4243:
1704:
4232:
1622:
1198:
1058:
1160:
985:
1565:. The formation of new crust beneath the surface displaced ocean waters by as much as 200 m (656 ft) above today's sea level, flooding coastal areas. Furthermore, Pangaea began to rift into smaller divisions, creating new shoreline around the Tethys Ocean. Temperatures continued to increase, then began to stabilize.
1013:. On land, pine forests flourished, as did groups of insects like mosquitoes and fruit flies. Reptiles began to get bigger and bigger, and the first crocodilians and dinosaurs evolved, which sparked competition with the large amphibians that had previously ruled the freshwater world, respectively mammal-like reptiles on land.
1751:
Recent research indicates that it took much longer for the reestablishment of complex ecosystems with high biodiversity, complex food webs, and specialized animals in a variety of niches, beginning in the mid-Triassic 4 million to 6 million years after the extinction, and not fully proliferated until
1607:
Different studies have come to different conclusions about the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere during different parts of the
Mesozoic, with some concluding oxygen levels were lower than the current level (about 21%) throughout the Mesozoic, some concluding they were lower in the Triassic and part
1358:
continued to thrive. Flowering plants, possibly appearing as far back as the
Triassic, became truly dominant for the first time. Pterosaurs in the Late Cretaceous declined for poorly understood reasons, though this might be due to tendencies of the fossil record, as their diversity seems to be much
1538:, water acts as a temperature-stabilizing heat reservoir, and land areas near large bodies of waterâespecially oceansâexperience less variation in temperature. Because much of Pangaea's land was distant from its shores, temperatures fluctuated greatly, and the interior probably included expansive
1016:
Following the bloom of the Middle
Triassic, the Late Triassic, from 237 to 201 million years ago, featured frequent heat spells and moderate precipitation (10â20 inches per year). The recent warming led to a boom of dinosaurian evolution on land as the continents began to separate from each
924:
although those approximations have been brought into question with some paleontologists estimating the actual numbers as low as 81%. It is also known as the "Great Dying" because it is considered the largest mass extinction in the Earth's history. The upper boundary of the
Mesozoic is set at the
1783:, especially the mouth parts, seems particularly well-suited for flowering plants. However, all major insect mouth parts preceded angiosperms, and insect diversification actually slowed when they arrived, so their anatomy originally must have been suited for some other purpose.
960:
The Early
Triassic, about 252 to 247 million years ago, was dominated by deserts in the interior of the Pangaea supercontinent. The Earth had just witnessed a massive die-off in which 95% of all life became extinct, and the most common vertebrate life on land were
1091:
at the top of the food chain. The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing the large amphibians to near extinction. All-in-all, archosaurs rose to rule the world. Meanwhile, the first true mammals evolved, remaining relatively small, but spreading widely; the
Jurassic
2503:
Capriolo, Manfredo; Marzoli, Andrea; Aradi, LĂĄszlĂł E.; Callegaro, Sara; Corso, Jacopo Dal; Newton, Robert J.; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Bartoli, Omar; Baker, Don R.; Youbi, Nasrrddine; Remusat, Laurent; Spiess, Richard; SzabĂł, Csaba (7 April 2020).
1219:
The Early
Cretaceous spans from 145 to 100 million years ago. The Early Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways and a decline in diversity of sauropods, stegosaurs, and other high-browsing groups, with sauropods particularly scarce in North America.
691:
Dinosaurs first appeared in the Mid-Triassic, and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates in the Late
Triassic or Early Jurassic, occupying this position for about 150 or 135 million years until their demise at the end of the Cretaceous.
1649:, which are vascular, cone-bearing, non-flowering plants such as conifers that produce seeds without a coating. This contrasts with the earth's current flora, in which the dominant land plants in terms of number of species are
1185:
dinosaurs. The increase in sea levels opened up the
Atlantic seaway, which has grown continually larger until today. The further separation of the continents gave opportunity for the diversification of new dinosaurs.
1683:, but the even temperature gradient allowed them to spread toward the poles throughout the period. By the end of the Cretaceous, angiosperms dominated tree floras in many areas, although some evidence suggests that
1395:
and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the atmosphere. As this continued, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into earth 66 million years ago, creating the
Chicxulub Crater in an event known as the
937:. Towards the Late Cretaceous, large volcanic eruptions are also believed to have contributed to the CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event. Approximately 50% of all genera became extinct, including all of the non-
2147:
1072:
The Early Jurassic spans from 200 to 175 million years ago. The climate was tropical and much more humid than the Triassic, as a result of the large seas appearing between the land masses. In the oceans,
2238:
2042:"As many systems or combinations of organic forms as are clearly traceable in the stratified crust of the globe, so many corresponding terms (as PalÌozoic, Mesozoic, Kainozoic, &c.) may be made, ⌠"
1104:, from the late Jurassic Period about 150 million years ago, was about the size of a chipmunk, and its teeth, forelimbs and back suggest that it dug open the nests of social insects (probably
3434:
Lehrmann, D. J.; Ramezan, J.; Bowring, S.A.; et al. (December 2006). "Timing of recovery from the end-Permian extinction: Geochronologic and biostratigraphic constraints from south China".
2049:
Bulletin 769: The Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey Compared With Other Classifications, accompanied by the original definitions of era, period and epoch terms
1795:
to ones dominated by endosymbiotic algae with red-algal-derived plastids. This transition is speculated to have been caused by an increasing paucity of many trace metals in the Mesozoic ocean.
1228:, evolved to cope with the coastal shallows and small islands of ancient Europe. Other dinosaurs rose up to fill the empty space that the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction left behind, such as
949:
The Triassic ranges roughly from 252 million to 201 million years ago, preceding the Jurassic Period. The period is bracketed between the PermianâTriassic extinction event and the
1550:
support these conclusions, but some evidence suggests the generally dry climate of the Triassic was punctuated by episodes of increased rainfall. The most important humid episodes were the
1318:
Era. Eventually, tropics were restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tropic lines experienced extreme seasonal changes in weather. Dinosaurs still thrived, as new taxa such as
1371:
became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea. Metatherians and primitive eutherian also became common and even produced large and specialised genera like
1017:
other (Nyasasaurus from 243 to 210 million years ago, approximately 235â30 ma, some of them separated into Sauropodomorphs, Theropods and Herrerasaurids), as well as the first
1069:
The Jurassic ranges from 200 million years to 145 million years ago and features three major epochs: The Early Jurassic, the Middle Jurassic, and the Late Jurassic.
