deficiency of knowledge of the
1401:Deficiency of knowledge of the
1384:Deficiency in knowledge of the
1368:
1308:
1259:
1200:
1076:Arguments against introspection
742:This theory was put forward by
2025:33–66. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum)
1717:
1704:
1691:
1678:
1667:
1606:
1576:
1563:
1550:
1218:
1112:why they behaved as they did.
811:
807:Height - by measuring oneself.
714:
192:Personal identity (philosophy)
1:
1544:
1450:
1300:
1229:
1158:
935:Note that this model is of a
801:Weight - by weighing oneself.
748:University of Texas at Austin
563:Motives that guide our search
2701:Journal of Self and Identity
2641:New York: Psychology Press.
2568:Psychological Bulletin, 108,
2477:Journals of Personality, 62,
2143:Psychological Bulletin, 114,
2062:Psychological Bulletin, 119,
1699:The principles of psychology
645:
7:
2664:Self-knowledge (psychology)
2075:Psychological Bulletin, 90,
2049:Psychological Bulletin, 106
1878:Psychological Review, 108,
1556:Gallup, G. G., Jr. (1979).
1455:
1408:Knowledge from the present
1165:Current Self-Representation
953:Kinch's three stages were:
726:cognitive dissonance theory
669:
510:Semantic self as the source
376:, how they are selectively
46:Self-knowledge (psychology)
10:
2755:
2176:10.1037/0033-295X.84.3.231
2012:Evanston, IL: Row Peterson
1493:Self-categorization theory
1412:the knowledge of the past.
1289:Self-categorization theory
1088:
874:ways is more informative.
862:
773:
735:
586:
495:
478:
82:Self-categorization theory
2718:University of Connecticut
2490:Psychological Science, 6,
2357:Psychological Review, 92,
1997:Psychological Enquiry, 3,
1867:. Unpublished manuscript.
1701:(Vol. 1). New York: Holt.
1560:. New York: Plenum Press.
1432:Knowledge of the present
1085:Self-perception processes
1040:Self-perception processes
317:or, more accurately, the
197:Identity (social science)
1528:Social comparison theory
1523:Self-verification theory
1243:
1174:Spontaneous self-concept
865:Social comparison theory
847:Social Comparison Theory
738:Self-verification theory
732:Self-verification theory
722:self-verification theory
664:Self-verification theory
368:Relationship with memory
142:As applied to activities
134:True self and false self
2710:University of Edinburgh
2599:New York: McGraw Hill.
1799:Brain and Cognition, 8,
1786:American Scientist, 77,
1634:10.1111/1467-8624.00567
1028:The psychological world
1023:The psychological world
788:The psychological world
237:Respectability politics
2102:Cooley, C. H. (1902).
2008:Festinger, L. (1957).
1986:New York: Island Press
1902:Rosenburg, M. (1979).
1571:Child Development, 48,
1513:Self-perception theory
1134:analyzing our behavior
1118:
1101:self-perception theory
1091:Self-perception theory
919:
471:
427:The division of memory
217:Social identity threat
212:In-group and out-group
207:Social identity theory
98:Self-perception theory
2595:Brown, J. D. (1998).
1906:New York: Basic Books
1838:Neuropsychologia, 21,
1825:Social Cognition, 17,
1463:Affective forecasting
1440:Affective forecasting
1114:
915:
469:
2164:Psychological Review
1904:Conceiving the self.
1760:Social Cognition, 21
1468:Cognitive dissonance
1335:social surroundings.
1177:Self-identifications
1001:perceived appraisals
903:Reflected appraisals
898:Reflected appraisals
853:Reflected Appraisals
77:Neural basis of self
1946:Human Relations, 7,
1442:can be affected by
1325:The contrast effect
1171:The phenomenal self
1140:Causal attributions
1045:Causal attributions
888:downward comparison
202:Collective identity
1982:Lecky, P. (1945).
1697:James, W. (1890).
1684:Locke, J. (1731).
911:looking-glass self
793:The physical world
782:The physical world
522:retrograde amnesia
472:
446:declarative memory
407:Specialized memory
378:retrieved/recalled
339:The executive self
336:The affective self
333:The cognitive self
296:self-consciousness
283:is a term used in
242:Political identity
113:Self-consciousness
2623:Suls, J. (1982).
