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bureaucracy's heavy emphasis on
Confucian literature ensured that the most eloquent writers and erudite scholars achieved high positions, the system lacked formal safeguards against political corruption, only the Confucian moral teachings tested by the examinations. Once their political futures were secured by success in the examinations, officials were tempted by corruption and abuse of power.
627:
to be unfit to uphold righteous principles and fail to provide and promote well-being for the people. Thus, the balance of power is ideally split between the meritocratic
Confucian scholars and the dynastic emperors, and a ruler should maintain power with the acceptance of their ministers, who have the ultimate right to sanction and forcibly depose a tyrannical or failing ruler.
783:(provincial graduates). Wu's reforms gradually led to today's concept of scholar-officials and the intellectual class. The government would select scholar-officials by examining their poems and essays writings for knowledge of Confucian texts and some Buddhist texts. Intellectuals who passed the exam served as officials. Many famous Tang poets were scholar-officials, such as
891:(八股文) format dominated the Imperial Examination, and scholar-officials from this period were relatively unable to speak and create freely due to the harsh political environment. The strong relationship between Imperial Examination and the official position were still present, though the entire society formed a climate of "studying well so as to become an official" 学而优则仕.
736:. These clans were prominent in having Confucian scholars and high-ranking government officials, with male family members serving as official for generations and some clans or families serving several chancellors. They formed a huge network through political marriages with each other or the imperial family and also formed a monopoly on education and government officials.
832:, almost all Song emperors showed great respect to intellectuals. If a scholar-official from the Song dynasty committed a crime, he couldn't be held accountable directly. Instead, an internal impeachment replaced the formal judicial process. If his crime wasn't serious, he only needed to be punished with a reprimand instead of a criminal penalty.
745:
827:
was the golden age for scholar-officials. By this time, passing the
Imperial Examination had become the major path for people to hold an official position in the government. With the continuous improvements and reforms of Imperial Examination, the bureaucracy completely replaced the aristocracy, and
626:
Despite the hierarchical tendencies of
Confucianism, scholar-officials and ministers are not mere obedient subordinates of the ruler, but theoretically have equal roles in the maintenance of social order. This includes the possibility of running counter against or opposing the ruler, should he prove
564:
dynasty, the Duke of Zhou divided the social classes into the king, feudal lords, Da Fu, Shi, ordinary people, and slaves. Da Fu were people from the aristocracy who served as officers and were a higher class than Shi, who were people from the social class between Da Fu and ordinary people and could
906:
measures, taught in private schools, helped negotiate minor legal disputes, supervised community projects, maintained local law and order, conducted
Confucian ceremonies, assisted in the government's collection of taxes, and preached Confucian moral teachings. As a class, these scholars claimed to
568:
During the
Warring States period, with the annexation wars between states and the rise of bureaucracy, many talented individuals from the Shi class provided valuable services to their lords. Shi became more influential and Da Fu gradually evolved into an official position in the bureaucracy, not a
622:
is the core of traditional
Chinese culture and the theoretical basis of the autocratic feudal monarchy. The Confucian school of thought became the mainstream of traditional Chinese society, and Confucian education also became the mainstay of selecting officials at most levels of administration.
941:
writes that some criticized the examination elite as hindering China's development over the last century but that preparing for the examinations trained government officials in a common culture and that "classical examinations were an effective cultural, social, political, and educational
933:
gave many people the opportunity to pursue political power and honor and thus encouraged serious pursuit of formal education. Since the system did not formally discriminate based on social status, it provided an avenue for upward social mobility. However, even though the examination-based
650:, further enriching the Confucian ideological system. This directly increased the prosperity of the scholar-official class and also contributed to the unique moral code of the scholar-officials, which had a huge impact on the Chinese literati of later generations.
577:
The feudal social structure came to divide ordinary people into four categories, with scholar-officials at its top level, this structure is another important institutional basis of the formation and prosperity of scholar-officials. The order of these
787:. However, because the Tang Dynasty was a rapidly changing period for the final formation of the structure and composition of scholar-officials, there is some ambiguity of the usage of the words "scholar-officials": according to the
1631:"Scholar-Officials: Struggling for the Right Position." Thriving in Crisis: Buddhism and Political Disruption in China, 1522–1620, by Dewei Zhang, Columbia University Press, New York, 2020, pp. 119–155. JSTOR
828:
the scholar-officer's polity was completely established. Song was the only dynasty in
Chinese history that provided scholar-officials judicial privilege. Due to the influence of the founding emperor of Song
911:, who by regulation was not allowed to serve in his home district, depended on the local gentry for advice and for carrying out projects, which gave them the power to benefit themselves and their clients.