688:
into separate landmasses. The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods. Overall, however, the Earth was hotter than it is today.
1156:
forests made up a large portion of the forests. In the oceans, plesiosaurs were quite common, and ichthyosaurs flourished. This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.
3477:
1763:
The climatic changes of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous favored further adaptive radiation. The Jurassic was the height of archosaur diversity, and the first
3612:
1691:
until after the CretaceousâPaleogene extinction. Some plant species had distributions that were markedly different from succeeding periods; for example, the
1005:. Ecosystems had recovered from the Permian extinction. Algae, sponge, corals, and crustaceans all had recovered, and new aquatic reptiles evolved, such as
3013:"Oceanic anoxic events and plankton evolution: Biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous: OCEANIC ANOXIC EVENTS AND PLANKTON EVOLUTION"
2435:
Capriolo, Manfredo; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; Newton, Robert J.; Corso, Jacobo Dal; Dunhill, Alexander M.; Wignall, Paul B.; Marzoli, Andrea (February 2022).
2678:
3047:
2304:
1041:, and almost all large amphibians became extinct, as well as 34% of marine life, in the Earth's fourth mass extinction event. The cause is debatable;
2903:
2835:
2637:
2698:"Diversity patterns amongst herbivorous dinosaurs and plants during the Cretaceous: implications for hypotheses of dinosaur/angiosperm co-evolution"
1608:
of the Jurassic but higher in the Cretaceous, and some concluding they were higher throughout most or all of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
3311:
Leslie, Andrew B.; Beaulieu, Jeremy; Holman, Garth; Campbell, Christopher S.; Mei, Wenbin; Raubeson, Linda R.; Mathews, Sarah (September 2018).
1134:
The Middle Jurassic spans from 175 to 163 million years ago. During this epoch, dinosaurs flourished as huge herds of sauropods, such as
1242:
Seasons came back into effect and the poles got seasonally colder, but some dinosaurs still inhabited the polar forests year round, such as
1534:, and highly seasonal, especially in the interior of Pangaea. Low sea levels may have also exacerbated temperature extremes. With its high
1412:
of the late Paleozoic, Mesozoic tectonic deformation was comparatively mild. The sole major Mesozoic orogeny occurred in what is now the
1400:(formerly K-T), the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, in which 75% of life became extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs.
1314:
The Late Cretaceous spans from 100 to 66 million years ago. The Late Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue in the
1001:
The Middle Triassic, from 247 to 237 million years ago, featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea and the opening of the
3605:
3360:
Blomenkemper, Patrick; Bäumer, Robert; Backer, Malte; Abu Hamad, Abdalla; Wang, Jun; Kerp, Hans; Bomfleur, Benjamin (26 March 2021).
1397:
926:
665:
517:
3232:
1695:, a fern order, were skewed to the Northern Hemisphere in the Mesozoic, but are now better represented in the Southern Hemisphere.
392:
2211:
1029:. All this climatic change, however, resulted in a large die-out known as the TriassicâJurassic extinction event, in which many
3285:
2437:"Anthropogenic-scale CO2 degassing from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province as a driver of the end-Triassic mass extinction"
950:
1673:
gained a global distribution during the Late Triassic, and represented one of the most common groups of Mesozoic seed plants.
3017:
2122:
1846:
917:
657:
3598:
3123:
3362:"Bennettitalean Leaves From the Permian of Equatorial PangeaâThe Early Radiation of an Iconic Mesozoic Gymnosperm Group"
2400:
1345:
1046:
3269:
3207:
3147:
1478:
By the end of the era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present forms, though not their present positions.
3522:
Zhang, Qiong; Bendif, El Mahdi; Zhou, Yu; Nevado, Bruno; Shafiee, Roxana; Rickaby, Rosalind E. M. (31 October 2022).
2945:
Gurung, Khushboo; Field, Katie J.; Batterman, Sarah A.; Poulton, Simon W.; Mills, Benjamin J. W. (28 February 2024).
2885:
2221:
1991:
3264:
Bergman N. M., Lenton T. M., Watson A. J. 2004 COPSE: a new model of biogeochemical cycling over Phanaerozoic time.
17:
3417:
2702:
2656:
2417:
2239:"End-Cretaceous extinction in Antarctica linked to both Deccan volcanism and meteorite impact via climate change"
1887:
1472:
712:
also appeared during the Mesozoic, but would remain smallâless than 15 kg (33 lb)âuntil the Cenozoic.
470:
539:
2811:
630:
2571:
Tegner, Christian; Marzoli, Andrea; McDonald, Iain; Youbi, Nasrrddine; LindstrĂśm, Sofie (26 February 2020).
684:. The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic, climatic, and evolutionary activity. The supercontinent
2898:
2573:"Platinum-group elements link the end-Triassic mass extinction and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province"
1194:
The Cretaceous is the longest period of the Mesozoic, but has only two epochs: Early and Late Cretaceous.