2453:USA: McGraw-Hill)
2398:USA: McGraw-Hill)
2385:USA: McGraw-Hill)
2320:USA: McGraw-Hill)
2307:USA: McGraw-Hill)
2268:USA: McGraw-Hill)
2132:USA: McGraw-Hill)
1973:USA: McGraw-Hill)
1932:USA: McGraw-Hill)
1919:USA: McGraw-Hill)
1893:USA: McGraw-Hill)
1622:Child Development
997:actual appraisals
884:upward comparison
859:Social comparison
452:procedural memory
278:
277:
233:Identity politics
2746:
2687:
2678:"Self knowledge"
2674:Zalta, Edward N.
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1282:group identities
1208:, or how people
1130:indirectly infer
1126:directly examine
937:phenomenological
837:The social world
822:relative measure
785:The social world
642:self-knowledge.
627:they are "good".
605:The emphasis on
595:Self-enhancement
589:Self-enhancement
583:Self-enhancement
572:Self-enhancement
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176:Self-concealment
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1518:Self psychology
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503:Semantic memory
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486:Episodic memory
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481:Episodic memory
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475:Episodic memory
440:semantic memory
434:episodic memory
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171:Self-disclosure
150:Self-assessment
108:Self-reflection
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1658:. Retrieved
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1597:. Retrieved
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1498:Self-concept
1473:Know thyself
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1386:present self
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1369:Deficiencies
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990:on the whole
989:
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459:that can be
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319:self-concept
312:
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56:Self-concept
45:
1508:Self-esteem
1434:overinforms
1427:future self
1410:overinforms
1224:Self-esteem
1219:Self-esteem
1190:situational
1016:selectively
907:sociologist
812:Limitations
758:self-views.
715:Consistency
666:" section.
601:self-esteem
578:Consistency
420:Alzheimer's
387:meta memory
129:Self-esteem
61:Self-schema
2728:Categories
2668:PhilPapers
1660:2018-06-04
1599:2019-10-16
1545:References
1451:Miswanting
1301:Group size
1230:Mood state
1159:Activation
999:determine
692:philosophy
684:obligation
401:philosophy
358:known self
285:psychology
51:Self-image
38:Constructs
2739:Knowledge
2639:The self.
2597:The self.
2451:The self.
2396:The self.
2383:The self.
2318:The self.
2305:The self.
2266:The self.
2222:CiteSeerX
2130:The self.
2090:1200–1209
2051:, 231–248
1971:The self.
1930:The self.
1917:The self.
1891:The self.
1854:1227–1230
1538:Sociology
1403:past self
1192:factors.
872:important
762:feedback.
702:survival.
646:Arguments
354:true self
308:cognition
90:Processes
2252:36154815
2244:24820251
1775:250–160
1654:Archived
1642:12795389
1593:Archived
1573:806–819.
1456:See also
1186:personal
1012:actively
948:feelings
944:thoughts
939:nature.
892:accurate
688:theology
670:Accuracy
637:or even
607:feelings
575:Accuracy
225:Politics
69:Theories
32:The Self
24:a series
22:Part of
2676:(ed.).
2583:232–242
2570:480–498
2557:368–375
2544:380–403
2531:268–275
2518:148–156
2492:246–249
2479:199–218
2466:272–285
2440:759–777
2427:421–430
2414:858–866
2359:548–573
2346:129–137
2333:475–486
2294:331–339
2202:280–293
2145:145–161
2119:481–486
2077:245–271
2038:392–401
1999:345–346
1948:117–140
1880:593–623
1840:213–234
1827:413–436
1788:361–367
1650:6671293
1210:usually
1105:explain
992:think.
774:Sources
746:of the
709:can not
635:average
542:amnesia
374:encoded
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1648:
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1478:Memory
631:better
461:stated
382:memory
349:active
323:desire
304:agency
184:Social
2281:21–35
2248:S2CID
2160:(PDF)
2064:51–69
1646:S2CID
1618:(PDF)
1244:Goals
662:See "
639:worse
618:think
457:facts
2734:Self
2712:and
2643:ISBN
2629:ISBN
2615:ISBN
2601:ISBN
2240:PMID
1801:3–20
1638:PMID
1188:and
1109:know
1064:two.
1014:and
690:and
624:feel
437:and
347:and
345:felt
315:self
294:and
2666:at
2232:doi
2218:143
2180:hdl
2172:doi
1630:doi
1097:why
652:are
2730::
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26:on
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269:e
262:t
255:v
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