945:
With the development of international influence of Civil
Service Examination system in ancient East Asia region, Scholar-officials also became an important social backbone of ancient Korea (include
1625:
Yongle, Zhang, and Daniel A. Bell, editors. "Scholar-Officials." The
Constitution of Ancient China, by Su Li and Edmund Ryden, Princeton University Press, PRINCETON; OXFORD, 2018, pp. 98–138. JSTOR
150:
Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side).
1710:
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Since only a select few could become court or local officials, the majority of the scholar-literati stayed in villages or cities as social leaders. The scholar-gentry carried out
1650:
688:
2386:
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662:
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1570:
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Using the Recommendatory System and Nine-rank System to select governments officials and candidates were popular during the long period beginning with the
2485:
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1242:
585:
2729:
2714:
1331:"The Evolution of the Officials Selection System and Literary Creation--"Journal of Peking University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)" 2017年06期"
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2015:
1922:
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502:. Scholar-officials were the elite class of imperial China. They were highly educated, especially in literature and the arts, including
2826:
2693:
2624:
2498:
2174:
2128:
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2356:
894:
In 1905, the Qing government abolished the imperial examination system, leading to the gradual disappearance of scholar-officials.
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759:, those with the right family background who passed this examination would become scholar-officials. In the early part of the
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construction that met the needs of the dynastic bureaucracy while simultaneously supporting late imperial social structure."
69:
1628:
Liu, Bo. "The Multivalent Imagery of the Ox in Song Painting." Journal of Song-Yuan Studies, vol. 44, 2014, pp. 33–84. JSTOR
755:
Officially established in 587, the Civil Service Examination allowed for selection of scholar-officials. Beginning with the
2078:
2063:
1813:
1729:
1434:"Combination of scholars and bureaucracy: the establishment of the scholar-officer's civilian polity in the Song Dynasty--
3044:
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2533:
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844:
Candidates gathering around the wall where the results are posted. This announcement was known as "releasing the roll" (
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The traditional Chinese official selection systems are the institutional basis of the formation of scholar-officials.
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17:
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1196:"Rupture and Continuity: Scholar-Official Clan Culture in the Six Dynasties and the Legacy of Chinese Civilization"
83:
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1955:
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793:, scholars/intellectuals who passed the imperial exam but took no official position could only be referred to
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2159:
1917:
453:), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
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texts. They dominated the government administration and local life of China until the early 20th century.
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hereditary peerage. The Shi and Da Fu gradually merged and became the Scholar-officials (士大夫 Shi Da Fu).
145:
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1950:
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Scholars depicted on Han dynasty pictorial brick, discovered in Chengdu. Scholars wore hats called
803:, as long as they were scholars, whether official or not, they could be called scholar-officials.
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Reunification and Renaissance in Chinese Civilization: The Era of the Tang and Song Dynasties
1499:
1007:
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920:
829:
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777:(metropolitan graduates, highest degree), and people passed the Provincial Exam were called
2796:
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2584:
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729:
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period. Scholars-officials during this period usually from prominent clans, including the
8:
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184:
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Yü, Ying-shih (2021). "Confucian Culture vs. Dynastic Power in Chinese History".