3621:
2830:
2441:
2071:
814:
381:
802:
3366:
1834:
1464:
3127:
2436:
2324:"Calibrated Diversity, Tree Topology and the Mother of Mass Extinctions: The Lesson of Temnospondyls"
2033:
1081:
were abundant. On land, dinosaurs and other archosaurs staked their claim as the dominant race, with
787:
4266:
1572:
The climate of the Cretaceous is less certain and more widely disputed. Probably, higher levels of
1359:
higher than previously thought. Birds became increasingly common and diversified into a variety of
1254:. The poles were too cold for crocodiles, and became the last stronghold for large amphibians like
716:
appeared in the Early Cretaceous and would rapidly diversify through the end of the era, replacing
2792:
1791:
At the dawn of the Mesozoic, ocean plankton communities transitioned from ones dominated by green
3894:
3889:
3122:, Vol. 316 no. 5824 pp. 557â58 . A graph showing the reconstruction from this paper can be found
2328:
3228:, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., V, 31, p. 105â34. See the graph near the bottom of the webpage
1659:
first appeared during the Middle Jurassic. This genus is represented today by a single species,
1535:
3524:"Declining metal availability in the Mesozoic seawater reflected in phytoplankton succession"
3175:
2951:
2510:
2388:
2243:
1752:
30 million years after the extinction. Animal life was then dominated by various archosaurs:
1597:
1577:
1551:
1171:
The Late Jurassic spans from 163 to 145 million years ago. During this epoch, the first
1042:
2047:
1344:
ruled, filling the role of the ichthyosaurs, which, after declining, had disappeared in the
929:(or KâPg extinction event), which may have been caused by an asteroid impactor that created
3445:
3375:
3061:
2912:
2844:
2758:
2519:
2450:
2252:
2156:
1581:
1262:
841:
The Mesozoic Era was originally described as the "secondary" era, following the "primary" (
3289:
3174:
309 no. 7, 603â06. A graph showing the reconstructed levels in this paper can be found on
3113:
934:
8:
4225:
3229:
2749:
1230:
669:
589:
3449:
3379:
3249:
Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal
3065:
2981:
2916:
2848:
2762:
2523:
2454:
2256:
2160:
3499:
3472:
3342:
3085:
2729:
2599:
2577:
2553:
2540:
2505:
2478:
2384:
2347:
2273:
2187:
2142:
1719:
1562:
1448:
1224:
697:
642:
3165:
2770:
685:
4271:
4023:
3987:
3528:
3523:
3504:
3436:
3393:
3334:
3252:
3077:
2986:
2968:
2946:
2881:
2856:
2774:
2721:
2716:
2697:
2604:
2572:
2557:
2545:
2482:
2396:
2366:
2342:
2323:
2278:
2217:
2192:
2174:
2138:
2118:
1842:
1684:
1433:
1425:
1417:
1119:
3346:
2733:
2463:
2351:
857:
Following the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic extended roughly 186 million years, from
4117:
3992:
3961:
3758:
3545:
3537:
3494:
3486:
3453:
3383:
3324:
3313:"An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record"
3089:
3069:
3052:
3026:
2976:
2960:
2920:
2852:
2766:
2711:
2594:
2586:
2535:
2527:
2468:
2458:
2337:
2268:
2260:
2182:
2164:
1893:
1737:
1444:
1308:
1250:
954:
930:
869:
611:
2087:
818:'animal, living being'). In this way, the Mesozoic is comparable to the Cenozoic (
4217:
4213:
4209:
4086:
3982:
3920:
3815:
3784:
3753:
3421:
3236:
2924:
1676:
1634:
1630:
1115:
1110:
661:
43:
4242:
1669:, an extinct group of gymnosperms with foliage superficially resembling that of
1561:
Sea levels began to rise during the Jurassic, probably caused by an increase in
1455:
of the supercontinent Pangaea, which gradually split into a northern continent,
977:
along with many other creatures that managed to survive the Permian extinction.
957:", and it is divided into three major epochs: Early, Middle, and Late Triassic.
920:, during which it has been estimated that up to 90-96% of marine species became
4236:
4055:
3925:
3820:
3789:
3541:
3183:
2964:
2590:
2531:
2148:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2143:"Estimates of the magnitudes of major marine mass extinctions in earth history"
1866:
1792:
1703:
1573:
1429:
1368:
1360:
1268:
1244:
1182:
1034:
1026:
968:
881:
752:
3590:
3464:
3388:
3361:
4260:
3956:
3946:
3915:
3878:
3810:
3779:
3397:
3221:
3195:
3161:
3139:
3109:
2972:
2178:
1861:
1666:
1661:
1625:
Conifers were the dominant terrestrial plants for most of the Mesozoic, with
1593:
1531:
1495:
1483:
1388:
1320:
1273:
1177:
1136:
1087:
791:
779:
737:
585:
554:
541:
485:
472:
416:
74:
2169:
2066:
859:
594:
4247:
4178:
4028:
3951:
3508:
3490:
3338:
3081:
3048:"Cretaceous oceanic anoxic event 2 triggered by a massive magmatic episode"
2990:
2778:
2725:
2608:
2549:
2282:
2196:
1440:
1421:
1392:
1379:
1354:
1326:
1100:
1094:
1062:
1002:
989:
978:
963:
894:
773:
767:
749:
619:
3585:
3427:
3011:
Leckie, R. Mark; Bralower, Timothy J.; Cashman, Richard (September 2002).
2831:"The case for creation of the North Pacific Ocean during the Mesozoic Era"
1756:, pterosaurs, and aquatic reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and
1710:
were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates throughout much of the Mesozoic.
4173:
4042:
4018:
3863:
3658:
3415:. Encyclopedia of Earth. National council for Science and the Environment
3312:
3146:. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70, 5653â64. See the dotted line in Fig. 1 of
3031:
3012:
1814:
1733:
1601:
1451:
and Siberian cratons to Asia. In contrast, the era featured the dramatic
1373:
1332:
1288:
1282:
1256:
1236:
1212:
1164:
1074:
1006:
994:
835:
790:(1800â1874). "Mesozoic" literally means 'middle life', deriving from the
235:
49:
3073:
2264:
1098:, for example, had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish.
907:
4168:
4128:
4071:
3971:
3868:
3742:
3642:
3550:
3167:
Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen: New results using the GEOCARBSULF model
2473:
1745:
1726:
1692:
1650:
1646:
1621:
1511:
1507:
1384:
1364:
1337:
1305:
1297:
1202:
1148:
1142:
1030:
973:
921:
902:
729:
721:
713:
681:
615:
608:
516:
enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent
323:
94:
59:
4231:
3457:
3411:
3329:
2696:
Butler, R. J.; Barrett, P. M.; Kenrick, P.; Penn, M. G. (March 2009).
2038:
Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
4183:
4133:
4107:
4066:
4013:
3858:
3834:
3715:
3705:
3694:
2897:
Preto, Nereo; Kustatscher, Evelyn; Wignall, Paul B. (15 April 2010).
2393:
The Cretaceous-Tertiary event and other catastrophes in earth history
1804:
1776:
1730:
1723:
1558:, a few million years before the TriassicâJurassic extinction event.
1503:
1341:
1277:
1124:
1082:
1078:
1018:
1010:
842:
761:
701:
673:
646:
265:
99:
3144:
GEOCARBSULF: a combined model for Phanerozoic atmospheric O2 and CO2
1352:
had gone extinct in the same event, long-necked plesiosaurs such as
1197:
4143:
4138:
4102:
4002:
3935:
3904:
3799:
3768:
3679:
3653:
3629:
2391:. In Ryder, Graham; Fastovsky, David & Gartner, Stefan (eds.).
1809:
1768:
1757:
1753:
1741:
1722:
of many new lifeforms. In particular, the extinction of the large
1707:
1638:
1584:: temperatures were about the same across the planet, and about 10°
1569:
also increased with the proximity of water, and deserts retreated.
1566:
1555:
1543:
1519:
1491:
1479:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1349:
1315:
1301:
1207:
1038:
1022:
889:
876:
865:
846:
677:
650:
634:
626:
604:
600:
460:
316:
307:
299:
89:
84:
69:
64:
54:
1057:
4157:
4097:
3847:
3684:
3668:
3359:
2506:"Deep CO2 in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province"
1780:
1715:
1680:
1637:
appeared late in the era but did not become widespread until the
1626:
1585:
1487:
1409:
1172:
1159:
1153:
1146:, filled the fern prairies, chased by many new predators such as
1105:
756:
717:
693:
638:
622:
533:
513:
456:
426:
104:
79:
748:
The phrase "Age of Reptiles" was introduced by the 19th century
4193:
4076:
3710:
2237:
Petersen, Sierra V.; Dutton, Andrea; Lohmann, Kyger C. (2016).
2115:
When life nearly died: the greatest mass extinction of all time
2052:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 9.
2040:. Vol. 17. London: Charles Knight and Co. pp. 153â54.
1772:
1655:
1592:
to the deep ocean may also have been disrupted, preventing the
1589:
1547:
1539:
1530:
The Triassic was generally dry, a trend that began in the late
1499:
1413:
1293:
786:
The current name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist
709:
529:
3271:
Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size
3209:
Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size
3149:
Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size
1977:
1962:
1714:
The extinction of nearly all animal species at the end of the
1665:. Modern conifer groups began to radiate during the Jurassic.
984:
3473:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"
3274:
by Jon F. Harrison, Alexander Kaiser and John M. VandenBrooks
3212:
by Jon F. Harrison, Alexander Kaiser and John M. VandenBrooks
3152:
by Jon F. Harrison, Alexander Kaiser and John M. VandenBrooks
2502:
1670:
807:
795:
733:
464:
3310:
2947:"Geographic range of plants drives long-term climate change"
868:
Era began. This time frame is separated into three geologic
27:
Second era of the Phanerozoic Eon: ~252â66 million years ago
2944:
2428:
1947:
1935:
1917:
1908:
1902:
1764:
1688:
1515:
1452:
938:
705:
2570:
2389:"Impact Crises and Mass Extinctions: A Working Hypothesis"
2113:
Benton M J (2005). "Chapter 8: Life's Biggest Challenge".
1837:(2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
2564:
1923:
1596:
of large volumes of organic matter, which was eventually
3200:
A new model for atmospheric oxygen over phanerozoic time
2695:
2434:
3478:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3470:
3046:
Turgeon, Steven C.; Creaser, Robert A. (17 July 2008).
2899:"Triassic climates â State of the art and perspectives"
2896:
3433:
1580:
are thought to have almost eliminated the northâsouth
1383:. Still, the dominant mammals were multituberculates,
3521:
3010:
2236:
1992:
1983:
1971:
1965:
1956:
1950:
1941:
1932:
1926:
1914:
1905:
1896:
668:, another mass extinction whose victims included the
641:. The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras since
2322:
Ruta, Marcello; Benton, Michael J. (November 2008).
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
1974:
1959:
1944:
1911:
1899:
1748:, the latter of which subsequently became extinct.
1679:radiated during the early Cretaceous, first in the
1114:was able to glide for short distances, like modern
120:
1272:evolved. Mammals continued to expand their range:
981:reached peak diversity during the early Triassic.
2904:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2836:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2672:
2670:
2209:
2155:(42). National Academy of Sciences: E6325âE6334.
1645:The dominant land plant species of the time were
916:The lower boundary of the Mesozoic is set by the
834:) and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras as well as the
4258:
3112:, John M. VandenBrooks and Peter D. Ward, 2007,
2809:
2635:
2622:
2230:
1391:in the south. At the end of the Cretaceous, the
338:An approximate timescale of key Mesozoic events.
3620:
3268:304, 397â437. See the dashed line in Fig. 1 of
2383:
1439:This orogeny was related to the opening of the
1403:
1311:went on to become common in the fossil record.
3045:
2689:
2667:
2654:
2415:
1518:plate during the Cenozoic, giving rise to the
3606:
3206:289, 333â61. See the solid line in Fig. 1 of
2890:
1771:mammals also appeared. Some have argued that
3128:Paleoclimate â The History of Climate Change
2880:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999.
3574:, 1983, The Natural History Museum, London.
3304:
2058:
1980:
1920:
819:
3613:
3599:
2676:
2321:
2302:
2112:
1408:Compared to the vigorous convergent plate
1021:. During the Late Triassic, some advanced
614:. It is characterized by the dominance of
3549:
3498:
3387:
3328:
3030:
2980:
2715:
2598:
2539:
2472:
2462:
2341:
2272:
2186:
2168:
1841:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1740:empty. Some were filled by the surviving
3283:
3277:
2747:Becker, Luann (2002). "Repeated Blows".
2045:
2031:
1702:
1620:
1196:
1158:
1056:
983:
3471:Sahney, S. & Benton, M. J. (2008).
2137:
1588:higher than today. The circulation of
1340:dominated the food web. In the oceans,
1260:. Pterosaurs got larger as genera like
1108:, as ants had not yet appeared) ;
664:in Earth's history, and ended with the
14:
4259:
2828:
2746:
2131:
1880:There are several ways of pronouncing
708:appeared in the Cretaceous. The first
336:
3594:
3018:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
1833:
1033:(excluding pterosaurs, dinosaurs and
927:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
666:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
3247:Glasspool, I.J., Scott, A.C., 2010,
2810:Elizabeth Howell (3 February 2015).
2636:Carol Marie Tang (7 February 2024).
2210:Gradstein F, Ogg J, Smith A (2005).
1653:. The earliest members of the genus
1222:Some island-hopping dinosaurs, like
4212:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
3586:Mesozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)
2364:
2079:
1367:forms. Though mostly small, marine
852:
24:
4216:= megaannum (millions years ago);
2064:
1687:was still dominated by cycads and
1346:Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event
1047:Central Atlantic magmatic province
951:TriassicâJurassic extinction event
340:Axis scale: millions of years ago.
25:
4283:
4220:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
3579:
2771:10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76
2395:. Geological Society of America.
2387:& Haggerty, Bruce M. (1996).