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1965:
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The Chinese Gentry; Studies on Their Role in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Society
1182:进贤冠，古缁布冠也，文儒者之服也。前高七寸，后高三寸，长八寸。公侯三梁，中二千石以下至博士两梁，自博士以下至小史私学弟子，皆一梁。宗室刘氏亦两梁冠，示加服也。
1100:
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862:
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228:
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Scholar-officials were politicians and government officials appointed by the
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reformed and improved the Imperial Examination system by establishing the
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Thriving in Crisis: Buddhism and Political Disruption in China, 1522–1620
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2209:
1993:
1872:
1818:
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Subordinates and evildoers: Song scholar-officials' perceptions of clerks
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683:
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461:
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2935:
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Wu Zetian's Contribution to the Cultural Development of the Tang Dynasty
1543:"The Evolution of the Officials Selection System and Literary Creation--
1116:
1084:
560:; before that, the Shi and Da Fu were two different classes. During the
2164:
748:
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2361:
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1907:
1892:
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1356:"Mid-Tang Scholar-Officials as Local Patrons of Buddhist Monasteries"
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518:
1571:"Remonstrance: The Moral Imperative of the Chinese Scholar-Official"
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were scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, and craftsmen/merchants.
32:
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2003:
1988:
1436:
Journal of Anhui Normal University(Philosophy & Social Sciences
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335:
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The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography
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The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography
1306:
The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography
1280:
The Chinese Imperial Examination System: An Annotated Bibliography
1012:
903:
2574:
2341:
1887:
1085:"The Development of Leaders in Ancient China, Rome, and Persia"
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ruling class, with the best students running the country. The
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Journal of Peking University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)
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779:
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469:
415:", indicating that he was a civil official of the sixth rank.
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Traditions and Encounters - A Global Perspective on the Past
653:
1932:
1033:
Li, Su (2018-12-31), Yongle, Zhang; Bell, Daniel A (eds.),
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1153:. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–44, 54–58, 98–100.
1041:, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 98–138,
2781:
2387:
Challenge Cup Competition of Science Achievement in China
556:
as a concept and social class first appeared during the
1360:
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
684:
Han to Northern and Southern dynasties (202 BC—589 AD)
377:
363:
196:
2936:"The Multivalent Imagery of the Ox in Song Painting"
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534:
303:
289:
1621:, Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire, pp. 405–410
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57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1706:Late Qing China: Reform and Rebellion (1898 -1900)
3021:
1751:
1649:Esherick, Joseph and Mary Backus Rankin (1990).
887:dynasties, the stereotyped writing style of the
604:
549:Chinese nobility § Pre-imperial aristocracy
460:to perform day-to-day political duties from the
233:
219:
2730:International Alliance of Research Universities
2715:Association of East Asian Research Universities
1676:The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
1652:Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance
340:
326:
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2155:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
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897:
845:
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2792:Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers
1655:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1245:. In Dien, Albert E; Knapp, Keith N (eds.).
266:
252:
2881:Types of universities and colleges in China
638:dynasties, Confucian philosophers combined
484:) who had earned academic degrees (such as
129:Learned men in government in Imperial China
2293:
2279:
1744:
1730:
1718:Education About Asia, Columbia University.
1694:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
978:, the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia
925:Theoretically, this system would create a
836:Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties (1271—1912)
806:
144:
2625:Self-Taught Higher Education Examinations
2499:National Education Examinations Authority
2129:Grand coordinator and provincial governor
1015:, the Korean form of the scholar-official
654:Talent selection systems in Ancient China
572:
513:
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
2357:Burning of books and burying of scholars
1353:
1240:
861:
839:
819:(文苑图), depicting the gathering of poets.
810:
743:
687:
584:
517:
394:
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2720:Association of Pacific Rim Universities
2699:Schools of Journalism and Communication
1151:Confucianism: A Very Short Introduction
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1082:
696:(进贤冠) to denominate educational status.
14:
3022:
2300:
984:, the official in charge of the county
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1725:
1609:
1593:
476:these officials mostly came from the
1516:
1460:
1388:10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467
1372:10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.170.2.0467
1302:
1277:
1193:
565:only serve as low-level officials.
472:'s last imperial dynasty. After the
55:adding citations to reliable sources
26:
2933:
2147:
1612:"Civil Service Examinations (Keju)"
1149:Gardner, Daniel K. (26 June 2014).
907:represent morality and virtue. The
871:(襴衫) worn by scholars and students.
771:; people who passed it were called
24:
2430:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
1642:
1485:
1129:
1032:
25:
3071:
2902:The Constitution of Ancient China
2873:Rankings of universities in China
2827:List of universities and colleges
1699:
1039:The Constitution of Ancient China
1682:Jerry Bentley and Herb Ziegler.
740:Sui and Tang Dynasties (581—907)
31:
2966:
2927:
2892:
2877:Science and technology in China
2466:Double First-Class Construction
2347:Academies of Classical Learning
1619:Berkshire Encyclopedia of China
1563:
1535:
1510:
1479:
1454:
1426:
1402:
1347:
1323:
1089:Public Administration Quarterly
706:Northern and Southern dynasties
678:
399:A 15th-century portrait of the
42:needs additional citations for
2905:. Princeton University Press.
2899:Li, Su; Ryden, Edmund (2018).
2787:Common Recruitment Examination
2740:Worldwide Universities Network
2435:Chinese Academy of Engineering
1956:Three Lords and Nine Ministers
1296:
1271:
1247:The Cambridge History of China
1234:
1187:
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1142:
1123:
1076:
1035:"CHAPTER 3. Scholar-Officials"
1026:
914:
751:, a politician and noted poet.
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378:
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290:
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13:
1:
2979:. Columbia University Press.
2802:Quanguo Waiyu Shuiping Kaoshi
2407:Education inequality in China
2170:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1575:Association for Asian Studies
1200:Frontiers of History in China
1194:Wang, Yongping (2010-01-01).
851:
605:Interaction with Confucianism
3040:Government of Imperial China
2940:Journal of Song-Yuan Studies
1716:The Chinese Scholar-Official
7:
2425:Chinese Academy of Sciences
1610:Elman, Benjamin A. (2009),
964:
714:Xie clan of Chen Commandery
10:
3076:
3045:Political history of China
2870:
2807:Public English Test System
2777:Putonghua Proficiency Test
2534:Private and public schools
2372:Hundred Schools of Thought
1999:Bureau of Military Affairs
1923:Territorial administration
1807:Heirloom Seal of the Realm
1603:
1241:Holcombe, Charles (2019).
1101:10.1177/073491490302700102
1047:10.23943/9781400889778-006
918:
898:Non-governmental functions
608:
546:
2868:
2817:
2764:
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2671:
2653:National Library of China
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2595:Academic grading in China
2590:National Key Universities
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2547:
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2415:
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2217:Embroidered Uniform Guard
2197:
2096:
2049:
2014:
1981:
1943:
1860:
1834:
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1212:10.1007/s11462-010-0111-y
1083:DiCICCO, JOEL M. (2003).
846:
596:depicting Confucius (and
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2782:Zhíyè Hànyŭ Nénglì Cèshì
2694:Foreign-language schools
2648:Book collecting in China
2580:National Key Disciplines
2180:Administrative divisions
1303:Wang, Rui (2012-11-08).
1019:
522:Government officials in
407:. The decoration of two
162:Traditional Chinese
3055:Social history of China
2620:Academic ranks in China
2382:Digital divide in China
2040:Secretariat-Chancellery
1690:Zhang, Zhongli (1955).
1414:www.1xuezhe.exuezhe.com
1354:Sokolova, Anna (2020).
807:Song Dynasty (960-1279)
646:thought to produce the
2600:State Key Laboratories
1486:Wu, Chin-shan (2008).
1003:Landed gentry in China
937:The Princeton scholar
872:
859:
820:
752:
710:Zheng clan of Xingyang
697:
601:
573:Ancient social classes
531:
514:Origins and formations
416:
220:
3050:Social class in China
2973:Zhang, Dewei (2020).
2772:Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi
2494:Ministry of Education
2476:Thousand Talents Plan
2332:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
2114:Imperial Commissioner
2059:Ministry of Personnel
1961:Three Ducal Ministers
1883:Imperial examinations
1847:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
1255:10.1017/9781139107334
1008:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
931:imperial examinations
921:Imperial examinations
919:Further information:
865:
843:
814:
747:
704:and ending after the
691:
663:Recommendatory System
609:Further information:
588:
558:Warring States period
521:
500:imperial examinations
398:
3060:Imperial examination
2797:College English Test
2725:Global U8 Consortium
2585:College English Test
2327:Imperial examination
2222:Qing Imperial Guards
2205:Tang Imperial Guards
1679:(1916; transl. 1951)
797:士; according to the
730:Wang clan of Taiyuan
673:Imperial examination
648:Neo-Confucian school
600:), and his students.