1779:with angiosperms, because insect
918:PermianâTriassic extinction event
740:as the dominant group of plants.
696:appeared in the Jurassic, having
658:PermianâTriassic extinction event
656:The era began in the wake of the
444:First appearance of the Conodont
4241:
4230:
3288:. fossilnews.com. Archived from
2717:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01680.x
2343:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00808.x
2085:
1892:
1049:is cited as one possible cause.
368:Age of Reptiles, Age of Conifers
47:
3515:
3404:
3353:
3258:
3241:
3215:
3189:
3155:
3133:
3103:
3039:
3004:
2938:
2870:
2822:
2803:
2785:
2740:
2703:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2648:
2496:
2464:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103731
2409:
2377:
2358:
2315:
2296:
2117:. London: Thames & Hudson.
1467:that characterizes most of the
3226:Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen
2303:Alan Logan (31 January 2024).
2216:. Cambridge University Press.
2203:
2106:
2022:
1874:
1854:
1839:English Pronouncing Dictionary
1827:
755:who viewed it as dominated by
13:
1:
3659:Pleistocene (11.7 kaâ2.58 Ma)
2046:Wilmarth, Mary Grace (1925).
1820:
1786:
1471:coastline (such as along the
1189:
2925:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.015
2857:10.1016/0031-0182(75)90015-2
1459:, and a southern continent,
1404:Paleogeography and tectonics
808:
796:
686:Pangaea began to break apart
7:
3622:Geological history of Earth
2442:Global and Planetary Change
2072:Online Etymology Dictionary
1798:
1629:becoming widespread in the
1052:
944:
872:. From oldest to youngest:
337:
230:
10:
4288:
3895:Mississippian (323â359 Ma)
3890:Pennsylvanian (299â323 Ma)
3654:Holocene (presentâ11.7 ka)
3542:10.1038/s41561-022-01053-7
3367:Frontiers in Earth Science
3317:American Journal of Botany
2965:10.1038/s41467-024-46105-1
2829:Hughes, T. (August 1975).
2591:10.1038/s41598-020-60483-8
2532:10.1038/s41467-020-15325-6
2213:A Geologic Time Scale 2004
1525:
1514:, which collided with the
1465:passive continental margin
882:251.902 to 201.4
813:
801:
4207:
4192:
4179:Paleoarchean (3.2â3.6 Ga)
4156:
4116:
4085:
4054:
4041:
4029:Terreneuvian (521â539 Ma)
4001:
3970:
3934:
3903:
3877:
3846:
3833:
3798:
3767:
3741:
3728:
3693:
3667:
3641:
3628:
3389:10.3389/feart.2021.652699
2094:. EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
1867:Dictionary.com Unabridged
743:
570:
524:
510:Upper boundary definition
509:
501:
452:
441:Lower boundary definition
440:
432:
422:
412:
407:
399:
387:
377:
372:
364:
356:
351:
118:
113:
39:
34:
4174:Mesoarchean (2.8â3.2 Ga)
4019:Miaolingian (497â509 Ma)
3864:Guadalupian (260â272 Ma)
3716:Paleocene (56.0â66.0 Ma)
3706:Oligocene (23.0â33.9 Ma)
3572:British Mesozoic Fossils
2797:University of California
1698:
1616:
649:, the Mesozoic, and the
123:
42:251.902 Âą 0.024 â 66.0
4169:Neoarchean (2.5â2.8 Ga)
4134:Orosirian (1.8â2.05 Ga)
4129:Statherian (1.6â1.8 Ga)
4072:Cryogenian (635â720 Ma)
3962:Llandovery (433â444 Ma)
3869:Cisuralian (272â299 Ma)
3680:Pliocene (2.59â5.33 Ma)
3420:9 November 2011 at the
3410:C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
3284:Balducci, Stan (2000).
2170:10.1073/pnas.1613094113
2092:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
2032:Phillips, John (1840).
1718:Period allowed for the
1611:
1546:and evaporites such as
1276:produced fairly large,
1025:gave rise to the first
860:251.902 to 66
206:−100 —
196:−120 —
186:−140 —
176:−160 —
166:−180 —
156:−200 —
146:−220 —
136:−240 —
126:−260 —
4139:Rhyacian (2.05â2.3 Ga)
4108:Calymmian (1.4â1.6 Ga)
4067:Ediacaran (539â635 Ma)
4014:Furongian (485â497 Ma)
3859:Lopingian (252â260 Ma)
3685:Miocene (5.33â23.0 Ma)
3491:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370
3198:, Canfield D. E. 1989
2812:"K-T Extinction event"
1711:
1642:
1536:specific heat capacity
1216:
1168:
1066:
1043:flood basalt eruptions
998:
895:201.4 to 145
838:('earlier life') Eon.
226:−60 —
216:−80 —
4144:Siderian (2.3â2.5 Ga)
4103:Ectasian (1.2â1.4 Ga)
4024:Series 2 (509â521 Ma)
3711:Eocene (33.9â56.0 Ma)
3235:27 April 2013 at the
3120:Science 27 April 2007
2952:Nature Communications
2511:Nature Communications
2244:Nature Communications
1706:
1624:
1552:Carnian Pluvial Event
1296:began to expand into
1280:-like predators like
1200:
1181:, evolved from small
1162:
1060:
987:
845:), and preceding the
592:, lasting from about
518:K-Pg extinction event
4184:Eoarchean (3.6â4 Ga)
4077:Tonian (720 Maâ1 Ga)
3957:Wenlock (427â433 Ma)
3947:Pridoli (419â423 Ma)
3115:Oxygen and Evolution
3032:10.1029/2001PA000623
2878:Earth System History
2655:Enchanted Learning.
2418:"Late Triassic life"
2416:Enchanted Learning.
1582:temperature gradient
1432:in Siberia, and the
706:true toothless birds
643:complex life evolved
486:31.0798°N 119.7058°E
4239: •
4228: •
4226:Geologic time scale
3988:Middle (458â470 Ma)
3952:Ludlow (423â427 Ma)
3921:Middle (383â393 Ma)
3816:Middle (237â247 Ma)
3785:Middle (164â174 Ma)
3450:2006Geo....34.1053L
3380:2021FrEaS...9..162B
3164:, Robert A., 2009,
3126:, from the webpage
3074:10.1038/nature07076
3066:2008Natur.454..323T
2917:2010PPP...290....1P
2876:Stanley, Steven M.