411:on his chest are a "
285:Revised Romanization
51:improve this article
3035:Confucian education
2524:Secondary education
2397:1952 reorganization
2392:May Fourth Movement
2337:Scholar-bureaucrats
2124:Imperial Clan Court
2109:Remonstrance Bureau
2079:Ministry of Justice
2064:Ministry of Revenue
1918:Historical capitals
1903:Academies (Shuyuan)
1667:. Free online text.
1521:. Scarecrow Press.
1465:. Scarecrow Press.
1309:. Scarecrow Press.
1282:. Scarecrow Press.
1249:. pp. 96–118.
909:district magistrate
726:Wang clan of Langya
433:scholar-bureaucrats
215:Vietnamese alphabet
2557:Vocation education
2402:Simplified Chinese
2302:Education in China
1517:Wang, Rui (2012).
1461:Wang, Rui (2012).
1278:Wang, Rui (2012).
889:eight-legged essay
873:
860:
821:
753:
734:Lu clan of Fanyang
722:Cui clan of Boling
718:Cui clan of Qinghe
698:
602:
532:
464:to the end of the
417:
66:"Scholar-official"
3003:10.7312/zhan19700
2994:978-0-231-19700-7
2985:10.7312/zhan19700
2912:978-0-691-17159-3
2888:
2887:
2756:English education
2708:Int'l cooperation
2643:Archives in China
2519:Primary education
2377:Scouting in China
2367:Beijing Guozijian
2352:Chinese educators
2268:
2267:
2193:
2192:
2134:Viceroys in China
2119:Grand Secretariat
2092:
2091:
2084:Ministry of Works
2069:Ministry of Rites
2016:Three Departments
1973:Translated titles
1878:Five Directorates
1638:. ProQuest, 2008.
1528:978-0-8108-8703-9
1472:978-0-8108-8703-9
1316:978-0-8108-8703-9
1289:978-0-8108-8703-9
1264:978-1-139-10733-4
1177:Book of Later Han
1056:978-1-4008-8977-8
982:County magistrate
971:Bildungsbürgertum
769:Metropolitan Exam
498:) by passing the
429:scholar-gentlemen
421:scholar-officials
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392:
385:
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311:
310:
299:McCune–Reischauer
204:
203:
185:Standard Mandarin
127:
126:
119:
101:
18:Scholar-officials
16:(Redirected from
3067:
3015:
3014:
2970:
2964:
2963:
2934:Liu, Bo (2014).
2931:
2925:
2924:
2896:
2684:Business schools
2663:Shanghai Library
2529:Boarding schools
2311:Education system
2295:
2288:
2281:
2272:
2271:
2145:
2144:
2012:
2011:
1913:Tributary system
1868:Nine-rank system
1852:Scholar-official
1842:Grand Chancellor
1746:
1739:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1695:
1666:
1622:
1616:
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1430:
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1421:
1420:
1410:"唐代"士大夫"的特色及其变化"
1406:
1400:
1399:
1351:
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1191:
1185:
1184:
1171:
1165:
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1146:
1140:
1139:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1030:
853:
849:
848:
800:New Book of Tang
790:Old Book of Tang
668:Nine-rank system
580:Four Occupations
554:Scholar-official
458:emperor of China
451:
442:
423:, also known as
381:
380:
367:
366:
350:
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135:Scholar-official
132:
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100:
59:
35:
27:
21:
3075:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3030:Chinese culture
3020:
3019:
3018:
2995:
2971:
2967:
2932:
2928:
2913:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2884:
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2864:
2813:
2760:
2744:
2703:
2679:Medical schools
2667:
2658:Nanjing Library
2629:
2561:
2543:
2505:
2480:
2439:
2411:
2313:
2304:
2299:
2269:
2264:
2226:
2198:Imperial guards
2189:
2143:
2139:Mandarin square
2088:
2074:Ministry of War
2045:
2010:
1982:Middle Imperial
1977:
1939:
1856:
1830:
1756:
1750:
1702:
1689:
1663:
1648:
1645:
1643:Further reading
1614:
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1600:
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1128:
1124:
1081:
1077:
1069:
1067:
1057:
1031:
1027:
1022:
967:
961:, and Vietnam.
923:
917:
900:
838:
817:Literary Garden
809:
742:
686:
681:
656:
617:
607:
575:
551:
545:
516:
413:mandarin square
359:Revised Hepburn
209:Vietnamese name
151:
130:
123:
112:
106:
103:
60:
58:
48:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3073:
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3017:
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2993:
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2735:Universitas 21
2732:
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2612:HKSAR students
2602:
2597:
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2490:
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2486:Administration
2482:
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2201:
2199:
2195:
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2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
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2157:
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2142:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2055:
2053:
2051:Six Ministries
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2036:
2031:
2029:Zhongshu Sheng
2026:
2024:Shangshu Sheng
2020:
2018:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1966:Nine Ministers
1963:
1953:
1947:
1945:
1944:Early Imperial
1941:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1898:Hanlin Academy
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1838:
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1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1789:
1784:
1783:
1782:
1772:
1766:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1754:Imperial China
1752:Government of
1749:
1748:
1741:
1734:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1713:
1708:
1701:
1700:External links
1698:
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1629:
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1599:
1598:
1596:, p. 405.
1586:
1562:
1551:en.cnki.com.cn
1534:
1527:
1509:
1478:
1471:
1453:
1442:en.cnki.com.cn
1425:
1401:
1366:(2): 467–490.
1346:
1335:en.cnki.com.cn
1322:
1315:
1295:
1288:
1270:
1263:
1233:
1206:(4): 549–575.
1186:
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1075:
1055:
1024:
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1018:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
979:
973:
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963:
959:Ryukyu Kingdom
939:Benjamin Elman
916:
913:
904:social welfare
899:
896:
837:
834:
808:
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741:
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685:
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606:
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574:
571:
555:
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530:, Ming dynasty
515:
512:
478:scholar-gentry
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353:Transcriptions
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279:Transcriptions
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231:
225:
224:
217:
211:
210:
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179:Transcriptions
172:
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164:
158:
157:
153:
152:
149:
141:
140:
137:
136:
128:
125:
124:
39:
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30:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3072:
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3056:
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3033:
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3028:
3027:
3025:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2969:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2904:
2903:
2895:
2891:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
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2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2749:Subject areas
2747:
2741:
2738:
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2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
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2614:
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2345:
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2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2284:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2273:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2208:
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2203:
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2200:
2196:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2160:Grand Council
2158:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2104:Three Bureaus
2102:
2101:
2099:
2097:Late Imperial
2095:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
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1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
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1879:
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1859:
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1848:
1845:
1843:
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1837:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1802:Son of Heaven
1800:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1790:
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1785:
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1778:
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1773:
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1717:
1714:
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1709:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1693:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1608:
1607:
1595:
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1576:
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1566:
1552:
1548:
1546:
1538:
1530:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1474:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1443:
1439:
1437:
1429:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1318:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1299:
1291:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1243:"Eastern Jin"
1237:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1190:
1183:
1179:
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1170:
1162:
1160:9780190236809
1156:
1152:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1095:(1/2): 6–40.
1094:
1090:
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905:
895:
892:
890:
886:
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878:
870:
869:
864:
857:
842:
833:
831:
830:Zhao Kuangyin
826:
818:
815:Zhou Wenju's
813:
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388:
376:
374:
370:
362:
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347:
339:
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323:
319:
316:Japanese name
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78:
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71:
68: –
67:
63:
62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
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2034:Menxia Sheng
1861:Institutions
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1994:Jimi system
1873:Nine Courts
1819:Consort kin
1634:Wang, Rui.
976:Cabang Atas
915:Evaluations
875:During the
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702:Han dynasty
630:During the
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535:Origins of
526:during the
504:calligraphy
474:Sui dynasty
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3024:Categories
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2845:Wu Shulian
2672:Specialist
2549:Vocational
2165:Lifan Yuan
1662:0520067630
1580:2020-10-09
1556:2020-12-18
1490:(Thesis).
1447:2020-12-18
1419:2020-12-18
1340:2020-12-18
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1070:2020-12-04
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547:See also:
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2952:1059-3152
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2232:Dynasties
1908:Censorate
1893:Guozijian
1671:Max Weber
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2819:Rankings
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