2849:1975PPP....18....1H
2763:2002SciAm.286c..76B
2750:Scientific American
2524:2020NatCo..11.1670C
2455:2022GPC...20903731C
2385:Rampino, Michael R.
2265:10.1038/ncomms12079
2257:2016NatCo...712079P
2161:2016PNAS..113E6325S
2086:Tang, Carol Marie.
1512:Indian subcontinent
1463:. This created the
1231:Carcharodontosaurus
1077:, ichthyosaurs and
908:145 to 66
670:non-avian dinosaurs
595:252 to 66
571:Upper GSSP ratified
551: /
525:Upper boundary GSSP
502:Lower GSSP ratified
482: /
453:Lower boundary GSSP
433:Time span formality
4237:Geology portal
4098:Stenian (1â1.2 Ga)
3993:Early (470â485 Ma)
3926:Early (393â419 Ma)
3821:Early (247â252 Ma)
3790:Early (174â201 Ma)
3759:Early (100â145 Ma)
3754:Late (66.0â100 Ma)
3292:on 23 January 2013
2661:Enchanted Learning
2578:Scientific Reports
2422:Enchanted Learning
2141:(3 October 2016).
2139:Stanley, Steven M.
2034:"PalĂŚozoic series"
1712:
1643:
1563:seafloor spreading
1225:Eustreptospondylus
1217:
1169:
1067:
999:
590:geological history
555:36.1537°N 8.6486°E
423:Stratigraphic unit
413:Chronological unit
400:Time scale(s) used
4254:
4253:
4152:
4151:
4118:Paleoproterozoic
4037:
4036:
3983:Late (444â458 Ma)
3916:Late (359â383 Ma)
3829:
3828:
3811:Late (201â237 Ma)
3780:Late (145â164 Ma)
3724:
3723:
3645:(presentâ2.58 Ma)
3633:(presentâ66.0 Ma)
3529:Nature Geoscience
3458:10.1130/G22827A.1
3330:10.1002/ajb2.1143
3286:"Mesozoic Plants"
3253:Nature Geoscience
3060:(7202): 323â326.
3025:(3): 13â1â13â29.
2657:"Middle Jurassic"
2367:"Middle Triassic"
2305:"Triassic Period"
2124:978-0-500-28573-2
2065:Harper, Douglas.
1848:978-3-12-539683-8
1738:ecological niches
1434:Khingan Mountains
1418:Innuitian orogeny
1410:mountain-building
1387:in the north and
1309:multituberculates
1120:multituberculates
935:YucatĂĄn Peninsula
910:million years ago
903:Cretaceous Period
897:million years ago
884:million years ago
862:million years ago
700:from a branch of
633:climate; and the
599:, comprising the
597:million years ago
578:
577:
491:31.0798; 119.7058
373:Usage information
346:
345:
16:(Redirected from
4279:
4248:World portal
4246:
4245:
4235:
4234:
4197:
4161:
4121:
4090:
4087:Mesoproterozoic
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3513:
3512:
3502:
3485:(1636): 759â65.
3468:
3462:
3461:
3431:
3425:
3424:. Washington, DC
3408:
3402:
3401:
3391:
3357:
3351:
3350:
3332:
3323:(9): 1531â1544.
3308:
3302:
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3299:
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3281:
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3262:
3256:
3245:
3239:
3224:, et al., 2003,
3219:
3213:
3193:
3187:
3186:and Gary Kaiser.
3180:Living Dinosaurs
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2687:
2686:
2677:Carl Fred Koch.
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1793:archaeplastidans
1677:Flowering plants
1635:Flowering plants
1251:Muttaburrasaurus
1241:
1116:flying squirrels
931:Chicxulub Crater
911:
898:
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863:
853:Geologic periods
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714:Flowering plants
704:dinosaurs, then
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528:El Kef Section,
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4267:Geological eras
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4057:
4056:Neoproterozoic
4046:(539 Maâ2.5 Ga)
4045:
4044:
4043:Proterozoic Eon
4033:
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3432:
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3422:Wayback Machine
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3237:Wayback Machine
3230:Phanerozoic Eon
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1815:Phanerozoic Eon
1801:
1789:
1775:diversified in
1701:
1631:Late Cretaceous
1619:
1614:
1554:and one in the
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1473:U.S. East Coast
1430:Cherskiy Ranges
1416:, creating the
1406:
1398:K-Pg Extinction
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1111:Volaticotherium
1055:
1035:crocodylomorphs
969:labyrinthodonts
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890:Jurassic Period
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877:Triassic Period
858:
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806:'between') and
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662:mass extinction
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4176:
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4049:
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4026:
4021:
4016:
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4008:
3999:
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3990:
3985:
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3923:
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3912:
3910:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3886:
3884:
3879:Carboniferous
3875:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3855:
3853:
3841:
3831:
3830:
3827:
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3736:
3726:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3702:
3700:
3697:(23.0â66.0 Ma)
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3676:
3674:
3671:(2.58â23.0 Ma)
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3636:
3626:
3625:
3618:
3617:
3610:
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3580:External links
3578:
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3564:
3536:(1): 932â941.
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2816:Universe Today
2802:
2784:
2739:
2710:(3): 446â459.
2688:
2683:britannica.com
2666:
2647:
2642:britannica.com
2638:"Jurassic Era"
2621:
2563:
2495:
2427:
2408:
2402:978-0813723075
2401:
2376:
2357:
2314:
2309:britannica.com
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2130:
2123:
2105:
2088:"Mesozoic Era"
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1873:
1870:(Online). n.d.
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1610:
1574:carbon dioxide
1527:
1524:
1436:in Manchuria.
1405:
1402:
1389:gondwanatheres
1369:hesperornithes
1274:eutriconodonts
1269:Ornithocheirus
1245:Leaellynasaura
1191:
1188:
1183:coelurosaurian
1054:
1051:
1027:Mammaliaformes
953:, two of the "
946:
943:
914:
913:
900:
887:
854:
851:
753:Gideon Mantell
750:paleontologist
745:
742:
660:, the largest
625:, such as the
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403:ICS Time Scale
401:
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388:Regional usage
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378:Celestial body
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4091:
4084:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4058:(539 Maâ1 Ga)
4053:
4050:
4048:
4040:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4009:
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3856:
3854:
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3842:
3840:
3835:Paleozoic Era
3832:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3797:
3791:
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3778:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3766:
3760:
3757:
3755:
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3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:(66.0â145 Ma)
3740:
3737:
3735:
3733:(66.0â252 Ma)
3727:
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2911:(1â4): 1â10.
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2886:0-7167-2882-6
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2329:Palaeontology
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2018:
2017:
1988:
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1840:
1836:
1835:Jones, Daniel
1830:
1826:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1805:Paleozoic Era
1803:
1802:
1796:
1794:
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1778:
1774:
1770:
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1759:
1755:
1749:
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1739:
1735:
1734:gorgonopsians
1732:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1667:Bennettitales
1664:
1663:
1662:Ginkgo biloba
1658:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1609:
1605:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1594:decomposition
1591:
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1583:
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1575:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1559:
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1549:
1545:
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1533:
1532:Carboniferous
1523:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1496:South America
1493:
1489:
1485:
1484:North America
1481:
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1401:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1361:enantiornithe
1357:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1321:Tyrannosaurus
1317:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1275:
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1259:
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1238:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1226:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1178:Archaeopteryx
1174:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1138:
1137:Brachiosaurus
1132:
1129:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1088:Dilophosaurus
1084:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1065:
1064:
1059:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
996:
992:
991:
986:
982:
980:
979:Temnospondyls
976:
975:
970:
966:
965:
958:
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952:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
923:
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901:
896:
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888:
883:
878:
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873:
871:
867:
861:
850:
848:
844:
839:
837:
816:
810:
804:
798:
793:
789:
788:John Phillips
784:
782:
781:
780:Pterodactylus
776:
775:
770:
769:
764:
763:
758:
754:
751:
741:
739:
738:bennettitales
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
694:Archaic birds
689:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
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652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
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606:
602:
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569:
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531:
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500:
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466:
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386:
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371:
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359:
355:
350:
335:
325:
318:
311:
302:
301:
292:
291:
268:
267:
258:
257:
122:
117:
112:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
45:
38:
33:
30:
19:
4222:
4158:Archean Eon
4120:(1.6â2.5 Ga)
4005:(485â539 Ma)
3974:(444â485 Ma)
3938:(419â444 Ma)
3907:(359â419 Ma)
3881:(299â359 Ma)
3850:(252â299 Ma)
3838:(252â539 Ma)
3802:(201â252 Ma)
3771:(145â201 Ma)
3730:Mesozoic Era
3729:
3630:Cenozoic Era
3571:
3555:. Retrieved
3533:
3527:
3517:
3482:
3476:
3466:
3441:
3435:
3429:
3412:
3406:
3371:
3365:
3355:
3320:
3316:
3306:
3294:. Retrieved
3290:the original
3279:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3248:
3243:
3225:
3217:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3196:Berner R. A.
3191:
3179:
3178:of the book
3171:
3166:
3157:
3148:
3143:
3140:Berner R. A.
3135:
3119:
3114:
3105:
3093:. Retrieved
3057:
3051:
3041:
3022:
3016:
3006:
2994:. Retrieved
2956:
2950:
2940:
2928:. Retrieved
2908:
2902:
2892:
2877:
2872:
2860:. Retrieved
2840:
2834:
2824:
2815:
2805:
2796:
2793:"Cretaceous"
2787:
2757:(3): 76â83.
2754:
2748:
2742:
2707:
2701:
2691:
2682:
2679:"Cretaceous"
2660:
2650:
2641:
2612:. Retrieved
2582:
2576:
2566:
2515:
2509:
2498:
2486:. Retrieved
2446:
2440:
2430:
2421:
2411:
2392:
2379:
2370:
2360:
2333:
2327:
2317:
2308:
2298:
2286:. Retrieved
2248:
2242:
2232:
2212:
2205:
2152:
2146:
2133:
2114:
2108:
2096:. Retrieved
2091:
2081:
2070:
2060:
2048:
2037:
2024:
1884:, including
1881:
1876:
1865:
1856:
1838:
1829:
1810:Cenozoic Era
1790:
1762:
1750:
1713:
1675:
1660:
1654:
1644:
1606:
1571:
1560:
1529:
1477:
1441:Arctic Ocean
1438:
1422:Brooks Range
1407:
1393:Deccan traps
1380:Schowalteria
1378:
1372:
1355:Elasmosaurus
1353:
1331:
1327:Ankylosaurus
1325:
1319:
1313:
1298:metatherians
1287:
1281:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1218:
1211:
1201:
1193:
1176:
1170:
1163:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1123:
1118:. The first
1109:
1101:Fruitafossor
1099:
1095:Castorocauda
1093:
1086:
1071:
1068:
1063:Sericipterus
1061:
1015:
1007:ichthyosaurs
1003:Tethys Ocean
1000:
990:Plateosaurus
988:
972:
964:Lystrosaurus
962:
959:
948:
915:
856:
840:
785:
778:
774:Plesiosaurus
772:
768:Megalosaurus
766:
760:
747:
725:
690:
655:
637:break-up of
620:archosaurian
582:Mesozoic Era
581:
579:
445:
298:
275:
274:
264:
234:
35:Mesozoic Era
29:
4194:Hadean Eon
3972:Ordovician
3743:Cretaceous
3643:Quaternary
3551:10451/55860
3266:Am. J. Sci.
3255:, 3, 627â30
3204:Am. J. Sci.
3184:Gareth Dyke
3172:Am. J. Sci.
2843:(1): 1â43.
2585:(1): 3482.
2518:(1): 1670.
2474:10852/91551
2371:palaeos.com
2098:5 September
1746:dicynodonts
1736:left those
1731:carnivorous
1727:pareiasaurs
1724:herbivorous
1651:angiosperms
1647:gymnosperms
1602:black shale
1542:. Abundant
1494:split into
1449:North China
1426:Verkhoyansk
1385:cimolodonts
1374:Didelphodon
1365:ornithurine
1333:Triceratops
1289:Gobiconodon
1283:Repenomamus
1257:Koolasuchus
1237:Spinosaurus
1213:Xiphactinus
1165:Stegosaurus
1075:plesiosaurs
995:prosauropod
941:dinosaurs.
836:Proterozoic
722:gymnosperms
682:plesiosaurs
616:gymnosperms
588:of Earth's
558: /
489: /
477:119°42â˛21âłE
365:Nickname(s)
4261:Categories
4196:(4â4.6 Ga)
4160:(2.5â4 Ga)
4089:(1â1.6 Ga)
3695:Paleogene
3374:: 652699.
2449:: 103731.
2067:"Mesozoic"
1862:"Mesozoic"
1821:References
1787:Microbiota
1693:Schizeales
1578:atmosphere
1508:Antarctica
1338:hadrosaurs
1306:cimolodont
1302:eutherians
1210:) hunting
1203:Tylosaurus
1190:Cretaceous
1149:Allosaurus
1143:Diplodocus
1031:archosaurs
1019:pterosaurs
1011:nothosaurs
974:Euparkeria
730:ginkgoales
726:sensu lato
720:and other
674:pterosaurs
631:greenhouse
609:Cretaceous
543:36°09â˛13âłN
474:31°04â˛47âłN
408:Definition
324:Cretaceous
114:Chronology
4223:See also:
4003:Cambrian
3936:Silurian
3905:Devonian
3800:Triassic
3769:Jurassic
3398:2296-6463
3222:Berner, R
2973:2041-1723
2558:215404768
2483:245530815
2365:Rubidge.
2251:: 12079.
2179:1091-6490
1777:symbiosis
1769:eutherian
1758:mosasaurs
1754:dinosaurs
1742:cynodonts
1720:radiation
1708:Dinosaurs
1598:deposited
1520:Himalayas
1504:Australia
1475:) today.
1350:pliosaurs
1348:. Though
1342:mosasaurs
1278:wolverine
1128:evolved.
1125:Rugosodon
1083:theropods
1079:ammonites
1039:synapsids
1023:cynodonts
864:when the
843:Paleozoic
762:Iguanodon
678:mosasaurs
647:Paleozoic
627:dinosaurs
546:8°38â˛55âłE
352:Etymology
266:Paleozoic
4272:Mesozoic
3848:Permian
3669:Neogene
3509:18198148
3418:Archived
3347:52120430
3339:30157290
3233:Archived
3082:18633415
2991:38418475
2982:10901853
2779:11857903
2734:26000791
2726:19210589
2609:32103087
2550:32265448
2352:85411546
2283:27377632
2197:27698119
1882:Mesozoic
1799:See also
1639:Cenozoic
1567:Humidity
1556:Rhaetian
1544:red beds
1510:and the
1492:Gondwana
1490:, while
1480:Laurasia
1469:Atlantic
1461:Gondwana
1457:Laurasia
1445:suturing
1316:Cenozoic
1294:therians
1292:, early
1263:Tapejara
1208:mosasaur
1173:avialans
1106:termites
1085:such as
1053:Jurassic
1037:), most
955:big five
945:Triassic
866:Cenozoic
847:Tertiary
829:new life
759:such as
757:diapsids
728:), like
718:conifers
702:theropod
651:Cenozoic
635:tectonic
629:; a hot
623:reptiles
605:Jurassic
601:Triassic
461:Zhejiang
391:Global (
317:Jurassic
309:Triassic
300:Cenozoic
3557:21 July
3500:2596898
3446:Bibcode
3437:Geology
3376:Bibcode
3296:28 July
3095:28 June
3090:4315155
3062:Bibcode
2996:28 June
2930:21 July
2913:Bibcode
2862:21 July
2845:Bibcode
2759:Bibcode
2614:28 July
2600:7044291
2541:7138847
2520:Bibcode
2488:23 July
2451:Bibcode
2288:31 July
2274:4935969
2253:Bibcode
2188:5081622
2157:Bibcode
1781:anatomy
1773:insects
1716:Permian
1685:biomass
1681:tropics
1627:grasses
1576:in the
1540:deserts
1526:Climate
1488:Eurasia
1482:became
1453:rifting
1447:of the
1175:, like
1154:Conifer
1045:at the
933:on the
922:extinct
870:periods
823:
794:prefix
710:mammals
698:evolved
639:Pangaea
618:and of
612:Periods
584:is the
534:Tunisia
514:Iridium
457:Meishan
427:Erathem
221:–
211:–
201:–
191:–
181:–
171:–
161:–
151:–
141:–
131:–
4202:
3507:
3497:
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3162:Berner
3088:
3080:
3053:Nature
2989:
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2220:
2195:
2185:
2177:
2121:
2004:-oh-,
1845:
1671:cycads
1656:Ginkgo
1590:oxygen
1548:halite
1500:Africa
1424:, the
1420:, the
1414:Arctic
1304:, and
971:, and
777:, and
744:Naming
734:cycads
680:, and
645:: the
530:El Kef
436:Formal
360:Formal
330:
3343:S2CID
3176:p. 31
3142:2006
3086:S2CID
2959:(1).
2730:S2CID
2554:S2CID
2479:S2CID
2348:S2CID
2028:See:
2012:-z-,
2000:-ik,
1765:birds
1699:Fauna
1689:ferns
1617:Flora
1516:Asian
1122:like
939:avian
803:ΟξĎÎż-
797:meso-
792:Greek
465:China
382:Earth
3559:2023
3505:PMID
3413:Fern
3394:ISSN
3335:PMID
3298:2023
3124:here
3097:2024
3078:PMID
2998:2024
2987:PMID
2969:ISSN
2932:2023
2882:ISBN
2864:2023
2775:PMID
2722:PMID
2616:2023
2605:PMID
2546:PMID
2490:2023
2397:ISBN
2290:2023
2279:PMID
2218:ISBN
2193:PMID
2175:ISSN
2119:ISBN
2100:2019
2006:MESS
1843:ISBN
1767:and
1744:and
1729:and
1612:Life
1600:as "
1486:and
1443:and
1428:and
1377:and
1363:and
1336:and
1300:and
1286:and
1266:and
1248:and
1234:and
1140:and
1009:and
820:lit.
815:Μῡον
809:zĹon
736:and
607:and
580:The
574:1991
505:2001
50:Preę
3546:hdl
3538:doi
3495:PMC
3487:doi
3483:275
3454:doi
3384:doi
3325:doi
3321:105
3182:by
3070:doi
3058:454
3027:doi
2977:PMC
2961:doi
2921:doi
2909:290
2853:doi
2767:doi
2755:286
2712:doi
2595:PMC
2587:doi
2536:PMC
2528:doi
2469:hdl
2459:doi
2447:209
2338:doi
2269:PMC
2261:doi
2183:PMC
2165:doi
2153:113
2016:-s-
2014:MEE
2010:MEE
2008:-,
2002:MEZ
1998:ZOH
1996:-É-
1994:MEZ
1888:IPA
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417:Era
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